All in One Veterinary Capsule (Subjective) 2021 PDF

ALL IN ONE VETERINARY CAPSULE 2021 A SUBJECTIVE TYPE MANUAL For the Preparation of Veterinary Written Test Exams and Interviews Compiled and Prepared: DR. MUHAMMAD NAZIM (DVM, M.PHIL UVAS LAHORE) DR. MUHAMMAD HUSSAIN GHAZALI (DVM, M.PHIL UVA...

ALL IN ONE VETERINARY CAPSULE 2021 A SUBJECTIVE TYPE MANUAL For the Preparation of Veterinary Written Test Exams and Interviews Compiled and Prepared: DR. MUHAMMAD NAZIM (DVM, M.PHIL UVAS LAHORE) DR. MUHAMMAD HUSSAIN GHAZALI (DVM, M.PHIL UVAS LAHORE) DR. IQRA LIAQAT (DVM, ISLAMIA UNIVERSITY BAHAWALPUR) DR. SABA NAAZIR (DVM, SINDH AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY TANDOJAM) Supervised: DR. HASSAN JUNAID (LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION OFFICER)  For Comments and Suggestions, Contact us at: Email: [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] To Get Soft Copy of Veterinary Capsule, WhatsApp us at: 0333-6454600  DEDICATION: “IT IS OUR GENUINE GRATEFULNESS AND WARMEST REGARD THAT WE DEDICATE THIS WORK TO THOSE PARALYZED MINDS WHO CAN’T EVEN IMAGINE THE OTHER’S WELL-BEING.”  List of Contents: Sr. No. Title Page No. 1. History of Veterinary Medicine 1 1. Livestock Share 2021 2 2. Estimated Milk and Meat Production 2020-21 2 3. Estimated Livestock Population 2020-21 2 4. Fathers of Fields 3 5. Scientists and their Contributions 4 6. Historic Milestones/ Discoveries 5 7. Scientific Names of Animals 6 8. Scientific Names of Birds 6 9. Life Span of Animals 7 10. Gestation Period 7 11. Physiological pH Values 8 12. Important Days 8 13. Color Revolutions 9 14. Organogram of L & DD Department 9 15. Vernacular Names of Common Diseases 10 16. Subject: Animal Breeding and Genetics 12 17. Chromosomes Number of Various Animals 12 18. Difference B/w Close Breeding and Line Breeding 12 19. Genetics Terms 17 20. Test cross Versus Back Cross 18 21. Subject: Basics of Animal Nutrition 19 22. Difference B/w Hay and Silage 19 23. Amino Acids 26 24. Difference B/w Lactic Acid and Butyric Acid Fermentation 28 25. Silage Classification 28 26. Inclusion Level of Common Feed Ingredients 29 27. Anti Nutritional Factors 30 28. Daily Salt and DCP Requirements of Farm Animals 30 29. Feed Phases 33 30. Classes of Feeds 33 31. Vernacular Names of Common Grasses 34 32. Classification of Animals on the Basis of Feeding Habits 34 33. Grazing Systems 35 34. Subject: Basics of Livestock Production and Management 36 35. Livestock Production Systems 36 36. Difference B/w Tattoo and Tag 37 37. Castration and Weaning Age 39 38. Prehensile Organs in Animals 39 39. Difference B/w Wool and Hair 41 40. Save the Calf and Feedlot Fattening Project Overview 42 41. Breeds of Indigenous Dairy Cattle 43 42. Body Scoring 44 43. Literature about Calves and other Animals 45 44. Winter Fodders 46 45. Summer Fodders 47 46. Subject: Basics of Dairy Science and Technology 48 47. Types of Emulsion 53 48. Milk Constituents 53 49. Milk Direct and Indirect Tests 53 50. Subject: Basics of Meat Science 56 51. Subject: Basics of Physiology 60 52. Classification of Receptors 70 53. Difference B/w Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System 70 54. Autacoids and Local Hormones 70 55. Anti Hormones Examples 70 56. Hormones and their Secretions 70 57. Exocrine Glands 71 58. Endocrine Glands 71 59. Terms related to Heart 71 60. Subject: Basics of Pharmacology 72 61. Neuromuscular Blockers 73 62. Plant Toxicology 73 63. Drugs and their Mode of Actions 74 64. Difference B/w Epinephrine and Nor Epinephrine 75 65. Sources of Drugs 76 66. Drugs Considered Safe and in Pregnancy and Drugs to Avoid 78 67. Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Drugs 79 68. Hydrophilic and Lipophilic Antibiotics 80 69. Subject: Basics of Animal Reproduction 81 70. Comparison of FSH and LH 81 71. Heat Signs 82 72. Common Causes of Dystokia 82 73. Semen Quality 82 74. Fertile Life of Sperm and Ova 82 75. Stages of Parturition 83 76. Average Age of Puberty 88 77. Reproductive Biotechnology 89 78. Difference B/w Embryo, Fetus, Gamete and Zygote 91 79. Synchronization and Synchronization Protocols 93 80. Bacterial Infectious Agents, Time of Abortion and Lesion 97 81. Bacterial Infectious Agents, Time of Abortion and Lesion 98 82. Reproductive Prolapses of Cattle 99 83. Torsion 100 84. Normal PPP in Animals 100 85. Clinical Uses of Important Reproductive Hormones 102 86. Comparative Features of Pituitary and Placental Gonadotropins 104 87. Obstetrical Instruments 107 88. Different types of CL 109 89. CL and P4 Production Level 109 90. Semen Color 109 91. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Abnormalities of Sperms 109 92. Age and Size of Fetus (Resemblance) 110 93. Fetal Slip Membrane Test (Time to Perform) 110 94. Size of Placentomes (Gestation) 110 95. Follicular and Luteal Cyst 110 96. Reproductive Hormones, Functions and their Nature 111 97. Viviparous, Ovoviviparous and Oviparous 112 98. Ultrasound, Transducer and its types 112 99. Parturition Names in Species 113 100. Reproductive Chart of Various Animals 113 101. Terms related to different species of Avian 114 102. Term related to different wild herbivores 114 103. The Most Important Hormones influencing Ovarian Activity 115 104. Male, Female and Young One of Domestic Animals with their group 115 105. Mitosis and Meiosis, the Two types of Cell Division 116 106. Cycle of Spermatogonia to Spermatozoa 116 107. Blastocyst Stages of Development 117 108. Subject: Basics of Poultry Production 118 109. Subject: Basics of Parasitology 125 110. Protozoology 127 111. Classification of Protozoa 127 112. Intracellular and Extracellular Protozoa 127 113. Difference B/w Protozoa and Bacteria 128 114. Difference B/w Protozoa and Rickettsia 128 115. Protozoan and Rickettsial Diseases 128 116. Pipe Stem Diarrhea in Babesia 130 117. Protozoal Diseases in Cattle (Chart) 131 118. Differential Diagnosis of Haemoprotozoan Diseases 131 119. Differential Symptoms of Common Haemoprotozoan Diseases 132 120. Hair and Tracheal Worms 134 121. Tapeworm of Dog 134 122. Intermediate Hosts of Diseases in Animals 135 123. Entomology 136 124. Difference B/w Hard Tick and Soft Tick 137 125. Burrowing and Non Burrowing Mites 137 126. Arthropodes 138 127. Myiasis 138 128. Phthiraptera 138 129. Transovarial and Transstadial Transmission 138 130. Common Protozoal Diseases 139 131. Eimeria Species 141 132. Parasites of Sheep 141 133. Subject: Basics of Veterinary Surgery and Radiology 142 134. Hernia and its types 145 135. Different Sutures in Different Surgeries 150 136. Incision and Body Part 151 137. Surgical Conditions 151 138. Types of Haemorrhage 151 139. Haemorrhage on the Basis of Time 151 140. X-Ray 152 141. Timing for X-Ray Film 152 142. Tumors 152 143. Terms Related to Teats 152 144. Surgical Conditions of Teat Sphincter 153 145. Content of Teat Terms 153 146. Terms related to Lameness 153 147. Terms Related to Anesthesia 154 148. Anesthesia and its Types 154 149. Stages of Anesthesia 154 150. Anesthetic Dose 155 151. Terms for Hernia 155 152. Abnormal Body Developments 156 153. Gangrene 156 154. Surgery Types 156 155. Difference among X-Ray, CT, MRI, MRA and Pet SCAN 156 156. Clinical Classification of Wound 157 157. Microbiology Related Terms 157 158. Difference B/w Artery and Vein 157 159. Types of Solution 157 160. Types of Dehydration 157 161. Types of Shock 158 162. Difference B/w Casting and Restraining 158 163. Epidural Anesthesia Location in Ruminant and Equine 163 164. Surgical Instruments and their Functions 163 165. Process of Healing 164 166. Types of Cells 164 167. Types of Wound Healing 164 168. Stages of Wound Healing 164 169. Important Nerve Block and Their Indication 164 170. Surgical Instruments 165 171. Anesthetic Equipment 173 172. Acid Base Disorders 176 173. Hypotonic, Hypertonic and Isotonic Concept with Examples 177 174. Fluid Therapy 177 175. Subject: Basics of Anatomy 180 176. Body Receptors 181 177. Axial Skeleton and Apppendicular Skeleton 181 178. Spinal Nerves 181 179. Cranial Nerves (Motor Nerves) 181 180. Sensory Nerves 181 181. Motor Nerves 181 182. Organ Origin 182 183. Bones of Axial and Appendicular Skeleton 182 184. Vertebral Formulas in Different Species 182 185. Types of Joints in Body 182 186. Points of Body 183 187. Subject: Basics of Histology 184 188. Types of Epithelium and their Location 184 189. Subject: Basics of Veterinary Medicine 186 190. Father of Era 186 191. Pulse Recording Sites 186 192. Terminologies 186 193. Bacterial Diseases 190 194. Viral Diseases Summary Chart 200 195. Viral Diseases 202 196. Rickettsial Diseases 209 197. Endoparasitic Infestation 210 198. Equine Diseases 214 199. Metabolic Disorders 216 200. Poultry Diseases 220 201. Forms of New Castle Diseases 225 202. Zoonotic Diseases 226 203. Venereal Diseases 227 204. Horizontally Transmitted Diseases 228 205. Vertically Transmitted Diseases 228 206. Diseases Transmitted by Ticks 228 207. Diseases Transmitted by Flies and Mosquitoes 228 208. Why do flies spread Diseases? 