Animal Science Study Guide PDF

Importance of livestock in society Basic Terminology: -​ Ethology: The Study of animals in their natural surroundings -​ Animal Breeding & Genetics: The study of the genetic code and how it can be manipulated/ changed to produce more productive and healthy animals -​ Nutrition: The s...

Importance of livestock in society Basic Terminology: -​ Ethology: The Study of animals in their natural surroundings -​ Animal Breeding & Genetics: The study of the genetic code and how it can be manipulated/ changed to produce more productive and healthy animals -​ Nutrition: The study of nutrients and how the body utilizes them -​ Physiology: The Study of the physical and chemical process an animal or any of the body systems or cells of the animals -​ Animal Health: The study and practice of maintaining animals -​ Meat: -​ Essential Amino acid Livestock Industry rankings in CA 1- Dairy 2- Sheep 3- Goat 3- Egg 4- Beef 11- Broiler 28- Pork -​ California is divided between producers and feedlots -​ Trends: Sheep industry in decline due to less popularity in mutton and lamb during the war and upward trend in beef Most consumed meats in the US -​ #1: Chicken -​ #2: Beef -​ #3: Pork -​ #4: Turkey -​ Food -​ Ethical Considerations ​ Health status of animal ​ Food Security ​ Treatment of workers ​ Humane slaughters:Electrical shock, Captive bolt, Gas ​ Animal Welfare ​ Environmental Sustainability: Sustain Livestock production for future population -​ Fiber: Leather, Alpaca, Camel, Cashmere, Llama -​ Fuel: Heat, Electricity, Fertilizer, Vehicle Fuel, Soil Amendments -​ By-Products: edible co products Animal Ethics and Welfare  -​ Physical and Mental State of an animal in relation to the condition in which it lives and dies -​ Outcome-based measurables (weight and health) -​ Preferentially animal-based measurables Animal Based Criteria -​ Body condition, weight -​ Foot condition -​ Disease Status -​ Injuries -​ Skin Condition -​ Behavior: Locomotion, Comfort, Vocalization, Thermoregulatory Locomotive Scoring (5 point score step system) -​ Lameness, identification -​ Favoring the appendage that is in pain Research in livestock -​ Goals of research: ​ Increase productivity of livestock species ​ Develop new supplements ​ Understanding mechanisms ​ Identifying novel genes ​ Implementing genetic improvements -​ Main areas/Aspects of research in livestock: Nutrition ​ Ruminant: 1 stomach, 4 chambers ​ Monogastric: No fermentation, no hay or grass as a nutrient source ​ Slug feeding: Giving all nutrients they need in one feeding ​ Feeds>Nutrients>Tissues>Metabolites>Waste Reproduction ​ Manipulation of hormones ​ Male and female reproduction Welfare ​ Physical/ Functional Domain (Nutrition, Environment, Physical Health, Behaviour) ​ Mental Domain (Positive and Negative Experiences) ​ Welfare research: Enrichment, Mental Stimulant, Free from pain and distress Meat Science  ​ Meat Grades: Prime, Choice, Select ​ Carcasses/ Carcass Quality ​ Marbling ​ Cured Meats Genetics ​ Genetic Diseases (Spider legs, dwarfism) ​ Gene pyramiding Immunology ​ Colostrum ​ How immune cells interact with B Cells Physiology ​ How something affects the entire system ​ Sweating drooling ​ Water consumption ​ Respiration rate ​ Feed intake ​ Rumination ​ Rectal temp Biotechnology ​ Developing ways to help humans ​ Medicine developments ​ Use of pigs as heart valves -​ Create a hypothesis on any given scenario Introduction to genetics and nutrition -​ How are genes