Animal Nutrition and Feeding PDF

in ==  COURSE DESCRIPTION ========================================= 1. Know the nutrient composition and nutritional characteristics of feeds and feedstuff; 2. Discuss the digestion, absorption and metabolism of different nutrients; 3. Understand the nutrient req...

in ==  COURSE DESCRIPTION ========================================= 1. Know the nutrient composition and nutritional characteristics of feeds and feedstuff; 2. Discuss the digestion, absorption and metabolism of different nutrients; 3. Understand the nutrient requirements and nutrient utilization of farm animals; 4. Formulate balance rations to meet the physiological needs of farm animals; and, R COURSE REQUIREMENTS ===================== 1. Regularly attend the class 2. Have active class participation 3. Take the oral and written quizzes 4. Take and pass the required periodical examination; and 5. Submit the required activities and laboratory works before the end of the term  GRADING SYSTEM ====================================== Module Class Requirements - 60% Midterm/Final Examination - 4[0%] Total 100%  COURSE CONTENT ================ **Module I** **INTRODUCTION AND NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF** ---------------- ------------------------------------------------------------ **FEEDS AND FEEDSTUFFS** Definition of Terms related to Animal Nutrition Classes of Nutrients, their Compositions and Functions Classification of Feedstuff Nutrient Requirements for various Physiological Activities **Module II** **EVALUATION OF FEEDSTUFF FOR FARM** **ANIMALS** Analytical Methods for Nutrient Comparison Proximate Analysis Van Soest (detergent) Method of Forage Evaluation Other Methods for Feed Analysis Feeding Trial and Digestion or Metabolism Trial **Module III** **DIGESTION, ABSORPTION OF DIFFERENT** **NUTRIENTS** Digestive System Nutrient Digestion and Absorption Metabolism of Absorbed Nutrients Module IV FEED FORMULATION -------------------------- Lesson 1 Guidelines for Feed Formulation Lesson 2 Methods of Feed Formulation Lesson 3 Other Calculation Relevant to Nutrition and Production   REFERENCES =================================== **[oduc](https://med.libretexts.org/Courses/American_Public_University/APUS%3A_An_Introdu)tion\_to\_Nutrition** **fermentation/glycolysis/v/glycolysis** **Animal ScienceUniversity of Illinois, Urbana** **A&M University** AND FEEDSTUFFS -------------- Definition of Terms related to -- ----------------------------------- Animal Nutrition Classes of Nutrients, their Compositions and Functions Classification of Feedstuff Nutrient Requirements for various Physiological Activities **MODULE I** **[INTRODUCTION AND NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF FEEDS AND]** **[FEEDSTUFFS]** INTRODUCTION ============= **This module enables to introduce, understand and apply basic concepts in teaching animal nutrition and feeding in the primary grades. It is expected that the content lessons on this module will enable you to gain knowledge and skills in teaching animal nutrition and feeding.** 1. define and understand term related to animal nutrition. 2. appraise the nutrients and it's source. 3. justify the important role of feed nutrients in the whole process. 4. learn and understand the functions of different nutrients in animal production. 5. learn and understand how proximate feed analysis is done in different feedstuff. DIRECTIONS / MODULE ORGANIZER ============================= **There are four lessons in the module. Read each lessons carefully then answers the self-check/activity/summative test to find out how much you have benefited form it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output to your subject professor.** **In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your subject professor during the scheduled face-to-face meeting.** **Good luck and happy reading!!!** **LESSON 1.** [Animal nutrients](https://animalnutrition.imedpub.com/) are provided by food. Nutrients are essential for growth and maintenance of the body even some nutrients provide energy. Macro nutrients and micro nutrients both are essential for health. For example nutrition for dogs they need carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in order to gain energy. And for Poultry nutrition should include fats, amino acids, proteins, minerals and water for their growth and development. And for Bovine nutrition should need proteins, phosphorous and pro vitamin A. Water soluble vitamins like B-complex vitamins and c vitamins and Fat soluble vitamins like A, D, E and K are the examples for micro nutrients. Animal nutrition focuses on the dietary needs of domesticated animals, primarily those in agriculture and food production. Meeting livestock nutritional requirements is extremely important in maintaining acceptable performance of neonatal, growing, finishing and breeding animals. - - - 1. Animal nutrition 2. Absorption 3. Digestion 4. Metabolism 5. Nutrients 6. ME 7. DMI 8. Dry Matter 9. TDN 10. NE **LESSON 2.