229 209. Vector Borne Diseases 229 210. Notifiable, Self Limiting and Ophisthotonus Posture Diseases 232 211. Rx of Mastitis 233 212. List of Drugs Used in Veterinary Medicine 233 213. Parasitic Drug of Choice 234 214. Drug Against Ticks/ Intermittent Ectoparasites 234 215. Drug of Choices 234 216. Difference B/w Diarrhea and Vomiting 235 217. Vaccination Schedule 235 218. Important Diseases with Peculiar Features 235 219. Names of Vitamins 236 220. Vitamins and Minerals related Issues 236 221. Vitamin B Complex Related Issues 237 222. Vitamin Deficiency Diseases 237 223. Hypersensitivity Reactions and its Types 238 224. Injection Sites 239 225. Abnormal Skin Growths/ Lesions 240 226. Subject: Basics of Microbiology 241 227. Endospore Forming Bacteria 241 228. Immune Response 241 229. Lymphoid Organs 241 230. Difference B/w Gram +ve and Gram -ve Organisms 241 231. Difference B/w Exotoxin and Endotoxin 241 232. Difference B/w Acid Fast Staining and Gram Staining 242 233. Inclusion Bodies 242 234. Difference B/w Acidic Stain and Basic Stain 242 235. Staining 242 236. Stains against Microorganisms 243 237. Gold Standard Tests 243 238. Aerobic, Anaerobic and Spore Forming Bacteria 243 239. Microorganism Shape 244 240. Organism and Toxin 244 241. Epidemiological Terms 245 242. Difference B/w Staphylococci and Streptococci 245 243. Subject: Basics of Pathology 246 244. Inflammation Related Terms 246 245. Pathognomonic Lesions of Diseases 247 246. Most Important Pathognomonic Lesions 252 247. Classification of Inflammation According to Exudate 253 248. Classification of Inflammation According to Severity 253 249. Common Terminologies 253 250. Granular and A-granular Cells of Blood 254 251. Infection and Body Cell Release 254 252. Difference B/w Acute and Chronic Inflammation 254 253. Difference B/w Exudate and Transudate 254 254. Dropped Jaw, Bottle Jaw and Lumpy Jaw 255 255. Gangrene and its Types 255 256. Cardinal Signs of Inflammation 255 257. Types of Anemia 255 258. Classification of Jaundice 258 259. Subject: Basics of Biochemistry 260 260. Paired Terminologies 261 261. Immunoglobulins Summary 268 262. Veterinary Tests 269 263. Glossary 271 264. Use of Chemicals in Veterinary Practise 273 265. Most Important Parameters 274 266. Common False Management Associated Disorders 276 267. Some Medical Facts 278 268. Prescription Writing Shorts 279 269. Knowledge About Blood 282 270. Prefix and Suffix 284 271. Compound Words- Meanings 286 272. Bactericidal and Bacteriostatic Drugs 288 273. Antibiotics Drugs 288 274. Study of Subject 291 275. Medical Terminology 292 276. Livestock Laws 292 277. Start and Stop Codon 292 278. Common Physiological Values/ TPR Parameters 293 279. Liver Biopsy Sites 293 280. Suture Materials 294 281. Absorbable Suture Materials 294 282. Vertebral Columns in Different Animals 294 283. Type of Muscles 295 284. Sensation and Nerve Ending 295 285. Taste perception in Tongue 295 286. Carcass Characteristics 295 287. Iodine Value of Meat 296 288. Refractive Index of Meat 296 289. Blood %age of Live Animal Body Weight 296 290. Time of Egg Formation in the Chicken 297 291. Composition of Milk and Egg 297 292. Dung and Urine Excretion in Different Species 298 293. Appearance of Normal Conjunctiva in Different Species 298 294. Percent Capacity of Ruminants Stomach 298 295. Ruminants Stomach 298 296. Pancreatic Juice 299 297. Digestive Juice 299 298. Variation in the Color of Feces 299 299. Classes of Carbohydrate 300 300. Macro and Micro Minerals 300 301. Quarantine Period 300 302. Dental Formula 301 303. Mouth Gags 301 304. Difference B/w Small Intestine and Large Intestine Diarrhea 301 305. Types of Placenta 301 306. Vaccination Schedule in Various Species 302 307. Poultry Diseases Summary Chart 304 308. Camel Breeds and Chicken Breeds 306  HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE:  The word "Veterinary" comes from the Latin word veterinae meaning "working animals". "Veterinarian" was first used in print by Thomas Browne in 1646.  Archeological evidence, in the form of a cow skull upon which trepanation had been performed, shows that people were performing veterinary procedures in the Neolithic (3400–3000 BCE) (stone age). Persons serving as doctors to animals have existed since the earliest recorded times, and veterinary practice was already established as a specialty as early as 2000 BCE in Babylonia and Egypt.  The ancient Greeks had a class of physicians who were called “horsedoctors,” and the Latin term for the specialty, veterinarius (“pertaining to beast of burden”), came to denote the field in modern times.  In ancient times, trepanation was thought to be a treatment for various ailments, such as head injuries. It may also have been used to treat pain. Some scientists also think that the practice was used to pull spirits from the body in rituals. Many times, the person would survive and heal after the Surgery  The first veterinary school was founded in Lyon, France, in 1761 by Claude Bourgelat. 2nd school in 1776 in Paris.  First mention of Rabies was reported in Eshuna code of 2300 B.C.  Ashoka (269-232 B.C.) made compulsory provision of charitable animal hospitals.  Royal charter (1844) recognized the Veterinary Art as a profession.  After observing the devastation being caused by cattle plague to the French herds, Bourgelat devoted his time to seeking out a remedy. This resulted in his founding a veterinary school in Lyon in 1761, from which establishment he dispatched students to combat the disease; in a short time, the plague was stayed and the health of stock restored, through the assistance rendered to agriculture by veterinary science and art.  First written record of veterinary medicine from ancient Egypt was provided by Kahum Papyrus (1900 BC). 1  LIVESTOCK SHARE 2020-21 Livestock having a share of 60.1 percent in Agriculture 11.53 percent in GDP achieved a growth of 3.06 percent. More than 8 million rural families are engaged in Livestock production and deriving more than 35-40 percent of their income from this source. Gross value addition of livestock increased to Rs. 1505 billion (2020-21). The fishing sector, with a share of 2.01 percent in agriculture value addition and 0.39 % in GDP, grew by 0.73 percent, while forestry sector having share of 2.10 percent in Agriculture and 0.40 percent in GDP grew by 1.42 percent. ESTIMATED MILK AND MEAT PRODUCTION (2020-21): Parameter Production in Tons Milk 63,684 Meat 4,955 ESTIMATED LIVESTOCK POPULATION (2020-21): Species Population No. (In Million) Cattle 51.5 Buffalo 42.4 Sheep 31.6 Goat 80.3 Camels 1.1 Horses 0.4 Asses 5.6 Mules 0.2 2  FATHERS OF FIELDS: 1. Father of Blood Groups: Landsteiner 2. Father of Taxonomy: Carolus Linnaeus 3. Father of Surgery: Sushruta 4. Father of Medicine: Hippocrates 5. Father of Veterinary Medicine: Renatius 6. Father of Zoology: Aristotle 7. Cardinal Signs: Celsius 8. Antemortem: Galen 9. Modern Pathology: Morgagni 10. Father of Histology: Bichat 11. Father of Cellular Pathology: Virchow 12. Experimental Pathologist: Carl 13. Necropsy Technique: Hunter 14. Father of Microbiology: Leeuwenhoek 15. Father of Modern Microbiology: Pasteur 16. Father of Bacteriology: Koch 17. Modern Experimental Pathology: Julius 18. Inclusion Body: Negri 19. Inventor of Electron Microscope: Knoll and Ruska 20. Demonstration of Arthropoda: Smith 21. Father of Pathology: Benevieni 22. Phagocytosis Discovery: Metchnikoff 23. Father of Immunology: Edward Jenner 24. Nucleus: Bang 25. ELISA: Engwal and Parlman 26. Discovery of “Restriction Endonuclease": Kelly & Smith 27. Father of Nutrition: Antoine Lavoisier 28. Father of extension education: J.P. Leagans 3  SCIENTIST AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION:  Gregor Johann Mendel: Father of Genetics  Bateson: Term Genetics  Johannsen: Term Gene, Genotype, Phenotype  Lamarck: Theory of inheritance of acquired characters, Use and disuse of organ  August Weismann: Theory of continuity of germplasm  Charles Darwin: Theory of natural selection, Theory of Pangenesis  Hugo de Vries: Mutation theory of evolution  Jacob & Monod: Operon concept (gene regulation in prokaryotes)  Beadle & Tatum: One Gene One Enzyme hypothesis  Schleiden & Schwann: Cell Theory  G.H. Shull: Term Heterosis/ Hybrid vigour  Karl Landsteiner: Blood group and Rh factor  Morgan: Sex-linked inheritance, chromosome theory of sex determination  C.B.Bridge: Genic balance theory of sex determination  Har Gobind Khorana, Nirenberg & Holley: Genetic code  Barbara McClintock: Transposons /Transposable elements of "jumping genes"  Knoll & Ruska: Electron microscope  Sutton & Boveri: Chromosomal theory of heredity  Waldeyer: Term chromosome  Robert Hooke: Discovery of cell  Robert Brown: Discovery of cell nucleus  Watson and Crick: Double helical model of DNA  CIB method- The method devised by Muller for detecting X-linked mutations in Drosophila  Ascorbic acid was first isolated by Szent Gyorg.  