AP Psychology Unit 4: Learning & Sleeping PDF

ALL OF UNIT FOUR: AP PSYCH Learning & Sleeping  LEARNING Long lasting change in behavior, due to experience  Behaviorism Behaviorism is a worldview that operates on a principle of “stimulus-response.” All behavior is caused by external stimuli (o...

ALL OF UNIT FOUR: AP PSYCH Learning & Sleeping  LEARNING Long lasting change in behavior, due to experience  Behaviorism Behaviorism is a worldview that operates on a principle of “stimulus-response.” All behavior is caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning). All behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states of consciousness  Associative Learning learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). Classical Conditioning First, we need an unconditional relationship. Pairs a natural response to a stimulus ✔ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - something that elicits a natural, reflexive response ✔ Unconditioned Response (UCR ) - response to the UCS  Classical Conditioning Next, we choose a neutral stimulus (something that by itself elicits no response). We present the stimulus with the UCS a whole bunch of times.  Classical Conditioning After a while, the body begins to link together the neutral stimulus with the UCS. Acquisition  Classical Conditioning We know learning takes place when the previously neutral stimulus provokes the response. At this point, the neutral stimulus is now a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned response becomes the conditioned response (CR ). Classical Conditioning Acquisition is not permanent. The moment the CS is no longer associated with the UCS, we have EXTINCTION.  Spontaneous Recovery Sometimes, after extinction, the CR will randomly appear when CS is presented.  Classical Conditioning and Humans John Watson brought classical conditioning to psychology with his “Baby Albert” experiment.  Generalization and Discrimination Something is so similar to the CS Something is so different from the that there is the CR. CS there is no CR.  Higher order conditioning A new stimulus is associated with a previously conditioned stimulus Think if pavlov paired his bell with a light and the light got a response Taste Aversions In cases of food paired with nausea & sickness, conditioning is incredibly strong. ✔ even when food and sickness are hours apart Shows the ability for one trial conditioning  Habituation a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations. Forcing yourself to eat a food over and over again you have an aversion to so you don’t get sick. The Law of Effect Edward Thorndike Locked cats in crates Behavior changes because of its consequences Rewards strengthen behavior If consequences are unpleasant, the behavior will stop Called the whole process instrumental learning Operant Conditioning The Learner is NOT passive. Learning based on consequence!!!  Reinforcers A reinforcer is anything that strengthens (increases) a behavior Positive Reinforcement: The addition of something pleasant Negative Reinforcement: The removal of something unpleasant (aversive stimulus)  Primary v. Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcer things that are in and of things we have learned to value themselves rewarding / innately (because they are associated with satisfying primary enforcers) Money is a special secondary reinforcer called a generalized reinforcer (because it can be traded for just about anything)  Reinforcement Schedules How often do you give the reinforcer? Every time the desired behavior is exhibited or just sometimes when it is?  Continuous v. Partial Reinforcement Schedules Continuous Partial Reinforce the behavior EVER Y Reinforce the behavior only SOME TIME the behavior is exhibited. of the times it is exhibited. Usually done when the subject is Acquisition comes more slowly. first learning to make the But is more resistant to extinction. association. FOUR types of Partial Acquisition comes really fast, but so Reinforcement schedules. does extinction.  Ratio Schedules (Responses) Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Provides a reinforcement after a SET number Provides a reinforcement after a of responses. RANDOM number of responses. High response Very hard to get acquisition but also rate, pause after very resistant to extinction. reinforcement High steady response rate Ex. Factory worker Ex. gambling that is paid for every 10 items manufactured Fixed Ratio- She gets a manicure for every 5 pounds she loses.  