Psychology Notes PDF

High reliability - 60,65, 75,76, 84,87 Low reliability - 60,87, 75,65, 84,93 Construct validity Does the measure actually assess what we think it does? Measuring what you are intending to measure Internal validity Is the measure unaffected by confounds or errors in the study? L...

High reliability - 60,65, 75,76, 84,87 Low reliability - 60,87, 75,65, 84,93 Construct validity Does the measure actually assess what we think it does? Measuring what you are intending to measure Internal validity Is the measure unaffected by confounds or errors in the study? Lab setting, controlling the environment and materials Too high, sacrificing external validity External validity Can the measure be generalized to a larger population? Driving simulator can make this If you try to control everything, generalizing becomes harder Biased Samples A sample that consistently over-represents some parts of the population and under-represents other parts of the population Are often not representative of the population and can result in misleading conclusions about the population Problems Does not accurately represent the population Impact ability to generalize Impact trust in results ○ Researcher (producer) ○ Consumer Convenience Sampling Selecting people for a sample that are easily accessible ○ Ex. SONA, a television survey that asks people to call in and respond to a question Considered biased Random sampling Every person in the population has the same chance of being selected ○ Hard in practicality Considered unbiased in that no part of the population has an advantage in being over-represented in the sample Subsets of the population can still be over-represented but this occurs by CHANCE ○ Ex. by chance select a group of biased individuals Behaviorism Behaviorists: learning = conditioning Ability to connect stimuli (in environment) with responses (behaviors & actions) Learning is associative Branding People associate brands with traits and goals ○ Apple = nonconformity, innovation, creativity ○ IDM = traditional, responsible ○ Apple logo prime → higher creativity tests and creativity motivation Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s dog and bell experiment Key terms ○ Stimuli - something in the environment ○ Unconditioned stimulus - unlearned and automatic ○ Unconditioned response - natural response ○ Neutral Stimulus - an unassociated stimulus that has no response ○ Conditioned Stimulus - previous neutral stimulus that has now been conditioned to cause a wanted response ○ Conditioned Response - learned response In higher-order conditioning, a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an already-established conditioned stimulus ○ PTSD Vet associated loud noise with trauma Vet associated house that plays loud noise to trauma Vet can no longer walk past the house In stimulus generalization, after a stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus for some response, other similar stimuli may produce the same or similar reaction ○ Pavlov’s dog salivates at the sound of a different pitched bell In stimulus discrimination, different responses are made to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus in some way ○ Pavlov ‘s dog does not salivate when a trumpet sounds Operant conditioning Thorndike: responses that create a pleasant outcome are likely to occur again, whereas responses that create an unpleasant outcome are less likely to occur again ○ Law of effect: if something good happens after a behavior, behavior is done more, the opposite done decreases the frequency ○ Want to increase (reinforcement) or decrease (punishment) a behavior ○ Underline behavior, asks if trying to increase or decrease behavior, figure out if we want to change behavior, are we adding or removing something Giving a kid diet coke as a reward if he gets an A on his test → positive reinforcement Police officer gives me a ticket after speeding os that I will not speed again → positive punishment I did not pay my speeding ticket. Now I have to wear an ankle bracelet that beeps when I leave the house. I will stay in the house to remove the beeping sound → negative reinforcement Benji took away Ben’s phone because he saw him texting in class. Benji hopes that Ben learns to not text in class → negative punishment Fixed = predictable Variable = unpredictable Is this reward based on an action or a time period If it’s Action → ratio If it's Time → interval Variable interval – watching a sports game and waiting for something exciting? For every 1 day of football games that my friend watches with me, I will watch one episode of This is Us with her → fixed ratio My friend wants me to speak in Hebrew with him, and every few times I speak it, he gives me chocolate → variable ratio Shaping The differential reinforcement of successive approximations towards a target behavior Keep rewarding the dog until he gets closer to wanted behavior  A Nice outcome: dancing with dogs, potty training Cognitive dissonance: conflicting thoughts and behaviors, can make us feel uncomfortable 3 strategies to minimize cognitive dissonance ○ To minimize conflict behaviors by minimizing the dissonant behaviors or attitudes ○ add more consonant behaviors or attitudes ○ change behaviors or attitudes Ex. I value health but smoke/vape Voting in an election for the school board is not really what I consider politically involved. They can't do anything ○ I voted for the president ○ Whoops I guess i should start voting more Motivation Extrinsic motivation: reinforcements & punishments Intrinsic motivation: c Self motivation → want to do the activity because you feel good about it Overjustification effect: Two groups do fun puzzle ○ Time 1 - no $$, both groups enjoy it ○ Time 2 - one group randomly assigned to get paid $1 per puzzle ○ Time 3 - no $, P”s can do whatever they like Increased puzzle completion with $$ Only want to do something if you get an external reward