** FUNCTIONS =========  Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the six nutrients ------------------------------------------------ I. WATER A. General a. Cheapest and most abundant nutrient. b. Makes up to 65-85% of animal body weight at birth and 45-60% of adult body weight. c. Accounts for 90-95% of blood and many tissues contain 70-90% water. d. Percentage of body water decreases with animal age and has an increase relationship with body fat. e. Found in the animal body as: 1. Intracellular water -- mainly in muscles and skin 2. Extracellular water -- mainly in interstitial fluids, blood plasma, lymph, synovial and cerebrospinal fluids. B. Functions and Deficiencies f. Functions 3. Transport of nutrients and excretions 4. Chemical reactions and solvent properties 5. Body temperature regulations 6. Maintain shape body cells 7. Lubricates and cushion joints and organs of the body cavity. g. Deficiencies 8. Reduced feed intake and reduced feed palatability 9. Weight loss due to dehydration 10. Increased secretions of nitrogen and electrolytes such as Na and K C. Sources of Water in the Animal 1. Drinking water -- consumption affected by many factors 2. Water contained in or on feed -- about 8 -- 30% water 3. Metabolic process -- may account for 5 -- 10% total water intake D. Water Losses from the Animal Body 1. Urine 2. Feces 3. Vaporization from lungs 4. Sweat from sweat glands II. CARBOHYDRATES A. General 1. Made up of C (40%), H (7%), and O (53%) by molecular weight. 2. Include sugar, starch, cellulose and gums. 3. Very little occurs as such in animal body. 4. CHO make up approximately ¾ of plant dry weight and thus the large part of animals food supply. 5. Form by photosynthesis in plants. B. Structure 6. Structure consists of C atoms arranged in chains to which H and O are attached. 7. May contain an aldehyde or ketone group in their structure. C. Functions 8. Source of energy 9. Source of heat 10. Building stone of other nutrients 11. Stored in animal body when converted to fats III. FATS (LIPIDS or ETHER EXTRACTS) D. Functions 12. Energy supply 13. Source of heat, insulation and protection for animal body. 14. Source of essential fatty acids 15. Serve as a carrier for absorption of fat soluble vitamins. 16. Storage fuel Contains twice as much energy as carbohydrates ---------------------------------------------- 6. Plasma membrane structure 7. Hormone production 8. Myelin sheaths of nerve fibers 9. Bile salts 10. Insulation and cushioning 11. Vitamin D synthesis 12. Production of some blood clotting factors IV. PROTEIN A. Functions 1. Basic structure of animal body (collagen, elastin, contractile protein, keratin protein, blood proteins) 2. Body metabolism -- enzymes (digestion process, degradative process, synthesis process) hormones and lipid transport, immune bodies, hereditary transmissions. 3. Source of energy after deamination 4. Muscle contraction 5. Structural components of cellular membranes 6. Major component of connective tissues 7. Emergency fuel source 8. Oxygen binding 9. Major component of blood clotting factors, antibodies, neurotransmitters. V. MINERALS B. Functions (General) 10. Skeletal formation and maintenance (Ca, P, Mg, Cu, Mn) 11. Function of protein synthesis (P, S, Zn) 12. Fluid balance (osmotic pressure and excretion) (Na, Cl, K) 13. Oxygen transport by hemoglobin and myoglobin (Fe, Cu) 14. Regulating acid-balance of the entire system (Na, Cl, K) 15. Activators and/or components of enzyme systems (Ca, P, K, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn) 16. Mineral-vitamin relationship (Ca, P, Co, Se) 17. Structure of bones and teeth 18. Component of macromolecules and electrolytes 19. Buffer stomach acid +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Minerals/Sour | | **Deficiency/Sy | **Major** | | ces** | | mptoms** | | | | | | **Interrelation | | | | | ship | | | | | and | | | | | Toxicities** | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | Calcium (Milk, | Bone and tooth | Rickets (young) | Excess PO~4~ | | legumes, | formation, | | | | | Blood | Osteomalacia | Excess Mg | | steamed bone | coagulation, | (adult) | | | meal, calcium | Muscle | | | | phosphate, | contraction, | Tetany | | | ground oyster | | | | | | Nerve | Slow growth and | | | shell) | functions, Cell | bone | | | | | development, | | | | permeability, | | | | | Enzyme | Thin-shelled | | | | | egg | | | | activation | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Phosphorous | Bone and tooth | Rickets (young) | Mg causes | | | formation, | | | | (Milk and egg, | Phosphorylation | Osteomalacia | | | oilseeds and | , | (adult) | | | hulls cereals, | | | | | steamed bone | High energy | Rough hair | | | meal, Dicalcium | phosphate bond, | coat, pica | | | phosphate, | PO~4~ chief | | | | | anion radical | Lowered | | | | of | appetite Slow | | | | | growth and low | | | | | | | | | | utilization of | | | | | feed | | | | | | | | | | Lower blood | | | | | plasma | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Tripoly- | intercellular | phosphorous | decrease in | | | fluid | | | | phosphate) | | | | | | Acid base | | | | | | | | | | balance, Enzyme | | | | | | | | | | synthesis, | | | | | | | | | | Released body | | | | | energy, Part of | | | | | DNA and RNA | | | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | Magnesium (All | Enzymes | Vasodilation, | Excess upsets | | deeds | activator | | | | | | Hyperirritabili | Ca and P | | particularly | primarily in | ty | | | plant products | | with | | | -- leafy | glycolytic | convulsions, | | | vegetable and | system; | loss of | | | | | equilibrium and | | | cereal grains) | Bone formation | trembling, | | | | | Tetany, Lowered | | | | | appetite | | | | | (anorexia), | | | | | Profuse | | | | | salivation | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Sodium | Major cation of | Reduced growth | in non- | | | extracellular | or | | | (Common salts, | fluid where it | | | | cured meats, | is involved in | loss weight | | | cheese) | osmotic | | | | | pressure and | Eye disturbance | | | | acid-base | with corneal | | | | | lesions, | | | | equilibrium, | Reproduction | | | | | impairment | | | | Preservation of | (infertility | | | | normal muscle | | | | | cell | -- males, | | | | irritability, | delayed sexual | | | | Cell | maturity -- | | | | | female) | | | | permeability, | | | | | | Craving of salt | | | | Component of | or | | | | bile which aids | | | | | in fat | eating of soil | | | | digestion | | | | | | Reduced | | | | | appetite | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Chlorine | Major anion | Hydrochloremic | | | | involved in | | | | (Common salt) | osmotic | alkalosis | | | | pressure and | | | | | acid-base | | | | | balance, | | | | | Hydrochloric | | | | | acid in | | | | | digestion | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Potassium | Major cation of | Hypokalemia: | | | | intracellular | | | | (Normal | fluid where it | lethargic | | | rations) | is involved in | condition with | | | | osmotic | high incidence | | | | pressure and | of comas and | | | | acid-base | death, | | | | balance, muscle | Diarrhea, | | | | activity, | distended | | | | Maintenance of | abdomen and | | | | electrolytes | untidy | | | | balance, Enzyme | appearance | | | | | | | | | activator | Heart lesions, | | | | | | | | | | Loss weight and | | | | | | | | | | reduced | | | | | appetite Muscle | | | | | weakness | | | | | | | | | | Poor wool | | | | | growth | | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | Sulfur (Protein | Sulfur | Primarily | | | supplements, | containing | growth effect | | | forages, | amino acid | due to sulfur | | | cereals) | | amino acids | | | | SH group | requirement for | | | | function in | | | | | tissue | protein | | | | respiration | synthesis Low | | | | | feed efficiency | | | | Synthesis of | | | | | amino acids in | Slow wool | | | | ruminants | growth | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Iron (Egg, | Cellular | Hypochromicmicr | Ca-P ratio | | soil, forages, | respiration | ocytic | | | grains, iron | | anemia Thumps | | | injection, | (hemoglobin) | in pigs | | | liver, ferrous | | | | | | Component of | Diarrhea/ loss | | | sulfate) | many enzymes | of appetite | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Copper | Cofactor in | Fading hair | | | | | coat o lack of | | | (Feedstuff, | several | wool | | | | oxidationreduct | | | | CuSO~4~) | ion | Nervous | | | | enzyme | symptoms or | | | | | atoxia | | | | synthesis, | | | | | | Lameness, | | | | Hemoglobin | swelling of | | | | | joints, | | | | synthesis, | fragility