Interval Schedules (Time) Fixed Interval Variable Interval Requires a SET amount of time to elapse before Requires a RANDOM amount of time to giving the reinforcement. elapse before giving the reinforcement. Moderate response Very hard to get acquisition but also very rate with long pauses resistant to extinction. after reinforcement Moderate and steady response rate More frequent at Ex. Email, facebook , pop anticipated time of quiz reinforcement Patient-controlled doctor timed pain relief. Fixed Interval: She gets a Test every 2 weeks manicure for every 7 days she stays on her diet. Punishment A stimulus meant to decrease a behavior Positive Punishment addition of something unpleasant. Negative Punishment (Omission Training) removal of something pleasant Punishment works best when it immediately follows behavior and is harsh!  + - Positive Negative Gives something to Takes something to increase the likelihood increase the likelihood Reinforcement that the behavior will be repeated (the subject that the behavior will be repeated (the subject does wants this not want this thing/condition) thing/condition) Gives something to Takes something to decrease the likelihood decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be that the behavior will be Punishment repeated (the subject repeated (the subject does not want this would like to have this thing/condition) thing/condition)  How do we actually use Operant Conditioning? Sometimes, we use a process called shaping. Shaping is reinforcing small steps on the way to a desired behavior. These small steps are called approximations.  Chaining Behaviors Subjects are taught to link multiple responses together in order to get a reward.  Token Economy Every time a desired behavior is performed, a “token” is given. They can trade “tokens” in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers) Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions and schools.  Contrasting classical and operant conditioning Classical conditioning – Links two stimuli together through association. – Involves a natural, biological response. There is no decision made – Pavlov’s dogs salivated naturally, biologically, with no decision of their own. Operant conditioning – Links a behavior to its results. – There is a decision made here to do or not do a behavior. Behavior that gets reinforced is more likely to be repeated. Latent Learning Edward Tolman – demonstrated the concept using rats/mazes & reinforcers. Learning doesn’t completely depend on consequences. Learning is not always immediately observable in behavior (“latent” means hidden). cognitive maps – a mental representation of one’s environment  Insight Learning Wolfgang Kohler - Chimpanzees / Boxes & Bananas experiment Learning takes place through the “ah ha” experience (gaining “insight”). Weakens the behaviorist argument (emphasis on external, behavior / consequence relationship)  Learning from others Mirror neurons fire when an Observational learning: animal acts and when the animal learning by observing others or observes the same action being learning without direct performed by another experience or our own. – Might be why we like sports Modeling the process – How we learn skills via observation observing and imitating a specific behavior  Observational Learning Albert Bandura - BoBo Doll experiment Children imitated the modeled behavior of attacking the doll Social Learning Theory 1. Observational learning 2. The impact of others towards new behavior (reinforcement or punishment 3. Observing the rewards and punishments of others Implications of Bandura’s findings?  Learned Helplessness Martin Seligman – Dog/Electric Shock Experiment hopelessness and passive resignation in an animal or human occurs when unable to avoid repeated aversive events  Other learning terms People and animals have biological predispositions, meaning we’re naturally good at some things and bad at others. – Animals easily learn to associate things that help them to survive. – And, animals don’t easily learn things that don’t help them survive.  STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS ▣Consciousness: our awareness of ourselves and our environment.  Sleep ▣ Sleep is a state of consciousness. ▣ We are less aware of our surroundings.  Circadian Rhythm ▣ Circadian Rhythm- our body’s synchronizing to 24 hour biological clock ▣ Our body cools at night, heats up in the morning, and dip slightly in the afternoon (nap time!) ▣ Amount of sleep we need is biological (adenosine) ▣ What one invention has had the biggest impact on sleep? ▣ The 25 hour clock ▣ On average most adults would sleep about 9 hours if uninterrupted  Circadian Rhythm ▣ Light activates light sensitive retinal proteins ▣ These proteins signal to the brains suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). ▣ It’s in the hypothalamus and it causes the pineal gland to decrease the production of melatonin in the morning and increase it in the evening ▣ The pineal gland releases melatonin in response to darkness ▣ Most teens and adults are energized at night and older adults are energized in the morning.  