passed from parent to offspring ​ One copy is inherited from mother (egg) and other from father (sperm) ​ A sperm and an egg each contain one set of 23 chromosomes ​ When sperm fertilises the egg two copies of each chromosome are present and so an embryo forms ​ Each carry half of the genetic information an combine during fertilization -​ How we get DNA to genes ​ Information present in the base sequence ​ Must pass between generations ​ Controls: Phenotype ​ Information must change slightly over time ​ Alleles ​ Slight difference between individuals of the same species  -​ Calculate phenotype utilizing the punnett square ​ Utilized to determine offspring genotype (COME BACK TO THIS) -​ Different mating strategies ​ Natural Mating ​ Artificial Insemination ​ Performance mating/ Assortative mating: Heaviest males to heaviest females or heaviest male to lightest female ​ Random Mating: every female has an equal chance of being assigned to any bull ​ Crossbreeding: Mating of animals from different established breeds -​ Be able to calculate percent heterosis Formula % Heterosis= [Observed- expected)/expected] x100 Example: Weaning Weight ​ Breed A: 500 lb ​ Breed B: 450 lb Progeny Weaning Weight ​ Expected: 475 lb ​ Observed: 495 lb % heterosis=[495-475)/475]x100= 4.2% Biological lag/ how it affects production ​ Timing difficulties when producers meet market lag -​ Commodity prices/ energy, labor -​ Extensive vs intensive production -​ Production timelines such as slaughter, egg production, breeding, and fiber collection can be delayed with biological lag -​ What are the base pairs of DNA Nucleotides ​ Adenine ​ Guanine ​ Thymine ​ Cytosine Encodes all genes -​ (Punnett Square) If a homozygous recessive (Brown coat) dam mates with a homozygous dominant (Black coat) sire, what percentage of offspring will have a brown coat? -​ (Pearsons Square) Calculate the inclusion rate for soybean meal (36% CP) and corn dent (16% CP) to achieve a CP of 20%  -​ Six nutrient classes ​ Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats, Vitamins, Minerals, Water Animal agriculture and the environment -​ Animal housing types ​ Extensive: Pasture ​ Intensive: (Everything else) range based, feedlot, barn ​ Depends on species -​ Methane and where it is produced ​ Oil/ Gas production or cattle -​ Major contributors to methane emissions -​ Methane mitigation strategies ​ Feed additives ​ Manure management ​ digesters -​ Nitrogen/ Phosphate leaching ​ When there is excessive amounts of NItrogen and Phosphate (Often from Fertilizers) not taken in by crops lead to leaching and surface runoff losses into surrounding waters ​ Leaching: Water from rain, snowmelt, or groundwater washes away the nutrients and contaminants from the soil into nearby water bodies or the subsurface ​ Intensive management contributes to this -​ How do we prevent leaching ​ CAFO (Confined animal feeding operation): Manure Managements ​ Slurry and Solid ​ Irrigation scheduling ​ No direct access to groundwater -​ Disease Spread ​ Airborne ​ Secretions (Saliva, Nasal Discharge, Etc) ​ Copulation ​ Blood -​ How is disease managed ​ Quarantine and Testing ​ Positive Test ​ Depopulation ( CO2 gas, Water based foam) ​ Strict inspection before restocking your flock -​ When would mass euthanasia be necessary? ​ When there is an HPAI: Highly pathogenic Avian influenza or general contaminating Influenza Farm to Plate -​ Basics of each segment from farm to plate ​ Farm, Processing, Logistics, retail, Plate -​ How