of | | | | | bones | | | | Bone Formation, | | | | | | Anemia | | | | | | | | | | Stunted growth | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | Erythropoises, | Diarrhea or | | | | | ataxic | | | | Co-enzymes | | | | | system, Hair | gait | | | | | | | | | pigmentation, | Loss condition | | | | Reproduction, | | | | | Collagen and | Aortic pressure | | | | elastin | in swine and | | | | synthesis, iron | poultry | | | | utilization | Depraved | | | | | appetite | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Zinc (Forages, | Cofactor of | Poor hair or | | | ZnO, ZnCO~3~ or | several enzymes | feather | | | | systems | development, | | | ZnSO~4~) | (peptidases, | Rough and | | | | carbonic | thickened skin | | | | anhydrase) | or | | | | | parakeratosis, | | | | | | | | | | Anorexia, | | | | | | | | | | Hyperkeratosis | | | | | in | | | | | | | | | | chicks | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Manganese | Activator of | Poor growth | | | | enzymes systems | | | | (Feed, nuts, | (oxidative | Shortened long | | | seeds, milk, | phosphorylation | bones Impaired | | | legumes and | , | reproduction | | | | amino acid | | | | cereals) | | (testicular | | | | metabolism, | | | | | | degeneration in | | | | fatty acid | males, | | | | | defective | | | | synthesis, | | | | | cholesterol | ovulation in | | | | metabolism) | female) Perosis | | | | Bone formation | or slipped | | | | (organic | tendon in | | | | matrix) | chicken Lower | | | | | hatchability, | | | | Growth and | egg shell | | | | | strength, | | | | reproduction | lameness, | | | | | stiffness | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Cobalt (Cobalt | Components of | Anemia | | | | | | | | pellets/salts) | Vit. B12 | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Iodine (Iodized | Thyroxine | Goiter, still | Acute toxicity | | salts, | | births, hair | | | cod-liver | | less pigs, wool | | | | | less lambs | | | oil) | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ VI. VITAMINS - organic substance essential for the maintenance of health and life of farm animal though needed in very minute amounts. C. Functions 20. Coenzymes for many metabolic pathways 21. Antioxidants 22. Component of visual pigment 23. Hormone (Vitamin D) +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | **Main | | **Major** | | | Function** | | | | | | | **Interrelation | | | | | ship | | | | | and | | | | | Toxicities** | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | A | Bone formation | | | | | | | | | (Yellow corn, | Vision(rhodopsi | | | | grasses, egg | n) | | | | yolk, liver, | | | | | fish liver oil, | Epithelial | | | | milk fat, green | tissue | | | | vegetables) | | | | | | (digestive, | | | | | respiratory, | | | | | reproductive) | | | | | Glucose | | | | | synthesis | | | | | Growth or | | | | | cellular | | | | | metabolism | | | | | | | | | | Proper function | | | | | of immune | | | | | | | | | | system | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | D (Sterol) | Bone formation | Rickets | | | | (Ca, P | (growing | | | D~2~ -- | absorption from | | | | | renal | | | | ergocalciferol | | | | | | tubules, | | | | D~3~ -- | osteoblast | | | | | formation, | | | | cholecalciferol | | | | | (Fish liver | calcification) | | | | oil, irradiated | | | | | yeast, egg | CHO metabolism | | | | yolk, milk fat, | | | | | field cured | (phosphorylatio | | | | hays, exposure | n) | | | | to | | | | | | Growth | | | | sunlight, | | | | | | | | | | commercial | | | | | preparations) | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | E (tocapherol) | Antioxidants | Cardiac muscle | | | (Cereal grains, | | | | | egg yolk, oils | Muscle | | | | of soybeans, | structure | | | | peanuts, cotton | | | | | | (dystrophy) | | | | | | | | | | Reproduction | | | | | | | | | | (seminiferous | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | seed, beef | tubules) | | | | liver, wheat | | | | | germ oil, | Hatchability of | | | | commercial | eggs | | | | preparations) | | | | | | Cell nucleus | | | | | | | | | | activity | | | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | K | Prothrombin | increase blood | | | | | | | | (Green leafy | (normal blood | | | | plants, liver, | | | | | egg yolk, fish | clotting | | | | meal, synthetic | formation) | | | | forms | | | | | (menadione)) | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Thiamine (B~1~) | Coenzyme | Reproductive | | | | | failure | | | (Milk and milk | (Thiamine | | | | products, | pyrophosphate) | | | | brewer's