Scandinavian feeding system based on barley as the standard is introduced by Hanssen.  Physiological fuel values were devised by Atwater.  First accurate respiration calorimeter was constructed by Rubner.  Starch equivalent system was designed by Kellner.  The term “protein” is coined by Mulder.  Balance and thermometer into nutrition studied for the first time by Antoine Lavoisier.  Chemical method of DNA sequencing was developed by Maxam and Gilbert.  Genetic slippage term was given by G. E. Dickerson. 4  HISTORIC MILESTONES/ DISCOVERIES:  Louis Pasteur - coined term vaccine, Fowl cholera vaccine, Rabbies vaccine, Anthrax vaccine and concept of attenuation.  Paul Ehrlich - Antibody production, Humoral theory, Acid fast staining, Father of chemotherapy.  Edward Jenner – Small pox vaccination  Waksman – Streptomycin discovery  Bruce – Malta fever  Loeffer and Shutz – Glander  Moore – Fowl typhoid  Nicolaier – Tetanus  Ricketts – Rocky spotted mountain fever  Bordet – Complement discovery  Loffer – Swine erysipelas  A. Flemming – First antibiotics as Penicillin  J. Lister – Aseptic surgery, Carbolic acid  R. Bucchim – Father of Pharmacology  M.J.B. Orfla – Father of Toxicology  Otto-lewi – Neurotransmitter discovery  O.W. Holmes – Coined term Anaesthesia  Rudolphi – Father of Parasitology  Virchow – Father of Cellular Pathology  Kohler & Milstein – Hybridoma (Monoclonal antibodies) technique  E. Porter – Structure of antibodies  Landsteiner – Blood Group  Celsus – Four cardinal signs of inflammation 5  SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF ANIMALS:  Alpaca- Llama pacos  Ass- Equus asinus  Buffalo- Bubalus bubalis  Camel- Camelus dromedarianus (Single hump); Camelus bacterianus (Double hump)  Cat- Felis domesticus  Cattle- Bos indicus / Bos taurus  Dog- Canis familaris  Goat- Capra hircus  Guanaco- Lama guanicoe  Horse - Equus caballus  Llama- Llama glama  Mithun- Bos gaurus  Pig- Sus scrofa  Rabbit- Oryctolagus cuniculus  Reindeer- Rangifer tarandus  Sheep- Ovis aries  Vicuna- Vicugna vicugna  Yalk- Bos grunniens SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF BIRDS:  Chicken- Gallus domesticus  Duck- Anas platyrhynchos  Geese- Anser anser  Golden eagle- Aquila chrysactes  Guinea fowl- Numida meleagris  Muscovy- Cainna maschata  Ostrich- Struthio camelus  Pea fowl (peacock)- Pavo cristatus  Pigeon- Columba livia  Pheasants- Phasians colchrices  Quail- Coturnix spp.  Red horned owl- Bubo bubo  Screech owl- Tyto albo  Swan- Cygnus spp.  Turkey- Meleagris gallopovo 6  LIFE SPAN OF ANIMALS: Sr. No. Animal Life Span (Years) 01. Bull 28 02. Cow 22 03. Chicken, Goat and Sheep 15 04. Quail 6 05. Horse 40 06. Dog 22 07. Cat 25 08. Elephant 70 09. Parrot 80 10. Mouse 4 11. Camel 50 12. Rabbit 9 13. Ox 20 GESTATION PERIOD: Animal Gestation Period Cattle 283 days (9 month+ 9days) Buffalo 310 days (10months+10days) Sheep 145 days (5 months−5days) Goat 155 days (5months+5days) Bitch 62 days (2months+2days) Sow 114 days (3months+3weeks+3days) Mare 341 days (11months+11days) Camel 390 days (1year+1month+1day) Rabbit 32-35 days Cat 56-64 days 7  PHYSIOLOGICAL PH VALUES: Sr. No. Parameter pH Value 1) Water 6.5-8.5 2) Carbonic Acid/ Bicarbonate Ions 6.1 3) Silage 3.7-4.2 4) Bull Semen 6.6-6.7 5) Poultry Semen 7.0-7.6 6) Milk 6.5-6.8 7) Vagina 4.5 8) Bovine Blood and Pathogenic Bacteria 7.2-7.4 9) Abomasal Content 2.0 10) Muscle 6.8-7.3 11) Meat 5.5 12) Microbes 6.5-7.5 IMPORTANT DAYS:  January 12: National Youth Day  March 24: World TB Day  April 7: World Health Day  April 22: World Earth Day  April 25: World Malaria Day  Last Saturday of April: World Veterinary Day  June 5: World Environment Day  July 1: Doctor's Day  July 6: World Zoonoses Day  July 11: World Population Day  July 16: ICAR Foundation Day  September 16: World Ozone Day  September 28: World Rabies Day (Death anniversary of Louis Pasteur who developed the first efficacious rabies vaccine.  October 4: World Animal Welfare Day  Oct 6: World Wildlife Day  2nd Friday of October: World Egg Day  Nov 12: National Bird Day (Birthday of Dr. Salim Ali)  December 1: World AIDS Day 8  COLOUR REVOLUTIONS:  Blue revolution: Fish Production  Green revolution: Food grains (wheat, Rice)  Red revolution: Meat/Tomato production  Silver revolution: Egg/Poultry Production  White revolution: Milk/Dairy production 9  VERNACULAR NAMES OF COMMON DISEASES: Disease/ Item Vernacular Name Toxemia ‫میٹھا باد زہر‬ Hydropsy ‫زہر عام باد‬ Panting ‫ہال مارنا‬ Ingredients Mixing ‫گتاوا کرنا‬ Uterine torsion ‫ول‬ Prolapse ‫پیچھا مارنا‬ Debility ‫سک ٹک‬ Canine Distemper in Dog ‫پھیٹا‬ Surra in Camel ‫پھیٹا‬ Strangle ‫کنار‬ Glander ‫بد کنار‬ Diarrhea ‫موک‬ Bovine Ephemeral Fever ‫ول‬ Drench ‫کاڑھا‬ Pregnant ‫گبھن‬ Non-pregnant ‫پھنڈر‬ Cow heifer ‫وہڑی‬ Yearling Cow Bull ‫وہڑا‬ Female Cow Calf ‫وچھی‬ Male Cow Calf ‫وچھا‬ Female Buffalo Calf ‫کٹی‬ Male Buffalo Calf ‫کٹا‬ Exotic ‫والئتی‬ Early Lactation ‫لیاری‬ Edema ‫پل پڑنا‬ Near to End of Lactation ‫توکڑ‬ Pyometra ‫پا مارنا‬ Docile ‫سیل‬ Halter ‫ چبو‬/ ‫مورک‬ Muzzle ‫چھکو‬ Maize Fodder ‫گاچا‬ Three Teater ‫تلٹر‬ Two Teater ‫ڈھلٹر‬ Foal ‫وچھیرا‬ Black Buffalo with Blue Eyes ‫مانکی بھینس‬ Black Buffalo with Black Eyes ‫مشکن‬ Tumor on Third Eyelid ‫چندری‬ Worms/ Parasite ‫ملپ‬ Lesions at the Teat Opening ‫منہ سڑی‬ Panj Kalyan + Blue Eyes ‫کمری بھینس‬ 10  Leather Halter ‫تالرہ‬ Constipation ‫بن پڑنا‬ Red Water ‫سرکن‬ FMD ‫منہ کھر‬ Abortion ‫ترونا‬/ ‫سٹنا بچہ‬ Abomasal Displacement ‫اوجھری ہلنا‬ Actinobacillosis ‫ہجیراں‬ Actinomycosis ‫جبڑی‬ Alopecia ‫وال ڈگنا‬ Anemia ‫رت مکی‬ Anoestrus ‫ٹھنڈی‬ Anthrax ‫پھڑکی‬ Arthritis ‫سوج جوڑ جانا‬ Aural Hematoma ‫کنی‬ Bed Sore ‫زمینی پھٹ‬ Skipping of one Milking ‫ایکڑا‬ 11  BASICS OF ANIMAL BREEDING AND GENETICS: CHROMOSOMES NUMBER OF VARIOUS ANIMALS/ORGANISMS: Animal/ Organism Chromosome No. (Diploid or 2N) Drosophila 08 Cat, Pig 38 Rabbit 44 Swamp buffalo 48 River buffalo/water buffalo 50 Sheep 54 Goat, Cattle, Yak 60 Horse 64 Camel 74 Dog, Chicken 78 DIFFERENCE B/W CLOSE BREEDING AND LINE BREEDING: Close breeding Line breeding More intensive form of inbreeding Less intensive form of inbreeding 1. Parent-offspring mating: 1. Half-sib mating a. Sire to daughter mating 2. Cousin mating b. Son to dam mating 3. Grand parent-grand 2) Full sib mating: son/granddaughter mating Note: 1. Full sib/full brother& sister: whose both parent are common 2. Half-sib/half brother& sister: whose one parent is common 3. Double first cousin: whose four grandparents are common 4. Single first cousin: whose two grand-parent are common 5. Half-first cousin: whose one grand-parent is common. 12  Inbreeding coefficient Coefficient of Mating (Fx) (value of Fx = relationship (Rxy) 1/2 Rxy) Close breeding: a) Sire to daughter 0.50 or 50% 0.25 or 25% mating b) Son to dam mating c) Full sib mating a) Half-sib mating b) Grand parent-grand son/granddaughter 0.25 or 25% 0.125 or 12.5% mating c) Double first cousin mating Single first cousin 0.125 or 12.5% 0.0625 or 6.25% mating Half first cousin 0.0625 or 6.25% 0.03125 or 3.125% mating Note:  Inbreeding is also known as genetic assortative mating while out-breeding is also known as genetic dis-assortative mating.  Inbreeding increases homozygosity while out-breeding increases heterozygosity.  Geep is a chimera produced by combining the embryos of a goat & a sheep.  