age affects meat ​ Beef: Less tender, more intense flavor ​ Sheep: Undesirable flavor, condemnation rate due to higher incidence of disease (Highest negative impact) ​ Swine: Fatter, Change in meat fat, turns into waste product (Lowest negative impact) -​ Beef and Poultry Producer Basics Beef: ​ Purebred/ seedstock: Grassland/genetic based ​ Commercial/ cow-calf: Grassland/ market demand based ​ Stocker/Yearling/ Backgrounding: Specialized Poultry ​ Core breeder: Genetic based, Produce strains of chickens that meet production/company standards ​ Breeder: Contract growers who raise the chicks from core breeders ​ Kept eggs under tight security ​ Offspring become broilers for market -​ Processing and packaging in beef cattle ​ Harvest finished cattle ​ Fabricate carcasses into subprimal cuts ​ Sort and “Box” beef ​ Market to purveyors, processors ​ Fabricate boxes of subprimal cuts ​ Sell to foodservice, operators, and retailers -​ How does processing differ with poultry and beef cattle ​ Poultry is highly specialized with many of the segments interlinked and owned by the same company ​ Beef cattle has a lot of segments but is not typically limited to one company but many different producers and retailers -​ Vertical Integration ​ When all segments of the industry are interlinked and, many times, are owned by the same company ​ Primary breeders>Feed Mill>Breeders>Hatchery> Growout Farms> Processing Plants>Further Processing> Transportation and Marketing Meat and Food Safety → Terminology: ​ Captive Bolt Gun: Humane method of euthanasia that stuns the animal prior to slaughter ​ Marbling: refers to the quality and look of transmuscular fat ​ Grass-fed: animals that have been exclusively raised on forage ​ Grain-fed: animals that have primarily raised on forage but finished on grain (more sweeter due to sugars) ​ Organic: animal raised without added hormones, pesticides, other chemicals, fed organically classified feeds, and requires through regulation to quality ​ Dry-aged: meat that has been aged in a controlled environment, such as hanging in a cooler ​ Wet-aged: meat that is vacuumed sealed to retain moisture during the aging process ​ Hot carcass weight: weight of unchilled carcass in pounds after the head, hide, and internal organs are removed ​ Dressing percentage: percentage of hot carcass weight from shrunk live weight ​ Shrunk weight: weight loss that occurs during transportation, processing, and storing → Intermuscular vs. Intramuscular: ​ Intermuscular: located between and below muscle groups ​ Intramuscular: located within and between muscle fibers → Animal Primal and Subprimal Cuts: Subprimal cuts: ​ Individual cuts from each of the primal cuts Beef Primal Cuts: ​ Chuck, Rib, Short-loin, Round, Flonk, Short-Plate, Fore Shank, Brisket Lamb Primal Cuts: ​ Leg, Loin, Rack, Shoulder, Foreshank and Breast, Other (Ground Lamb) Pork Primal Cuts: ​ Neck, Shoulder, Rack, Loin, Leg Flank, Foreshank and Breast Swine Primal Cuts: ​ Leg, loin, Side, Picnic Shoulder, Shoulder Poultry: ​ “Whole chicken” (there are no primal cuts as they are sold in whole)  Rabbits Primal Cuts: ​ Loin, Saddle, Shoulder, Hind leg, RIb, Front Leg, Shank Horse Primal Cuts: ​ Neck, Shoulder, RIb, Loin, Rump, Round, Shank, Flank, Plate, Breast → Meat and Food Safety Terminology: ​ Pathogen: A bacterium or virus that causes diseas ​ Irradiated foods: foods treated with ionizing pasteurization, which kills insects, bacteria, and parasitses ​ With-drawal time: ength of time an antibiotic must be taken away from an animal before the animal can be legally slaughtered ​ FDA: Food and Drug Adminsitration (in charge for consumers side; e.g. retail) ​ USDA: United States Department of Agriculture (in charge for prior of consumers; e.g. slaughter, etc.) ​ HACCP: Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points ○​ Seven Principles: 1.