Psychology Chapter: Learning and Conditioning

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Questions and Answers

What is the purpose of reinforcement in operant conditioning?

To eliminate behaviors completely

To create a conditioned response through association

To decrease the likelihood of undesired behaviors

To increase the likelihood of desired behaviors (correct)

Which of the following best describes punishment in operant conditioning?

Giving something to discourage a behavior

Taking something away to encourage repetition of a behavior

Taking something away to discourage a behavior (correct)

Giving something to encourage a desired behavior

What is the concept of shaping in operant conditioning?

Teaching subjects through negative reinforcement

Reinforcing small steps towards a desired behavior (correct)

Conducting training sessions in long intervals

Eliminating all rewards for a behavior

What is a token economy?

A practice where tokens can be traded for rewards Signup and view all the answers

Which statement distinguishes operant conditioning from classical conditioning?

Operant conditioning links behavior to its consequences. Signup and view all the answers

What does insight learning involve as demonstrated by Wolfgang Kohler?

A sudden realization of a solution to a problem Signup and view all the answers

What are cognitive maps, as discussed in the context of latent learning?

Mental representations of one's environment Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'unconditioned stimulus' refer to in classical conditioning?

A stimulus that elicits a natural reflexive response Signup and view all the answers

In classical conditioning, what happens during the process of acquisition?

The neutral stimulus is repeatedly presented with the unconditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of a Fixed Ratio schedule?

There is often a long pause after reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs when a conditioned response reappears after extinction?

Spontaneous recovery Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true about Variable Ratio schedules?

They produce high steady response rates and are resistant to extinction. Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates Fixed Interval schedules from Variable Interval schedules?

Fixed Interval involves a set amount of time before reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'higher order conditioning'?

A new stimulus being paired with a previously conditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Which example best illustrates Positive Punishment?

Adding chores after bad behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key aspect of behaviorism as a worldview?

It operates primarily on the stimulus-response principle Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes generalization in classical conditioning?

Responding to a new stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Negative Punishment is defined as which of the following?

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What is the strongest form of conditioning often seen with taste aversions?

Association developed through a single pairing of food and sickness Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of both Fixed Interval and Variable Interval schedules?

Both involve a time component before reinforcement is given. Signup and view all the answers

What best describes the acquisition difficulty of Variable Ratio schedules?

They are very hard to get acquisition. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during extinction in classical conditioning?

The conditioned response is repeatedly elicited without the unconditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about punishment is accurate?

Punishment is best when it follows behavior immediately and is harsh. Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of the time do humans typically spend in REM sleep?

20-25% Signup and view all the answers

Which sleep disorder is characterized by episodes of falling asleep unexpectedly?

Narcolepsy Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary characteristic of sleep paralysis?

Inability to move or speak Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following theories suggests that sleep helps in memory consolidation?

Rebuild memories theory Signup and view all the answers

What does Freud's theory suggest about the nature of dreams?

They allow us to fulfill our unconscious desires. Signup and view all the answers

What is commonly underestimated by individuals suffering from insomnia?

Time spent sleeping Signup and view all the answers

According to the Consolidation Theory, why do we tend to dream more when we are stressed?

Our memory networks are particularly active during stress. Signup and view all the answers

Which sleep disorder primarily affects children and involves waking up in a state of fear?

Night Terrors Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the Activation-Synthesis Theory?

The brain attempts to make sense of random electrical activity. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following conditions may lead to an increased likelihood of sleepwalking in later years?

Experiencing night terrors as a child Signup and view all the answers

In terms of cognitive development, what do dreams represent?

The level of brain development and complexity of thought. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following can significantly worsen sleep problems in individuals?

Alcohol and sleeping pills Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes dreams in general?

They contain vivid and hallucinatory imagery. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Learning

Learning is a long-lasting change in behavior due to experience.
Behaviorism is a worldview that explains behavior based on stimulus-response, disregarding internal mental states.
All behavior is caused by external stimuli according to operant conditioning.

Associative Learning

Associative learning results in the association of certain events.
Events could be two stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (operant conditioning).
Classical conditioning pairs a natural response to a stimulus.

Classical Conditioning

The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits a natural, reflexive response.
The unconditioned response (UCR) is the response to the UCS.
A neutral stimulus (NS) initially does not provoke a response.
The NS is presented with the UCS multiple times during acquisition.
The body begins to link the NS with the UCS.
The NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) after learning takes place and the body responds.
The unconditioned response becomes the conditioned response (CR).

Classical Conditioning and Acquisition

Acquisition isn’t permanent.
Extinction occurs when the CS is no longer associated with the UCS.
Spontaneous recovery refers to the random reappearance of the CR when the CS is presented after extinction.

Classical Conditioning and Humans

John Watson introduced classical conditioning in psychology through the “Baby Albert” experiment.
Generalization is when something similar to the CS triggers the CR.
Discrimination happens when something different from the CS does not trigger the CR.
Higher order conditioning occurs when a new stimulus is associated with a previously conditioned stimulus.