A sheep-goat chimera should not be confused with a sheep-goat hybrid. Chimera has four parents but a hybrid has only two parents.  Selective breeding- It is the out-crossing within a herd with the help of selected sires. The best method for improvement of buffalo breeds is selective breeding.  Inbred line - developed from two generations of full-sib mating. A line is called inbred line, if it has minimum inbreeding coefficient of 0.375 or 37.5%  In crossing - Crossing of two different inbred lines derived from the same breed.  In cross breeding - Crossing of the two different inbred lines derived from different breeds. Hardy-Weinberg law: In a large, random-mating population, in absence of mutation, migration & selection, the gene & genotypic frequencies remain constant from generation to generation. Central tendency, measures of dispersion & relative measures of dispersion: 1. Central tendencies: It tells about the central position of any series Examples: Mean (arithmetic mean, geometric mean, harmonic mean& weighted mean), Mode & Median 2. Measures of dispersion: Degree to which data tends to spread around an average 13 Examples: Range, Variance, Standard deviation& Mean deviation 3. Relative measures of dispersion: Examples: Standard error (SE); Coefficient of variance (CV) Note:  Range: The difference between the smallest and largest values in set of data  Mean deviation: Mean absolute deviation from an average. Its value is least affected by extreme values of a series.  Standard deviation (S.D.): - It is the ideal measure of dispersion. Its value is always greater than mean deviation(M.D.)  Variance: It is equal to square of standard deviation Mendel’s Laws: 1) First law/law of segregation of gametes/law of purity of gametes: -It is universally accepted Mendel‟s law. 2) Second law/law of independent assortment: Its exception is linkage. Note: Dihybrid cross = 2 × monohybrid cross  F2 phenotypic ratio in dihybrid cross = (3:1) × (3:1) = 9:3:3:1  F2 genotype ratio of dihybrid cross = (1:2:1) × (1:2:1) 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1 Note:-  Back cross is two types: Test cross & Out cross  Back cross = F1 hybrid x Any of the homozygous parent (Tt × TT or tt)  Test cross = F1 hybrid x Homozygous recessive parent (Tt × tt)  Out cross = F1 hybrid x Homozygous dominant parent (Tt × TT) Note:  Allelic interaction is also known as intragenic interaction or intra-allelic interaction.  Non-allelic interaction is also known as intergenic interaction or inter-allelic interaction. 14 Types of allelic interactions: 1) Dominance: When dominance is complete, then phenotype of heterozygote & dominant homozygote is same. 2) Incomplete dominance/Partial-dominance: The phenotypic value of heterozygote is lies between dominant & recessive homozygous. 3) Over-dominance: When the phenotypic value of heterozygous is superior to either of homozygous. Note: 1) Pleiotropic gene: A gene with multiple phenotypic effects or a single gene that controls more than one trait Examples:-  Sickle cell anemia gene in human  Double muscling gene in cattle 2) Polygenes: when one character is control by more than one gene. 3) Multiple allelism- More than two alternative form of a gene located on the same locus of the homologous chromosome are known as multiple alleles.  Multiple alleles are produced by mutation  Multiple alleles are found in the population, not in the single individual  Examples: ABO blood group in human (3 alleles); Coat colour in Rabbit (4 alleles); Eye colour in Drosophila (15 alleles). Heterosis/Hybrid-vigour: Increase performance of offspring over the parents  It is depended upon extent of heterozygosity & also depend upon Non-additive gene action ( Dominance, Over-dominance & Epistasis)  Traits with low h2 show high degree of heterosis or vice-versa.  At each generation, heterozygosity reduced by 50% and heterosis also, so we can say that maximum hybrid vigour is obtained in F1 generation.  Heterosis in F2 is diminished due to inter-se mating. Note: Repeatability is used in making culling decisions. The basis of selection/Aids to selection: 1) Individual selection/Mass selection: Based on performance of individual 2) Pedigree selection: Based on performance of ancestors 3) Progeny testing: Based on performance of their progeny 4) Family selection: Based on performance of their collateral relatives.  Sire: Half of the herd  Progeny testing is used for the selection of sire. 15 Types of correlation: 1) Phenotypic correlation 2) Genetic correlation 3) Environmental correlation Causes of genetic correlation: a) Pleiotropy: Permanent cause of genetic correlation b) Linkage: Temporary or transient cause of genetic correlation c) Heterozygosity Correlation coefficient(r): 1) If r = +1 (perfect positive correlation) 2) If r = −1 (perfect negative correlation) 3) If r = 0 (no correlation) Examples of correlation: 1. Positively correlated traits:-  Size of eggs and weight of eggs  Milk yield and fat yield of dairy animal  Heavier sheep produce more wool  Heavier hen produce large sized eggs  Birth weight and weight at weaning in cattle 2. Negatively correlated traits:  Milk yield and fat%  Number of eggs produced and size of eggs 3. No correlation:  Milk yield& horn length  Normal body temperature& body size 1. Crossing over: Exchange of segment between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes in pachytene stage of Meiosis-1 2. Translocation: Exchange of chromosomal segments between non-homologous chromosomes 3. Penetrance: Percentage of individuals with a given genotype that expresses the particular phenotype 4. Expressivity: Degree or extent to which a given genotype is express phenotypically 5. Variation: (a) Genetic variation (b) Environmental variation Causes of Genetic variation: 1. Segregation (Biggest cause of genetic variation) 2. Crossing over (2nd biggest cause of genetic variation) 3. Mutation, Migration, Selection, Random genetic drift 16 Mutation:  Sudden heritable change in genetic material  Term mutation: Hugo de Vries  Hugo de Vries proposed mutation theory of evolution Types of mutation: A) Chromosomal mutation: 1) Heteroploidy 2) Chromosomal aberration B) Gene mutation: 1) Substitution 2) Frame shift mutation Heteroploidy is two types: 1) Euploidy: Change in number of sets of chromosomes 2) Aneuploidy: Change in number of chromosomes in a set Two types of Substitution: 1) Transition: Replacement of purine by purine or replacement of pyrimidine-by-pyrimidine 2) Transversion: Replacement of purine by pyrimidine or replacement of pyrimidine by purine. Genetic Terms Definition An example Different forms of a gene, which Different alleles produce different produce Allele hair colors—brown, variations in a genetically blond, red, black, etc. inherited trait. Genes are parts of DNA and carry Genes contain blue‐print for each hereditary Genes individual for her or information passed from parents to his specific traits. children. Dominant version (allele) of a When a child inherits dominant gene shows its brown‐hair gene form Dominant specific trait even if only one (allele) from dad, the child will parent passed have brown hair. the gene to the child. When a child inherits recessive Recessive gene shows its specific blue‐eye gene form trait when Recessive (allele) from both mom and dad, both parents pass the gene to the the child will have blue child. eyes. Two of the same form of a Inheriting the same blue eye gene Homozygous gene—one from form from both mom and the other from dad. parents result in a homozygous g Heterozygous Two different forms of a Inheriting different eye color gene 17  gene—one from forms from mom mom and the other from dad are and dad result in a heterozygous different. gene. Blue eye and brown eye have Internal heredity information that different genotypes—one Genotype contain is coded for blue and the other for genetic code. brown. Both having or not having a Outwardly expressed traits or Phenotype widow’s peak are characteristics. phenotypes Some genetic traits follow A simple genetic rule where a Mendelian Inheritance, while Mendelian gene only other genetic traits follow different Inheritance comes in dominant or recessive inheritance forms. patterns or rules. 