​ Conduct a hazard analysis 2.​ production process where cont 3.​ Determine the critical limits 4.​ Define monitoring procedure 5.​ Implement corrective actions 6.​ Establish verification procedure 7.​ Created record keeping procedures → Meat inspection: ​ Federal Meat Inspection Act (FMIA): Requires all meat sold commercially to be inspected and passed to ensure that is is safe, wholesome, and properly labled (passed in 1906) → USDA: ​ Inspector; Responsible for the day-today inspection of animals before and after slaughter (stressed animals have a change in meat quality/taste) → Labeling ​ Antibiotic free: ○​ Raised without antibiotics from birth to slaughter ○​ Issue?: Not allowed for the use of “Anti-Biotic free” labels → Humane Methods of Slaughter Act: ​ Requires the humane treatment and handling of food animlas at the slaughtet plant while also providing a quick and effective death ​ Passed in 1958 ​ Enforced by the USDA: Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS)  ​ FSIS inspectors to stop slaughter activities if they think an animal is being handled inhumanely ​ HMSA protects all livestock except poultry Dairy Production ​ → Holsteins: ​ Most popular dairy cow ​ Leading milk producer ​ Orginated: The netherlands ​ Other Names: Frisians (rest of the world) ​ Weight: 1200 - 1500 lbs ​ Average milk production: 23000 lbs/lactation → Jersey: ​ Rapid growth in population within the US ​ High butterfat and protein ○​ Better for cheese production ​ Originated: Jersey Island (in the English Channel) ​ Weight: about 1000 lbs ​ Average Production: 16500 lbs/lactation → Ayshire: ​ Rugged and durable breed ​ Originated: Scotland ​ Weight: 1200 ​ Average Production: 18000 lbs/lactation → Guernsey: ​ Less popular breed ​ Fewer than 10000 animals in the world ​ Milk: golden color ○​ High levels of beta-carotene (vit. A) ​ Originated: Isle of Guernsey ​ Weight: about 1100 lbs ​ Average Production: 16500 lbs/lactation → Brown Swiss: ​ Largest dairy breed ​ High butterfat and protein ​ Tolerate fluctuating weather better than other breeds ​ Originated: Switzerland (in the Alps) ​ Weight: about 1500 lbs ​ Average Production: 18500 lbs/lactation → Milking shorthorn: ​ Most versatile breed ​ Notable traits: ○​ Grazing efficiency, calving ease, higher fertility, production potential  ​ High salvage value ​ Originated: England ​ Weight: about 1250 lbs ​ Average Production: 17500 lbs/lactation → Leading Dairy States: 1.​ California 2.​ Wisconsin 3.​ Idaho 4.​ New York 5.​ Texas → Mammary Anatomy: ​ 4 quarters ​ 4 teats ○​ Potential supernumerary teat ​ Glandular tissue (secretory tissue) ​ Contain alveoli ​ Alveoli, comprised of: ○​ Secretory cells, ○​ Blood capillaries ○​ Myo-epithelial cells ​ Produced milk → transported to gland cistern → teat cistern → teat canal → externalized → Set-up: ​ Pros: ○​ Easy retrofitting from tie-stall barn ○​ Cost effective and inexpensive ​ Cons: ○​ High demands on the milkers → Parallel: ​ Pros: ○​ Short distance for milkers ○​ Efficient stall utilization ○​ Milker safety ○​ Quick and easy animal positioning ​ Cons: ○​ Limited view from of cow ○​ Challenges