Taste Aversions

Taste aversion occurs when food is paired with nausea and sickness.
Conditioning is incredibly strong in cases of taste aversion.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning links a behavior to its consequences.
Behaviors with positive consequences are more likely to be repeated.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Ratio Schedules focus on responses.
- Fixed Ratio provides reinforcement after a set number of responses.
- Variable Ratio provides reinforcement after a random number of responses.
Interval Schedules focus on time.
- Fixed Interval requires a set amount of time to lapse before reinforcement.
- Variable Interval requires a random amount of time to elapse before reinforcement.

Punishment

Punishment is used to decrease a behavior.
Positive Punishment involves adding something unpleasant.
Negative Punishment (Omission Training) involves removing something pleasant.

Shaping

Shaping is a process that uses small steps to achieve a desired behavior.
Approximations are small individual steps in shaping.

Chaining Behaviors

Subjects learn to link multiple responses together to get a reward.

Token Economy

A “token” is given for every desired behavior.
“Tokens” can be traded for prizes (reinforcers).
Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions, and schools.

Latent Learning

Edward Tolman discovered that learning doesn’t solely depend on consequences.
Learning may not be immediately observable in behavior.
Cognitive maps are mental representations of one’s environment.

Insight Learning

Wolfgang Kohler conducted chimpanzee experiments with boxes and bananas.
Insight learning happens through the "ah ha" experience, gaining "insight."

Sleep

Dreams typically occur during REM sleep.
The body is essentially paralyzed during REM sleep.
Genitals become aroused except for during scary dreams.
REM Rebound refers to an increase in REM sleep duration after sleep deprivation.
The sleep cycle repeats every 90 minutes.
NREM 3 duration shortens and disappears over the cycle.
REM and NREM-2 periods lengthen over the cycle.
Humans spend 20-25% of their sleep in REM.
An average person experiences 1500 dreams annually.

Sleep Paralysis

Sleep paralysis involves an inability to move, speak, or react while awake.
Sleep paralysis is often accompanied by hallucinations.
It may happen due to interrupted REM sleep where the body is immobilized.

Sleep Theories

Protection from predators in evolutionary terms.
Recuperating for brain neurons.
Rebuilding memories.
Creative thinking.
Growth through pituitary gland release of growth hormone.

Sleep Benefits

Increased happiness.
Decreased depression.
Healthier weight.
Improved productivity.
Reduced chance of getting sick.
Fewer errors.
Enhanced memory.

Sleep Disorders

Insomnia is persistent problems falling asleep.
Insomnia affects 10% of the population.
People underestimate how much sleep they get.
Aids like sleeping pills or alcohol may worsen insomnia by reducing REM sleep.
Narcolepsy leads to excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden falls asleep.
Narcolepsy has a direct transition into REM sleep.
It affects less than .001% of the population.
Sleep Apnea involves a person’s breathing stopping during sleep.
The person wakes up momentarily, gasps for air, and falls back asleep.
Sleep Apnea is common, especially in obese males.
It can be fatal.
Night Terrors involve waking up screaming without knowledge of why.
They are not nightmares.
Most common in children (boys) between ages 2-8.
Somnambulism (Sleep Walking) often occurs during the first few hours of sleep, specifically in stage 3 (deep sleep).
Night terrors increase the likelihood of sleepwalking in adulthood.
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder is a condition in which normal REM paralysis does not occur.
It leads to talking, twitching, kicking, punching, and acting out dreams.

Dreams

Dreams are a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts experienced during sleep.
Dreams are characterized by hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, inconsistencies, and the dreamer’s delusional acceptance of the content.
Remembering dreams is typically difficult.
Humans spend 6 years of their lives dreaming.

Dream Theories

Freud's Theory of Dream Fulfillment suggests dreams are a path to the unconscious mind.
Dreams are a space to fulfill ID desires.
Manifest Content refers to the dream’s storyline.
Latent Content refers to the underlying meaning of the dream.
Information-processing/Consolidation Theory proposes that dreams help process and organize memories from the day.
Dreams occur more frequently when we are stressed.
Memory networks are reactivated during sleep without new sensory input, contributing to long-term memory consolidation.
Physiological Function Theory suggests dreams help develop and maintain neural pathways.
Activation-Synthesis Theory proposes that dreams result from the brain attempting to interpret random electrical activity during sleep.
This theory explains why dreams can seem nonsensical.
Cognitive Development Theory suggests dreams reflect cognitive development.
The more developed the brain, the more complex the dreams.

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Description

Explore the concepts of learning and conditioning in psychology. This quiz covers behaviorism, associative learning, and classical conditioning principles. Test your understanding of the relationships between stimuli and responses in various learning scenarios.