18  BASICS OF ANIMAL NUTRITION: DIFFERENCE B/W HAY AND SILAGE: Item Hay Silage Method of preserving Define Sun dried forage green fodder for a long period of time Moisture 12-14% 60-70% Best Crop Oat (Avena sativa) Maize (Zea mays) Leafy Plant with thin Preferred plant Plant with thick stem stem Flowering stages(1/3 Between flowering and Harvesting time to ½ milk stage blossom) Note:  Best hay is prepared with Oat (Avena sativa)  Best legume hay is prepared with Lucerne (alfa-alfa) Advantages of haymaking:  Sorghum (Jowar) lost its cyanide toxicity during drying due to denaturation of enzymes.  Vitamin D content is very high in hay due to sun drying. Disadvantages of haymaking:  Vitamin A content of forage is lost up to 80% due to sun drying.  If hay made with high moisture legume, it results in fermentation & heat production leads to the formation of Brown hay or mow-burnt hay.  The brown colour of hay is due to Maillard-type of reaction. 19  Lysine amino acid is mainly susceptible to Maillard type reaction.  Nutritive value of hay is less than that of silage Important points for haymaking: The crop should be harvested at the flowering stage (when flowering is initiated) because when the crop matures, its lignin content increases and nutritive value decreases. As far as time is concerned, the crop should be harvested early in the morning because at this time the dew has dried of. Silage: (1) Ensiling/Silage making: Process of preserving green fodder by anaerobic fermentation. Note: (1) Colour of good silage: Yellowish or Brownish-green (2) Haylage: When grass & legume which are meant for hay are ensiled  Moisture content of haylage is 45-55%  Having characteristics of both hay & silage (2) Wastelage: Anaerobically fermented animal waste (poultry dropping, poultry litter, swine excreta, and bovine dung) with the help of lactic acid producing bacteria Special points about silage making: Crops rich in soluble sugar such as maize, sorghum, bajra are most suitable for ensiling.  Crops with less soluble carbohydrate can also be used for ensilage by the addition of 3-3.5% molasses.  Mixture of grass/cereal fodder& legume used for ensilage should be in the ratio of 3:1  Urea @1% & salt @0.5% are added to cereals & grasses in order to improve N2 content& palatability  Pit silos are more common.  Flieg-index is commonly used method for evaluation of silage quality. Note:  Avidin: Egg white injury factor  Biotin: Anti- Egg white injury factor  Oral contraceptives & drug therapy of tuberculosis act as antagonistic to Vit. B6  Horse is resistant to gossypol poisoning  A fodder crop having retarded growth due to drought & regain its growth after rains will cause Cyanide poisoning. Note:  Vitamin A, D, E&K are fat-soluble while Vita.B-complex& Vita.C are water-soluble.  Vitamin E & selenium show a synergistic effect.  Vitamin D acts as a hormone.It synthesized in skin & cause calcium absorption through GIT. 20  Choline acts as “lipotropic factor” which is responsible for prevention of fatty liver. Note:  Perosis/Slipped tendon in chickens: due to deficiencies of Mn, Biotin, Choline, Folic-acid&Vita.B12  Ca & P act as antagonistic to Mg.  Sheep is most susceptible to Cu toxicity & Co deficiency.  Sheep is less prone to phosphorus deficiency due to selective grazing  Chromium is known as “glucose tolerant factor” Piglet anemia: 2-4 weeks piglets are most susceptible Prevention: (1) Drenching of saturated solution of FeSO4 (2) Teat painting with FeSO4 (3) I/M injection of Iron dextran on 4 th&14th day after birth Sulphur: 1. Sulphur containing vitamins are thiamine & biotin 2. Sulphur-containing amino acids are methionine, cysteine, homocysteine, and taurine 3. Sulphur containing hormones are insulin, ADH/vasopressin, oxytocin 4. Wool contains 4% sulphur while human hair keratin contains 14% sulphur 5. Recommended Nitrogen: Sulphur ratio in ruminant diet should be 10:1 6. Nitrogen: Sulphur ratio in wool is 5:1 Sodium (Na) & Potassium (K): 1. Major Cation of Extracellular fluid (ECF) is Na+ while major anion is Cl− 2. Major Cation of Intracellular fluid (ICF) is K+ while major anion is PO4− Calcium (Ca) &Phosphorus (P): 1. Normal blood calcium level in ruminants is 8-12 mg/dl 2. Normal blood phosphorus level in ruminants is 4-8 mg/dl 3. Bone Ca: P ratio should be 2:1 4. The main path of excretion of Ca & P is via faeces 5. The main path of excretion of Na+ &K+ is via urine (but in carnivores, the main path of P excretion is via urine). 6. Phosphorus play important role in nucleotides formation such as ATP, ADP. Note:  Feed-stuff: consists of roughage, concentrate & feed additives  Energy feeds/Basal feeds: contains less than 20% CP & less than 18% CF.Generally, Energy feeds consist of cereal grains & it‟s by product  Protein supplements: contains more than 20% Crude protein and less than 18% crude fiber  Soilage: Pasture, when cut & fed green to an animal in its own stall 21  Feeding requirements: Dry matter requirement (per animal per day):  Cattle: 2- 2.5 Kg/100 Kg body weight  Buffalo and crossbred cow: 2.5 - 3Kg/100 Kg body weight  Sheep: 2.5 - 3 Kg per animal per day  Lactating sheep: 4% of body weight  Meat goat: 3-4% of their live weight  Dairy goat: 5-7% of their live weight  Camel: 2% of body weight  Working & lactating camel: 3% of body weight Production ration:  Cattle: 1Kg concentrate/2.5 Kg milk  For Buffalo & Cross-bred cow: 1Kg concentrate/ 2 Kg milk Gestation ration during last trimester of pregnancy:  For Zebu Cattle: 1.25 Kg concentrate  For Buffalo & Cross-bred cow: 1.75 Kg concentrate Note: Salt and mineral mixture should be given @ 1% of the concentrate mixture. Note: If green fodder is legume, then roughage supplied 1/4 by green roughage& 3/4 by dry roughage. The composition of animal body:  Water, protein& ash content of a fat-free animal body are in the ratio of 19:5:1 (75% water, 20-22% protein & 3%ash).  Total body water of an animal body is 60-70%  The total mineral content of the animal body is 3% of total body weight.  Calcium & phosphorus are the major inorganic components of animals  Potassium &silicon are the major inorganic components of plants Weende system of proximate analysis:- 1. Proximate principles-are various nutrients of feed, which are required for the nourishment of the animal body. 22 2. “System of analysis” proposed by Henneberg & Stohmann at Weende experimental station, Germany in 1865. The detergent method of forage analysis/Van-Soest method:- Partition of carbohydrates by Weende system into CF & NFE is not realistic so to overcome this Detergent method of forage analysis was propose by Van-Soest. 23 Note:  NFE is only proximate principle that cannot be determined by analysis  NFE is simply calculated by subtracting CP, EE, and CF &Ash from 100  NFE% (DM basis) = 100 – (CP%+EE%+CF%+Ash %)  Feed containing moisture > 14 percentage cannot be stored for a long time.  Crude protein = True Protein + Non-Protein Nitrogen  For estimating protein content of the feed, Stutzer‟s reagent (alkaline CuSO4) is used.  For calculating CP, we have to assume 2 things: a) All food protein contains 16% N2 (factor 6.25 is coming from 100/16 = 6.25) b) All N2 of food comes from true protein.  TDN% = DCP% + DCF% + DNFE% + (DEE × 2.25)  1Kg TDN = 4.4 Mcal/g Digestible Energy  1Kg TDN = 3.6 Mcal/g Metabolic Energy  1 Kg TDN = 0.86 Starch Equivalent  0.32Kg TDN is required by a cow for 1 litre of milk production  400-500 ml blood is circulating through out udder for the production of 1ml of milk.  Calf starter contains 18.5-19.5%DCP, 23-26% CP & 75% TDN  Calf starter should be introduced from 2nd week of age Metabolic water: Amount of water produced in the body during various metabolic activities. It comprises of 5-10% of total intake of the nutrient. Straw& Stovers:-  Deficient in all minerals like Ca, P etc. but rich in silica  Poor in protein content (DCP of straw is 0%) & poor in energy content (TDN is about 40%)  Have low digestibility & high Crude fiber content  Wheat straw have 0%DCP, 3-4%CP & 40% TDN  We can improve N2 content, DCP, CP, TDN& digestibility of straw by urea treatment. Note: During urea treatment of straw, water: urea ratio should be 10:1 for optimum utilization. Urea as an NPN source to the ruminants: 1. Most widely used NPN substance in ruminant ration 2. Nitrogen content of urea is 46.6% (in pure form) 3. Urea is only used in ruminant ration 4. Urea should never feed to young calves (up to 6 months age) and monogastric animals (ex. horse, pig, dog etc.) 24 Characteristics of Urea: 1. It is deficient in all minerals. 2. It has no energy value 3. 