in unit attachment ○​ Inability to use support arms ○​ Balancing milking units → Herringbone: ​ Pros: ○​ Cost effective  ○​ High milking efficiency ○​ Clear view of cows ○​ Ease of expansion ​ Cons: ○​ Physical demand on milkers ○​ Loading and unloading speed ○​ Potential slowdown due to slow milkers → Rotary ​ Pros: ○​ Ease on milker ○​ Quick and easy animal handling ○​ Easy automation ○​ Adjustable speed ​ Cons: ○​ High initial cost ○​ Limited expansion potential ○​ Increased maintenance cost ○​ Waiting time for cows ○​ Limited view of udders → Somatic Cells: ​ Leukocytes (white blood cells ​ Indication of immune response ​ Measure: ○​ On farm with portable cell counter ○​ Sending milk samples to lab → Silage: ​ Compact as much as possine when putting up ​ Cover with tarp and weights ​ Fermentaion of silage occurs in anaerobic environment ​ Only uncover what you can feed in 3-days ​ Dont remove silage by digging or lifting from bottom ​ Remove 6-12 inches per day → Measuring Dry Matter and Particle Size: Dry matter: ​ Can be measured by taking wet weight ​ Drying at a set temperature ​ Weighing dry freed Particle Size: ​ Important for rumen fuction ​ Need adequate long fibers to create rumen mat → Feed Push-up: ​ Animals push feed away as they eat  ​ Requires push up, or moving of feed closer to the bunk for animals to eat ​ Manual or robotic: ○​ Tractor or shovel ​ Lely robot → Diseases: ​ Mastitis ​ Reproductive diseases ○​ Metritis ○​ Endometritis → Ketosis: ​ Results in negative energy balance ​ Fatty acids are metabolized and transported to the liver for metabolization in ketones ​ Signs: ○​ Decreased appetite ○​ Decreased milk production ○​ Weight loss ○​ Acetone breath ​ Treatment: ○​ Drench of Propylene glycol ○​ I.V. glucose → Milk fever: ​ Hypocalcaemia ○​ Low calcium ​ Signs: ○​ Agitation and tremors in muscles ○​ Staggers eye, cold legs/ears, muzzle, drowsiness ​ Treatment: ○​ Sub-q or I.V. calcium → Mastitis ​ Inflammation of mammary gland ○​ Caused from trauma or infections ​ Decrease in milk production ​ Increase in somatic cells within milk ​ Can affect one or multiple quarters ​ Pre-dips and post-dips ​ Teat sealants for dryoff → Metritis ​ Inflammation of all layers of the uterus ​ Systemic signs ○​ Fever, anorexia, decreased milk production, dehydration ​ Clinical Signs: ○​ Foul smelling, brown-red, watery vaginal dischrge within the first 21 DIM  ​ Incidence ○​ 6 - 35% ​ Risk factors ○​ Poor nutritional management, BSC loss within 30 DIM, retained placenta, hypocalcarmia, ketosis, others → Endometritis ​ Classfied as clinical or subclinical ​ Clinical: ○​ Mucopurulent and/or purulent uterine discharge ○​ >5cm in cervical diameter ​ Subclinical ○​ Precense of Neutrophil cells >5% Beef Production: → Classification of breeds ​ Bos taurus ○​ British ○​ Continental ​ American ​ Bos indicus ​ Note: British breeds originate from the british isles ​ Note: Continental breeds originate from continental Europe ​ Note: American breeds are composites of Bos taurus and bos indicus breeds British Breeds: → Angus: ​ Color: Black and polled ○​ Can have white flank and udder ​ Origin: Aberdeen, scotland ​ Most popular breed in the U.S. ○​ Largest genetic database ​ Progeny can be registered in Red Angus ​ Purpose: ○​ Mabrling ○​ Maternal Strength → Red Angus: ​ Color: Red and polled ​ Origin: Scotland ​ Barred from ANgus herdbook ○​ Recognized as separate breed ​ Similar strengths and weaknesses as Angus ​ Low numbers, low genetic diversity → Hereford: ​ Colord: Red and white face, underline, and feathering  ○​ Horned or polled ​ Orgin: England ​ Purpose: ○​ Efficient ○​ Fleshing ability ​ Weaknesses: ○​ Low milk ○​ Pinkeye susceptibility ​ Lack of eye pigment ○​ Udder quality ○​ Lower marbling than Angus → Shorthorn: ​ Color: Red, white, or roan ○​ Horned, or polled ​ Origin: England ​ Originally dual-purpose breed ​ POpular breed for showcattle ​ Purpose: ○​ Docile ○​ Maternal ability ​ Weakness: ○​ Greater fat content than other breeds ○​ High birth weight ​ Originally known as “Durham” cattle → Scottish Highland: ​ Color; Various shades brown, known for extremely long hair ​ Origin: Schotland ​ Smaller mature size ​ Purpose ○​ Hardiness - ability to survive harsh climates Continental Breeds: → Simmental: ​ Color: originally red and white ○​ Horned or polled ○​ Black and red, polled in U.S. ​ Origin: Switzerland ○​ Developed as a dual-purpose breed ○​ Fullblood cattle are referred to as Fleckvieh ​ Most popular continental breed in U.S. ○​ Performance-based breed association ​ Purpose ○​ Milk ○​ Muscle  ○​ Growth ​ Weakness: ○​ Less marbling than Angus → Charolais: ​ Color: White with pink skin ​ Origin: France ​ First came to U.S through Mexico in 1930s ​ Purpose: ○​ Heavy muscled, high growth ​ Weakness: ○​ Birth weight, not as strong maternally as Simmental ​ Popular in terminal crossbreeding systems → Gelbvieh: ​ Color: red and black ​ Origin: Germany ​ Purpose ○​ Maternal for continental breeds ○​ Moderate frame size ○​ Cutability ​ Strong performance lineage ​ Balancer: ○​ Hybrid with angus: 25% - 75% Gelbvieh, rest is Angus → Limousin: ​ Color: Red and Black ​ Origin: France ​ Purpose: ○​ Heavy muscled ○​ High muscle to bone ratio ​ Weakness: ○​ Poor calving ease ​ Popularity has declined ​ Lim-flex ○​ Hybrid with Angus: 25% - 75% of each breed → Main-Anjou: ​ Color: Red and White ○​ Mostly black in U.S. ​ Origin: France ​ Popular show cattle breed ​ Purpose: ○​ Heavy muscled ○​ High cutability ​ Weakness: ○​ Moderate milk  ○​ Poor calving ease ​ Mainetainer: ○​ Registered cross with another breed ○​ As low as 25% maine ​ Other Continental Breeds → Piedmontese: ​ Color: Light to dark gray ​ Origin: Italy ​ Double muscled breed → Belgian Blue: ​ Origin: Belgium ​ Double muscled breed ​ Many must have caesarean sections to give birth Other Bos Taurous Breeds → Texas Longhorn: ​ Color: No specific color patter ○​ Known for extremely long horn span ​ Origin: U.S ○​ From spanish cattle cortez brought to North America ​ Purpose: ○​ Lose birth weight ○​ Range survivability ○​ Early Maturing ​ Weakness: ○​ Light muscled ○​ Smalle REA and light carcass → Wagyu: ​ Color: black and horned ​ Origin: Japan ​ Multiple breed background prior to 1887 ​ Purpose: ○​ Extreme marbling ​ Kobe beef ​ Weakness ○​ Slow growth ○​ Very inefficient ○​ High days on feed → Akaushi: ​ Color: Red ​ Origin: Japan ​ Also known “Red Wagyu” ​ Did notexist outside of Japan until imported to Texas in 1994  ​ Purpose: ○​ Extreme marbling ​ Kobe Beef ​ All cattle must be registered with American Akaushi Association ○​ Crossbred bulls must be castrated American Breeds → Brangus: ​ Color: Black and polled ​ Origin: U.S. ​ ⅜ brahman, ⅝ angus ​ Ultra black - program that registers angus/brangus hybrid cattle ​ Red brangus a separate breed → Simbrah: ​ Color: light to dark red with some white marks ​ Origin: U.S. Gulf Coast ​ Brahman and simmental hybrid → Santa Gertrudis: ​ Color: Cherry Red ​ Origin: King Ranch