yeast, | Decarboxylation | | | | wheat germ, | of α-keto acids | | | | unmilled | | | | | cereals, | Promote normal | | | | | appetite and | | | | grain by- | | | | | | digestion | | | | products, lean | | | | | pork, liver, | Nervous system | | | | good quality | healthy, | | | | hay, | prevent | | | | | | | | | synthetic | irritability | | | | forms) | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Riboflavin | Coenzyme | Ectodermal and | | | (B~2~) | (Flavin | | | | | mononucleotide, | | | | (Milk, cheese, | Oxidize Adenine | | | | liver, kidney, | dinucleotide) | | | | eggs, fish, | Dehydrogenase | | | | green forage, | | | | | oil meals, | Energy transfer | | | | fermentation | | | | | products, | Protein | | | | commercial | metabolism | | | | preparations) | | | | | | Xanthine | | | | | oxidase | | | | | | | | | | Healthy skin | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Pantothenic | Coenzyme A | Poor growth, | | | acid (liver, | | | | | egg yolk, milk, | (Acyl transfer) | | | | hay, peanut | | | | | meal, cane | | | | | molasses, | | | | | yeast, rice, | | | | | wheat brans, | | | | | cereal grains | | | | | and byproducts, | | | | | royal | | | | | | | | | | jellys of bees) | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Niacin or | Coenzyme (DPN, | Dermattis, | | | | | diarrhea, | | | Nicotinic acid | TPN) | | | | (Milk, meat, | | | | | eggs, | Hydrogen | | | | | transport | | | | green | | | | | | Spared by the | | | | vegetables, | amino acid | | | | peanut butter, | | | | | animal and fish | tryptophan | | | | by-products, | | | | | | Health of | | | | distiller's | digestive, | | | | grain and | nervous | | | | yeast, | | | | | | system | | | | fermentation | | | | | soluble, oil | | | | | meals) | | | | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | Pyridoxine | Coenzyme | Convulsions, | | | (B~6~) | | neuritis, | | | | (Pyridoxal | | | | (Yeast, liver, | | | | | muscle, meat, | phosphate) | | | | egg yolk, milk, | | | | | cereal grains, | Amino acid | | | | vegetables) | | | | | | decarboxylation | | | | | , | | | | | | | | | | transanimation, | | | | | | | | | | removal of | | | | | | | | | | sulfuhydryl | | | | | groups | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Biotin | Coenzyme -- | Disturbance of | | | | | | | | (Yeast, organ | carboxylase | | | | meats, whole | Carboxylation | | | | grains, | | | | | molasses, | Fat synthesis | | | | | | | | | milk) | Deamination of | | | | | certain enzyme | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Folic acid | One carbon | | | | | | | | | (Green leafy | carrier | | | | plants, organ | | | | | meats, cereals, | Synthesis | | | | | purines, | | | | animal by- | certain methyl | | | | | | | | | products, | groups | | | | soybeans) | | | | | | Erythropoiesis | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Choline | Methyl donor | Renal tubular | | | | Lipotropic | | | | (Milk, egg, | substance: | | | | meat, | Acetylchloride, | | | | | phospholipids | | | | fish, fats) | | | | | | Essential in | | | | | | | | | | building | | | | | | | | | | ,maintenance of | | | | | | | | | | cell structure | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | Transmission of | | | | | nerve impulses | | | | | Fat metabolism | | | | | in the liver | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Cynocobalamine | Labile methyl, | | | | | purine group | | | | (B~12~) | | | | | | synthesis | | | | (Milk, meat, | | | | | fish meal, | CHO, fats | | | | animal | | | | | byproduct, | metabolism | | | | commercial | Isomerization | | | | preparations) | | | | | | reactions | | | | | | | | | | Nucleic acid | | | | | | | | | | synthesis | | | | | | | | | | Known as animal | | | | | protein factor | | | | | | | | | | (APF) | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Vit. C | Collagen | | | | | formation | | | | (Citrus fruits, | Formation, | | | | tomatoes, green | maintenance of | | | | leafy | | | | | materials, | intracellular | | | | potatoes, | | | | | synthetic | materials in | | | | preparations) | | | | | | bones, soft | | | | | tissues | | | | | | | | | | Tissue catalyst | | | | | | | | | | Antioxidant | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Related | | | | | compounds | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Inositol | Lipotropic | | | | | action -- rat | | | | (Plant products | diets | | | | in the organic | | | | | | | | | | phosphorous | | | | | substance | | | | | phytin) | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Paraaminobenzoi | Anti-gray-hair | | | | c | | | | | | factor on mice, | | | | acid (PABA) | | | | | | rats | | | | (synthetic | | | | | preparation) | Growth | | | | | stimulant | | | | | | | | | | in chicks | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ **LESSON 3.