100% degradable in rumen (quickly converted into NH3 in rumen) Factors affecting urea utilization:- 1. For optimum use of urea, Nitrogen: Sulphur (N:S) ratio should be 10:1 2. Starch: Urea ratio in the diet should be 10:1(1Kg starch require 100g urea) 3. Rumen bacteria are unable to use NH3 effectively if:- (a) Diet contain CP>13% or (b) Rumen NH3 concentration >5-8mg/100ml 4. Adaptation period of rumen microbes to dietary urea is 2-4 weeks. Urea toxicity in cattle: Urea toxicity results when rumen NH3 concentration exceeds 80mg/100ml (or) when blood NH3 concentration exceeds 1mg/100ml. Treatment of urea toxicity in cattle: 1. Drenching 20-40 liters cold water (cold water inhibits ureolytic activity) 2. Drenching 4-5 liters of 10% acetic acid (acetic acid neutralize the releasingNH3). Metabolism of carbohydrate, protein & fat: Net gain of ATPs by complete oxidation of one mole of substance is as follows: 5. Glycerol=22 ATPs 6. Acetate (VFA)=10 ATPs 7. Propionate (VFA)=17 ATPs 8. Butyrate (VFA)=25 ATPs 9. Palmitic acid=129 ATPs Note: 1. Defaunation: Selective removal of protozoa from the ruminal ecosystem 2. Chemical defaunation: Copper sulfate & Sodium lauryl sulfate Uses of volatile fatty acids (VFAS ) produced during ruminal fermentation: 1. VFAS provides 70% of ruminant energy needs 2. Acetate: It is responsible for milk fat synthesis 3. Propionate: It is gluconeogenic. It is responsible for milk sugar synthesis 4. Butyrate: Ruminal epithelial cells convert it into β-hydroxy butyrate (a ketone body) 25 Note: 1. High roughage diet: high milk fat% (because acetate production is high) 2. High concentrate or grain diet: high milk yield (because propionate production is high). Indicator method of digestibility determination:  Internal indicators (ex:- lignin, silica, acid-insoluble-ash/AIA)  External indicators (ex: -chromic oxide, ferric oxide, Mg-ferrite, radioisotopes like Cr-EDTA & Cerium The experimental period for digestibility determination: 1) Preliminary period/Adjustment period: 10-12 days for ruminant & 7-10 days for horse & swine 2) Collection period: 7-10 days for ruminants as well as non-ruminants Note:-  In digestibility trial, male animals are preferred over female because in male both faeces & urine are collected separately.  Castrated males are preferred over normal males  In the digestibility trial, only faeces are used but in the metabolic trial, both faeces & urine are used.  In poultry, digestibility determination is difficult because faeces & urine are excreted by same opening cloaca  In poultry, digestibility is determined by two ways: -surgically & chemically AMINO ACIDS: 1. Essential Ammino acid: Limiting Ammino acid  Lysine  Methionine  Tryptophan  Threonine Branch Chain Ammino acid  Valine  Leucine  Isoleucine Conditional Ammino acid  Phenylalanine  Arginine  Histadine 26 2. Non-Essential Ammino acid: They are called non-essential because they can be synthesized by other substances in the body:  Glycine  Serine  Alanine  Glutamic acid  Proline  Asparctic acid  Asparagine  Tyrosin  Cysteine Points: 1. The only true ketogenic amino acid is leucine. 2. A dietary excess of Tyrosine causes eye lesions. 3. Dietary excess of Methionine produces inhibition of ATP synthesis. 4. Main EAA in Pig: Lysine 5. Main EAA in Poultry: Glycine 6. Main EAA in Sheep: Methionine 7. Main EAA in Cat: Taurine Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs): Linoleic acid, Linolenic acid & Arachidonic acid 1. EFA in Cat: Arachidonic acid 2. EFA in Pig & Poultry: Linolenic acid Caecotrophy/ Coprophagy/ Pseudo-rumination: Ingestion of specially produced soft faecal pellets, which are usually produced at night in the domestic rabbit.  In the rabbit, caecotrophy begins at the age of three weeks.  Domestic rabbits produce hard faeces during the day& soft faeces during night.  In rabbits, the prevention of coprophagy leads to: a) Decrease digestibility of food b) Decrease protein utilization c) Decrease nitrogen retention Methods of improving the nutritive value of poor quality roughage like straw: A. Supplementation with deficient nutrients: 1. Enrichment with urea and molasses 2. Silage making 3. Supplementation with green fodder (Legume or non-legume) 4. Supplementation with legume straw 5. Supplementation with urea-molasses liquid supplements 27 B. Treatments: 1. Physical method: Examples: soaking, chopping, grinding, pelleting, irradiation, steam under pressure 2. Chemical method: Examples: Alkali (NaOH, Ca(OH)2, KOH, NH4OH); Ammonia (gaseous, aqueous, urea-ammonia); Acids (H2SO4,HNO3); Salts (NaCl,Na2CO3); Gases (chlorine, SO2); Oxidizing agents(H2O2, ozone) 3. Physio-chemical methods: combination of physical& chemical treatment. Example: NaOH/Pelleting 4. Biological methods: Examples: Enzymes (cellulase), white-rot fungi, mushrooms Function and Temperature time protocol of some instruments: 1. Autoclave: It kills microorganisms and spores. The Temperature is 121 Degree Celsius/15 lbs/15 min 2. Hot air oven: It uses dry heat to sterilize. The Temperature is 160 Degree Celsius/1hour 3. Muffle furnace: It is used to determine Ash content in sample. The Temperature is 600 Degree Celsius/1-2 hours. 4. Kjeldahl Apparatus: It is used to determine protein content. The Temperature is 360-410 Degree Celsius. DIFFERENCE B/W LACTIC ACID AND BUTYRIC ACID FERMENTATION: Butyric Acid Parameters Lactic Acid Fermentation SI Fermentation L When fodder is rich in When fodder is rich in soluble A Condition protein sugar or carbohydrate content G Quality Good & High quality Bad odour - good silage E CLASSIFICATION: Very Good Parameters Good Silage Fair Silage Silage pH 3.5 - 4.2 4.2-4.5 4.8 or above Ammonical N2 in Less than 10% 10-15% 20% or above total N2 Butyric acid Nil Trace Some amount 28 INCLUSION LEVELS OF COMMON FEED INGREDIENTS: Name of the The maximum safe Reasons Ingredients Quantity Price and quality; taste; Cotton seed cake 20-25 eaten in low quality; proteins and price Rapeseed cake 10-13 Protein level; milk does not taste good Sunflower cake 10-13 Quality and taste Cotton seed meal 15-20 Price, protein Rapeseed meal 15-20 Price and the quality of protein Not much poisonous; Canola meal 15-20 less production Peanut meal 20-25 Bad taste Maize carbohydrate 20-25 Increase urination 20 and 30% Maize carbohydrate 5-10 Diarrhea 60% Soyabean 10-15 Price Urea 1-2 Less quantity of calcium Rice Polishing 20 High price; not very digestible According to Wheat bran 25 requirement Molasses 10-15 Wheat grains 15 -20 Maize grains 40-50 Sorghum 15-20 Oil 2-3 Salt 1-2 DCP 1-2 Salt powder 2 Maize gluten 20% 20-30 Maize gluten 30% 20-25 Maize gluten 60% 5-10% Common salt 1-2 Mineral Mixture 2 29  ANTI NUTRITIONAL FACTORS: DAILY SALT AND DCP REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS SALT REQUIREMENT: Maintena Total Requirements as% of nce Lactation requirement total dry matter Salt Require Requirements s(g/d ment(g/ (g/d) ) d) Sodium 32.8 33.7 66.5 0.30 Potassium 93.5 83.8 177.3 0.80 Chloride 43.5 56.5 100.0 0.45  Salt (Common salt) contains 0.42 % Sodium (Na), 1.08 % Potassium (K) and 0.63 % chloride (Cl). 30  DCP REQUIREMENT: Catagory B.wt(kg) DCP(KG) Calf 45 0.170 60 0.195 70 0.220 Catagory B.wt(kg) DM(KG) DCP(KG) Growing cattle 150 4.20 0.310 and Buffalo (Gain 0.5 kg/d) 200 5.20 0.350 250 6.25 0.380 300 6.90 0.410 Catagory B.wt(kg) DM(KG) DCP(KG) Mature cow 300 4.50 0.200 and buffalo 350 5.00 0.230 400 5.50 0.250 450 6.00 0.280 500 6.50 0.300 550 7.00 0.330 600 7.50 0.350 Catagory B.wt(kg) DM(KG) DCP(KG) Maintenance and Pregnancy (last 2 300 5.60 0.290 months of gestation) 350 6.40 0.320 400 7.20 0.350 450 7.90 0.400 500 8.60 0.430 550 9.30 0.470 600 10.0 0.500 31  Catagory B.wt(kg) DM(KG) DCP(KG) For Milk Fat% production(p er kg milk) 4 - 0.045 5 - 0.051 6 - 0.057 7 - 0.063 Catagory B.wt(kg) DM(KG) DCP(KG) Breeding bull 500 - 0.450 600 - 0.530 Liters/day Pounds/day Animal Beef cattle 22–66 48–145 Dairy cattle 38–110 84–242 Sheep and 4–15 9–33 goats Horses 30–45 66–99 Swine 11–19 24–42 Chickens 0.2–0.4 0.4–0.9 Turkeys 0.4–0.6 0.9–1.3 32  FEED PHASES: There re “FIVE” feeding phases: Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5 First 10 weeks after calving. (Transition Milk production period or Dry period increases rapidly. Second 10 closeup Last half of ranges from 7 Cow is usually weeks after period) lactation to 8 weeks not able to eat calving Milk Time for enough and Maximum Includes last production restoring draws on body level of feed two weeks of decreases cow’s body reserves to intake parturition. 