in Texas ​ ⅝ shorthorn and ⅜ brahman ​ Purpose: ○​ Heat tolerance and crossbreeeding options → Braford: ​ Color: red with white points ​ Origin: Florida ​ Approximately ⅜ brahman, ⅝ hereford → Beefmaster: ​ Color: no color set pattern ○​ Red ​ Origin: U.S. ​ Brahman, Hereford, and Shorthorn composite Bos Indicus Breeds → Brahman: ​ Color: light gray, red or black ○​ Horned or polled ​ Origin: U.S. ○​ Combination of 5 breeds from india ​ Purpose: ○​ Heat tolerant ○​ Insect tolerant ​ Thick skin ​ Weakness ○​ Disposition ​  ○​ Large mature size ○​ Poor carcass quality ​ Commonly cressbred with herefords along gulf coast ○​ Crosses are known as “tiger shape” because of brindle color → Nelore: ​ Color:white, horned, with black noses ​ Origin: India ​ Most popular breed in brazil ​ Purpose: ○​ Heat tolerant ○​ Insect tolerant ​ Thick skin ​ Weakness ○​ Disposition ○​ Large mature size ○​ Poor carcass quality ​ Commonly crossbred with angus for terminal cross → Production systems -​ Breeding → 9 moths gestation → calving: 6-8 months → weaning: 5-18 months → Breeding Methods ​ Natural mating (bull) ​ Artificial Insemination ○​ Estrous detection ○​ Fixed time AI ​ Embryo transfer → Artifical Insemination ​ Genetic improvement (acess to outstanding sires) ​ Calving ease, carcass traits, performance, etc. ​ Get females pregannt ​ Uniform calf-crop (age and sire) ​ Increased weaning weight (FTAI) ​ Use sexed semen ​ Increased reproductive performance (earlier calving = more time to resume cyclicity) ​ Produce more pregnancies from a single bull → Estrus ​ Duration: 12-18 hours ​ Range: 2 - 50 hours ​ Sexual receptivity ​ Peak estrogen secretion  ​ WIll stand to be mounted ○​ Primary sign → Estrust detection aids ​ Tail head markers ​ Pressure sensitive detector ​ Detectors animals ​ Activity monitors → Fixed Time AI ​ Requires hormones to control cycle and ovulation ○​ Progesterone ○​ Prostaglandin ○​ GnRH → Weaning ​ Natural weaning ○​ Occurs between 7-14 months of age ​ Typical production: 5 - 8 months of age ○​ Peak lactation is over ○​ Rumen is stimulated and fully functional ​ Factors that affect weaning: ○​ Cow BCS ○​ Forage availability ○​ Tradition ○​ Market price ○​ Cashflow → Carcass Evaluation ​ Quality grading: ○​ Composite evaluation of factors that affect palatability of meat ​ Based upon: ○​ Degree of marbling ○​ Degree of maturity → Maturity scoring ​ The physiological age rather than the chronological age ​ INdicators ○​ Bone characteristics - ribs ○​ Ossification of cartilage ○​ Color and texture of ribeye muscle (not as much) → Yeild grading ​ Four factors: ○​ Amount of external fat ○​ Ribeye area (REA) ○​ Kidney, pelvic, and heart fat (KPH) ○​ Carcass weight Swine production → Terminology: ​ Sow: Female pig that has given birth to at least one litter of piglets ​ Boar: Male pig that has reached puberty and remains intact ​ Gilt: Female pig that has not yet given birth to a littler of piglets ​ Barrow: Castrated male pig ​ Farrowing: process of giving birth to piglets ​ Gestation: 3 moths, 3 weeks, 3 days Typical Breeds: Commercial production → Yorkshire ​ Most recorded breed in the U.S ​ Erect ears ​ Heavy muscling ​ High proportion ofleave meat ​ Lot backfat ​ Structural soundness and durability → Hampshire ​ “Belt: ​ 4th most recorded breed in the U.S ​ High lean muscle production ​ High carcass quality ​ Minimal backfat ​ Large loin eye ​ Good mothering abilities ​ Good longevity → Berkshire ​ 3rd most recorded breed in the U.S ​ Fast