Sleep ▣ Two main types ◼ Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (NREM) ◼ Rapid Eye Movement Sleep ▣ 4 stages of sleep ▣ Used to be 5 but now 3 and 4 have been combined Sleep Cycle Use an EEG machine to measure stages of sleep. When you are the onset of sleep you experience alpha waves. Produces mild hallucinations, like a feeling of falling (day dreaming)  NREM 1 ▣ Kind of awake and kind of asleep. ▣ Only lasts a few minutes, and you usually only experience it once a night. ▣ Your brain produces Theta Waves. ▣ Produces mild hallucinations, like a feeling of falling (day dreaming) Click the couple to see Theta Waves  NREM 2 ▣ More Theta Waves that get progressively slower. ▣ Begin to show sleep spindles… short bursts of rapid brain waves. ▣ Could still be awoken easily but clearly asleep Click image to see Stage Two ▣ 20 minutes of sleep.  NREM 3 ▣ Slow wave sleep. ▣ You produce Delta waves. ▣ If awoken you will be very groggy. ▣ Vital for restoring body’s growth hormones and good overall health. ▣ Hard to be woken from ▣ Lasts for about 30 minutes From stage 3, your brain begins to Click boys to see deep sleep. speed up and you go to stage 2….then  The ascension ▣ After stage 3 you begin to ascend through the sleep cycles returning to stage 2 where you spend half of your night ▣ Then for about 10 minutes you enter REM sleep  REM Sleep ▣ Rapid Eye Movement ▣ Heart rate speeds up. breathing becomes rapid and irregular ▣ Often called paradoxical sleep (awake on the inside paralyzed on the outside). ▣ Brain is very active. ▣ Dreams usually occur in REM. ▣ Body is essentially paralyzed. ▣ REM Rebound ▣ Genitals get aroused except for scary dreams Click boy dreaming to see REM sleep. ▣ The sleep cycle repeats itself every 90 minutes ▣ NREM 3 grows shorter and disappears ▣ REM and NREM-2 periods grow longer ▣ 20-25% percent in REM sleep ▣ 600 hours a year experiencing 1500 dreams  Sleep Paralysis ▣ Person experiences an inability to move, speak, or react ▣ Often accompanied by terrible hallucinations ▣ It may happen due to interrupted REM sleep, where the body is immobilized  Sleep Theories ▣ Protection (evolution) ▣ Recuperate (brain neurons repair) ▣ Rebuild memories ▣ Creative thinking ▣ Growth (pituitary gland releases growth hormone)  Benefits ▣ Happier ▣ Less depressed ▣ Healthier weight ▣ More productive ▣ Less likely to get sick ▣ Less likely to make errors ▣ Better Memory  Insomnia ▣ Persistent problems falling asleep ▣ Effects 10% of the population ▣ People underestimate how much sleep they are getting ▣ Aids such as sleeping pills or alcohol may worsen problem by reducing REM sleep  Narcolepsy ▣ Suffer from sleeplessness and may fall asleep at unpredictable or inappropriate times. ▣ Directly into REM sleep Click above to see Skeeter the narcoleptic dog. ▣ Less than.001 % of population.  Sleep Apnea A person stops breathing during their sleep. Wake up momentarily, gasps for air, then falls back asleep. Very common, especially in heavy males. Can be fatal. Night Terrors ▣ Wake up screaming and have no idea why. ▣ Not a nightmare. ▣ Most common in children (boys) between ages 2-8.  Somnambulism Sleep Walking Most often occurs during the first few hours of sleeping and in stage 3 (deep sleep). If you have had night terrors, you are more likely to sleep walk when older.  REM sleep behavior disorder ▣ Normal REM paralysis does not occur. ▣ Leads to talking, twitching, kicking, punching, acting out dreams  Dreams Dreams: a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer’s delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it. 6 years of our life  Dream Theories Freud’s fulfillment Information-processing/Consolidation Physiological function Activation Synthesis Cognitive development 59  Freud’s Theory of Dreams ▣ Dreams are a roadway into our unconscious. They allow us to fill our ID desires ▣ Manifest Content (storyline) ▣ Latent Content (underlying meaning) Consolidation Theory ▣ Dreams are a way to help sift, sort, and fix the day’s experiences in out memory. ▣ We tend to dream more when we are more stressed. ▣ During sleep, memory networks are reactivated without new sensory input, which helps stabilize and reorganize memories into long-term storage  Activation-Synthesis Theory ▣ Our Cerebral Cortex is trying to interpret random electrical activity we have while sleeping. ▣ That is why dreams sometimes make no sense. ▣ Biological Theory.  Physiological function ▣ Helps our brain develop and preserve neural pathways  Cognitive development ▣ Dreams represent cognitive development ◼ The more developed your brain the more complex your dreams