12-15% CP is reserves maintain reached. Nutritional recommended A production. 15–18% requirement is Cow might be minimum of A protein content crude protein is higher for fetal conceived at 11 percent CP of 18% crude recommended in growth this stage is protein is the whole ration CP% should recommended recommended in be exceeded rations for high- up to 15-18%. yielding cows. CLASSES OF FEEDS: Class Traits Example Hay, straw, seed hulls, fodder, Dry forages or roughage > 18% fiber stover Succulent forages or Pasture, green chop, cannery > 18% fiber roughage residues Whole-plant grain crops, wilted or Silages > 18% fiber low-moisture grasses or legumes < 20% Cereal grains, milling by- protein Energy feeds products, roots and and < tubers, brewery by-products 18% fiber Animal by-products (meat scraps) < 20% Marine by-products (fish meal) Avian protein by-products (hydrolized feathers) Protein supplements and < Plant by-products (soybean meal, 18% fiber cottonseed meal, linseed meal, corn gluten meal) 33  Steamed-bone meal Dicalcium Mineral supplements Guaranteed analysis phosphate Iodized salt Trace mineralized salt Vitamin A acetate Vitamin supplements Guaranteed potency Vitamins A, D, E VERNACULAR NAMES OF COMMON GRASSES: Scientific name Vernacular Name Cenchrus ciliaris Buffel grass/ Dhaman Chrysopogon Aucheri Khar Cynodon dactylon Bermuda grass/ khabbal Eleusine flagellifera chhimber Digitaria bicornis Crabgrass/pharion Cymbopogon jwarancusa khawai Diconthium annulatum Murgha CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS ON THE BASIS OF FEEDING HABITS: There are three main classes in which animals can be classified on the basis of their eating habits-Herbivores, Carnivores and Omnivores Classes Definition Example Animals that eat plants. They have sharp teeth Cow, deer, called molars and premolars for chewing food, Herbivores goat and herbivorous animals giraffe have mouth parts adapted to rasping or grinding. Animals which fed on flesh of other animals, Lion, tiger and Carnivores carnivores meaning “meat fox eaters” Bear, cow, Omnivores Animals that eat both animals and plants squirrel 34  Grazing systems: Three types of grazing systems Continuous grazing Rational grazing system Zero grazing system system Zero grazing is a system In the continuous grazing Rotational grazing is a system where the grass is system the pasture is not where a large pasture is harvested and fed fresh to divided into sub-pastures or divided into smaller housed cattle on a daily paddocks. Livestock are paddocks allowing livestock basis. It allows farms to allowed access to all the to be moved from one increase fresh grass pasture area at any given paddock to the other easily. utilisation and milk yield time. Continuous grazing Using this method cattle are from grass/forage where often creates overgrazed concentrated on a smaller area that farm may not have the areas, areas where of the pasture for a few days infrastructure to graze unfavorable plants go to then moved to cattle. seed, and weed issues. another section of pasture 35  BASICS OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT: LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS: 1. Rural Subsistence Small Holdings (55-60%) 2. Rural Market Oriented Small Holdings (20-25%) 3. Rural Commercial Medium Size Farming (10-15%) 4. Peri-urban Commercial Large Size Farming (6-8%) Metabolic water: Amount of water produced in the body during various metabolic activities. It comprises of 5-10% of total intake of the nutrient. Note: Water requirement is directly proportional to dry matter intake Exotic breeds of cattle:  Dairy breeds: -Jersey, Holstein-Friesian (HF), Brown Swiss, Ayrshire, Guernsey  Beef breeds: -Hereford, Angus, Shorthorn. Milking Methods: A. Hand milking: A common practice among individual farmers B. Machine milking: Commonly practised in an organized farm. Note:  Cow are milked from the left side  The hindquarters of the udder are slightly larger than the front ones and contain more milk.  The approximate ratio of milk is 60:40 (Hindquarter: Forequarter) for cattle. Methods of Drying: 1. Incomplete milking: Best method of drying off a cow 2. Intermittent milking 3. Complete cessation: Wrong method of drying off a cow Methods of age determination of animals: 1. By record keeping 2. By physical appearance of animal 3. By counting no. of horn rings (Age=N+2; where N is no. of horn ring)  This method is applicable to cattle/buffalo whose calving interval is 1year; in cattle, first horn ring appears at the age of 3 years. 3. By dentition: Most commonly used method for age determination Note:-  Full mouth condition: -Age at which all permanent teeth appear [(a) Sheep: 4 years (b) Horse: 4.5 years (c) Goat, Cattle & Buffalo: 5 years (d) Camel: 7 years] 36  Broken mouth condition: -Age at which one or more teeth have disappeared.  Gummer: - an animal that has lost it's all teeth.  Cheek teeth: Premolars& molars together known as cheek teeth  Age of the animal is determined by incisors of the lower jaw  Dental Star (mark on central pulp cavity of incisors) & Galvayne’s groove (a groove in upper corner incisor) are related to incisors of horses. Note:  Branding is most suitable for marking of cattle, buffaloes, camels &horses. It causes partial burning of tissue & produces a permanent scar. The lower part of the thigh is the best site for branding.  Tattooing is the best method for identification of sheep, goat &newborn calves. Best site for tattooing is inside the ear between large veins. Tattooing is not suitable for black coloured animals.  Ear notching is commonly used in pigs. It is done in a V-shape manner on the borders of the ear  Wing tagging is commonly used in poultry birds &done on the 1 st day of hatching  In the case of Sheep, tattooing & ear tagging are used for identification DIFFERENCE B/W TATTOO AND TAG: Tattoo Tag Tattoos are permanent identification of Ear tags are easy to read but not the animal that can not be read from permanent. the Distance 37 Cattle housing system: 1. Loose housing system 2. Conventional dairy barn/ Stanchion dairy barn Cow-shed arrangement: 1. Single row- If herd is small (less than 10 cows) 2. Double row- If herd is large (more than 10 cows) Methods of castration: A. Open method/surgical method- Removal of both testicles through incision B. Closed method- 1. Burdizzo castrator: It separately crushes each spermatic cord.  It is a bloodless castration  It is the best method of castration 2. By Rubber ring method Special points:  Castration in female is known as spaying or ovariohysterectomy (removal of both ovaries & uterus)  Castrated female is known as Spayed  Castrated fowl is known as Capon & process is caponisation  Castrated Tom (male cat) is known as Neuter & process is neutering Weaning: The process of separating the baby from its mother at a very early age, up to this age whole milk feeding is desired. Note: Early weaning is difficult in buffaloes due to high motherly instinct. 38  CASTRATION AND WEANING AGE: Animal Age of Castration Age of weaning Calf 8-10 weeks 90 days (8-12 weeks) Lamb 2 weeks 14 weeks Kid 2-4 weeks 16 weeks PREHENSILE ORGANS IN ANIMALS: Specie Organ Cow and buffalo Tongue Dogs and cats Forelimbs Camel Sensitive Mobile Lips Monkey Appendages and Tail Fowl Beak Swine Pointed lower lip Horse Upper lip, Tongue and the incisor teeth Sheep Clefted upper lip Dehorning/Disbudding: The process of removing horns/horn buds of an animal after birth.  Best age of dehorning in calf: before 10th day old (up to this time horn button does not attach to the skull) Methods of dehorning: 1. Chemical method - KOH (caustic potash) is used 2. Electrical method - Electrical dehorner (1000 Degree F/10 seconds) 3. Mechanical-by clipper saws or by rubber bands. Important Points:  It has been estimated that about 6-7 million buffalo/cattle male calves are available for fattening in Punjab. But the majority of these calves are sent to slaughter at 1-3 weeks of age.  Some calves are raised to 60-80 kg on extremely poor and unbalanced diets.  If these calves are saved and raised on balanced, fattening diets based on crop residues and agro-industrial by-products to gain a live weight of 250-300 kg, it is expected that total beef production could be doubled.  Though livestock production is very fragmented and most farm units are small and only 10 percent of the farms in Punjab hold from 10-20 buffalos/cows and 5 percent over 20 heads each. 39  A very effective way to prevent scours in calves is to vaccinate the dry cow with a scour vaccine before calving.  