and efficient growth ​ Reproductive efficiency ​ Excellent meat flavor and value ​ Oldest swin registry in the U.S → Duroc ​ 2nd most recorded breed in the U.S ​ Red pig with drooping ears ​ Excelled product quality ​ Good carcass yield ​ Fast growth ​ Excellent lean-gain efficiency → Landrace ​ Excellent mothering abilities ​ Heavy milkers ​ Oftend crossed with other breeds ​ High length of body  ​ High percent of carcass weight in loin/ham → Chester White ​ Originated in Chester, PA ​ Droopy medium sized ears ​ Good mothering abilities ​ Durable ​ Strutural soundness ​ Good muscle quality → Swine Reproduction ​ Estrous cycle length: 18 to 24 days ​ Gestation length: 114 days → Artificial insemination ​ Breeding rod: corkscrew ○​ Scews into the cervic ​ Deposit semen into cervix ○​ Allow sow to pull semen in instead of push → Farrowing: ​ Types of system for farrowing ○​ Crate ○​ Hybrid ○​ Group ○​ Pasture → Piglet processing ​ Clipping needle teeth (not common practice anymore) ​ Treating umbilical cord ​ Iron ​ Tail docking ​ Identification ​ Scours prevention/treatment ​ Castration ] → Piglet Anemia ​ No contacts with soil in todays systems ​ Rapid piglet growth ​ Sows milk low if Fe ​ Prevention ○​ Oral Fe injection: 200 mg → Nursery Facilities ​ Specialized care for the weaned pig ○​ Sanitary ○​ Environmental control ​ Critical for early weaned pigs ​ Watm, draft-free environment needed ​ - Intense management ​ - Frequent observation  ​ - Frequent feeding → FInishing facilities ​ Wide variation in type ○​ Group size is large (25 - 500+ pigs/pen ○​ Mechanical/natural ventilation ○​ Labor intense/labor minimal ○​ Variation in feeder type ​ Wean-finish has become new option for many system ○​ Pigs go direct to finishing barn at weaning eliminate nursery phase Poultry: Layer/Egg Production → Top 10 Egg Producing States 1.​ Iowa - 1B 2.​ Indiana - 939.2M 3.​ Ohio - 907.6M 4.​ Pennsylvania - 674.7M 5.​ Texas - 567.1M 6.​ Georgia - 450M 7.​ Michigan - 429.5M 8.​ Missouri - 353.8M 9.​ North Carolina - 346.1M 10.​Arkansas - 339.4M → U.S. Egg Production ​ Total eggs produced: 109.5B ​ Total layers: 379,304,00 ​ Eggs/layer: 289 → Leghorn ​ Origin: Italy ​ Eggs ○​ 189-250/year ○​ Large white ​ 2.5kg (hen) ​ 3.5kg (cock) → Production system ​ Battery ​ Enriched colony ​ Cage-free ​ Free range  → Batter cage Production ​ High feeding density ​ 5-6 chickens/m^2 ​ Saves on labor ​ Eggs automatically roll out ​ Reduces feed waste ​ Easy to manage ​ High egg production rate ​ Temp/humidity control → Enriched colony ​ More space per chicken ○​ 20% more space ​ Natural behaviors ○​ Perching ○​ Scratching ​ Easy to manage ○​ More labor than battery ​ Temp/humidity control ​ → Cage-free ​ Housed indoors in large groups ​ No cages ​ Lay eggs in nesting boxes ​ More labor intensive ​ Natural behaviors ○​ Scratching, nesting, dust bathing ​ Temp/humidity controlled ​ Harder to monitor feed intake ​ Harder to identify animals unthrifty animals → Free range ​ Free access to the outdoors ​ Broader diet ​ Fewer feed costs ​ Richer eggs ​ Fewer flies ​ Predators ​ Egg hunting → Laws that impact the Industry ​ NY: Requires owner’operator that produces shell eggs or liquid eggs for human consumption to confine egg-laying hens ina cage-free housing system ​ CA: meet the confinement requirement for keeping an egg-laying hen; prohibits producing and selling products in CA the involve the extreme confinement of egg-laying chickens (battery cage) Sheep Production Goat Production