Mature cows should be vaccinated four to six weeks before freshening.  Heifers should be vaccinated two months before calving and boostered again one month before freshening.  Scour vaccines can include the rota and corona virus, E. coli, and/or Clostridium perfingens.  Calves Pens should be square and should provide 150 to 200 square feet of space.  After birth, the navel cord should be dipped (not sprayed) with a 7% tincture of iodine solution. True colostrum is obtained only from the first milking.  After the first milking and for the next two and a half days, the cow’s milk is called transition milk.  True colostrum contains twice as much dry matter and total solids, two to three times as many minerals, and five times as much protein as whole milk. Colostrum is lower in lactose, thus decreasing the incidence of diarrhea.  Calves are born with little defense or immunity against disease.  Holstein calves should be hand-fed 5 to 6 pints or 3 quarts of good quality colostrum within an hour of birth and again within 12 hours or the next regular feeding.  Within six hours after birth, the ability of the gut to absorb antibodies decreases by one-third. By 24 hours, the gut can absorb only 11% of what it originally could have absorbed at birth.  Also, at 24 hours of age, digestive enzymes break down and digest all of the antibodies.  Colostrum should be very thick and creamy. The quality of the colostrum can be determined using a colostrometer.  Superior quality colostrum contains greater than 50 mg/ml of immunoglobulins.  Newborn calves should not be fed colostrum that is obtained from cows testing positive for Johne’s disease.  Three to 5 half-gallon containers of quality colostrum should be stored in a non-frost-free freezer for up to one year for feeding to calves born to dams with mastitis or no milk.  After the initial feeding of colostrum, for the next three days, calves should receive transition milk from their dam or other cows in the herd all of which test negative for Johne’s disease.  Calves should be fed approximately 10% of their birth body weight.  Calves with diarrhea should receive an electrolyte solution and their regular allocation of milk.  Scouring calves can lose 10 to 12% of their body weight in water losses. Electrolytes should be given 30 minutes to 1 hour after feeding milk.  Calf starter and water should be fed to calves starting at four days of age.  Calves can be weaned from milk when they are eating daily 1.5 to 2 pounds of starter.  Hay should not be fed until calves are weaned and/or they are eight weeks of age. 40  WATER REQUIREMENT: Cows require at least 60liters of water/head/day and may need 100 liters or more depending upon yield. Water can be obtained from different sources like feed, ad-libitum consumption and from the body processes.Lactating cows in the tropic require 60-70L water/day for maintenance, plus an extra 4 to 5L for each litre of milk produced. Water requirement rise with air temperature. An increase of 4 degree centigrade will increase water requirements by 6 -7l/d. High yielding milking cows can drink 150-200 L water/d during the hot season. Expected water consumption of various classes and species of adult livestock in a temperate climate Stages of Dairy Cow:  Stage 1 – Pre-calving. 3 weeks before calving (Transition)  Stage 2 – Post-calving. Days 1 – 30 (Fresh cows)  Stage 3 – Early lactation. Days 31 – 130 (Peak milk production)  Stage 4 – Mid lactation. Days 131 – 230 (Settled period after mating for churning out milk solids)  Stage 5 – Late lactation  Stage 6 – Dry cow. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47  BASICS OF DAIRY SCIENCE: Note:  HTST is the modern method of pasteurization and used at commercial level  In Vacuum pasteurization, milk is pasteurized under reduced pressure by direct steam  Vacreator is used to remove feed & other volatile flavors from cream & pasteurize it for butter making Advantages & disadvantages of pasteurization:  Diminishes the nutritive value of milk  Reduces cream line or cream volume  It causes complete destruction of Phosphatase enzyme  It causes 100% destruction of pathogenic bacteria  It fails to destroy bacterial toxins in the milk  Rennet cannot clot the pasteurized milk. Note:  Index organism for pasteurization is Coxiella burnetti (causative agent of Q-fever)  Phosphatase enzyme in normally present in raw milk, but it is destroyed by pasteurization so phosphatase test for pasteurized milk is negative hence phosphatase test is used to detect inadequacy of pasteurization.  Plate count for pasteurized milk should not exceed 30,000 per ml of raw milk. Methylene blue reduction test: Objective: To determine the extent of bacterial contamination in milk Principle: Time taken to reduce M.B. is a measure of its bacterial contamination. Cow milk composition:  It contains 87% water & 13% total solids (TS/dry matter)  Total Solids is categorized under (a) Fat/Lipid (b) Solid Not Fat (SNF)  Fat includes: Phospholipids, Cholesterol, Carotene & Fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K)  SNF includes: Lactose(milk sugar), Proteins, Ash(minerals) &others  Milk proteins includes- (a) Casein protein (b) Whey proteins/milk serum proteins  Whey proteins includes: α-lactalbumin & β-lactoglobulin  Riboflavin is a greenish- yellow pigment that provides characteristic colour to whey. Note:  Cow milk contains 3% casein while buffalo milk contains 4.3% casein  Casein contributes about 80% of total milk protein  Casein exists in milk in the form of Calcium-caseinate-phosphate complex  Casein is responsible for viscosity & white colour of milk  There are three types of casein protein: α, β, γ 48  α -casein consists of two components namely αs-casein (calcium-sensitive casein) and K-casein (calcium-insensitive casein)  αs-casein is precipitated by calcium ion while K-casein is not precipitated by calcium ion. Milking methods: A. Hand milking: Most common practice among individual farmers B. Machine milking: Practiced in organized government, Commercial/ Corporate & military dairy farms. Note:  The cow should be milked from the left side  First few strips of milk should not mix with rest of the milk because fore- milk contains large no. of bacteria. Machine milking:  It performs two basic functions: (a) It opens the streak canal with partial vacuum, allowing the continuous flow of milk (b) It massages the teats that prevent congestion of blood in the teat. Note:  Minimum herd size for machine milking is 20  Recommended vacuum in machine milking is 10-15 inches  The optimum pulsation rate in machine milking: 60 cycles/minute  Pulsation rate should not less than 40 cycles/minute & not more than 120 cycles per minute  Pulsator is also known as “heart of milking machine”  Pulsation ratio of milking machine- (a) For cattle: 60/40 (b) For buffalo: 50/50  Ideal vacuum of milking machine- (a) For cattle: 352 mmHg (b) For buffalo: 400 mmHg Colostrum/1st milk/Beestings:  Colostrum is fed to newborn calf @ 10 % of its body wt. (or) 2-2.5 liters per day up to 3-4 days.  Placental transfer of antibodies does not occur in ruminants so their neonates depend upon colostrum as a source of antibodies.  Colostrums provide passive immunity to the calf.  It act as laxative & clears the meconium (1st faeces voided by new born calf)  Colostrum of ruminant contains a trypsin inhibitor that protects the immunoglobulins from digestion in G.I.T. of the calf.  Milk lost its colostral property within 3-4 days after parturition. 49 Note:  Predominant immunoglobulin in bovine colostrum is IgG while in human colostrum is IgA  Immune factors present in bovine colostrum are lactoferrin & immunoglobulins like IgG > IgM > IgA > IgG 2 (according to decreasing order of their concentration).  Lactoferrin is an iron-binding protein, very important during mammary involution.  High yielding breed produce lower fat %  Final stripping contains higher fat percentage than foremilk.  Evening milk contains higher fat than morning milk. Recknagel phenomenon:  The specific gravity of freshly drawn milk is low. It increases by 0.001 as time advances. Note: (1) Specific gravity: Specific gravity of milk = 1+ CLR/1000 (where CLR is Corrected Lactometer Reading)  The specific gravity of water is one  Specific gravity of milk is lowered by addition of water or by addition of cr