**  CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDSTUFF ============================= Feeding farm animals is a process of priority decision-making involving at least two general conditions. The first is an abundance of food material which is not in a usable form or aesthetically acceptable as human food, and the second is a surplus of food material accompanied by a standard of living sufficiently high that the nutrient losses involved in feeding animals are compensated for by the increased desirability and nutritional excellence of foods of animal origin. Decisions relevant to the first set of conditions include determining the optimum numbers and kinds of animals that can be productively supported by the available feedstuffs. Efforts should be made to maximize production; but also to allocate nutrient supplies in a competitive situation for the maximum benefit to the society concerned. These decisions are among the most critical that civilization faces today. Decisions can be made only on the basis of reliable information concerning the composition of all feed materials used in animal feeding. This information is fundamental in assigning priorities to the use of available feed supplies in animal agriculture (FAO, n. d.). The various feeds and fodders used in livestock feeding are broadly classified as: A) Roughages; B) Concentrates; C) Feed supplements and Feed additives. Roughages -- Roughages are the feed stuffs which contain more than 18 percent crude fiber and less than 60 percent Total Digestible Nutrients. Due to higher crude fiber content, they are more bulky and have low digestibility as compared to concentrates. 1) Maintenance type -- Containing 3-5 percent DCP e.g. Green maize, oat. 2) Non-maintenance type -- containing less than 3 percent DCP e.g. Straw,. 3) Production type -- containing more than 5 percent DCP e.g. Berseem, lucerne. (DCP -- Digestible Crude Protein) The roughages are further classified into two major group as: 1) Green / succulent roughages -- They contain about 60-90 percent moisture eg. Pastures, cultivated fodders, tree leaves, root crops and silages. 2) Dry roughages -- They contain about 10-15 percent moisture e.g. Straw, and Hay. Root crops -- cassava, gabi, camote Oil/Fats -- coconut oil, fish oil, tallow iii\. Minerals and Vitamins Supplements phosphate, Tricalcium phosphate, Mono Dicalcium a. Degree of Water Content - Soilage -- green fodder that are cut by human and feed to the animal fresh - Pasture -- green fodder/grasses that are graze by the animal in the field - Napier grass -- *Pennisetum purpureum* - Guinea grass -- *Panicum maximum* - Para grass -- *Brachiaria mutica* - Signal grass -- *Brachiaria decumbens* - Star grass -- *Cynodon plectostachyus* - Bagocboc -- *Themeda triadra* - Cogon -- *Imperata cyclindrica* - Alabang X -- *Andropogon nodosus* - Centrosema -- *Centrosema pubescens* - Kudzu -- *Peuraria phaseoliodes* - Calopogonium -- *Calopogonium muconiodes* - Stylo -- *Stylosanthes guyanensis* - Pintoi peanut -- *Arachis pintoi* - Ipil-ipil -- *Leucaena leucocephala* - Kakawate -- *Glyricidia sepium* - Silage -- grass or crop residues that are being process (compressed and stored under anaerobic condition in a container called silo) thru fermentation before being fed to animals. - Hay -- are either grasses or legumes consisting of the leaves, flowers and stems being cut and cured either by sun or air drying, by dehydrating green forages to a loisture content of 15% or less. - Straw -- are mostly from cereal crop residues which contain high percentage of indigestible fiber and are low in digestible carbohydrates, protein, vitamins and minerals b. Level of Contents **LESSON 4**  **NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS FOR VARIOUS PHYSIOLOGICAL** ACTIVITIES ========== "Nutrition involves various chemical and physiological activities which transform food elements into body elements." This simple (Maynard, 1979) definition describes the science of nutrition, a chemistry-based discipline interacting to varying degrees with many of the other physical and biological sciences. This definition also implicates nutrition as one of the environmental factors that influences the ability of animals to attain their genetic potential for growth, reproduction, longevity, or response to stimuli. Therefore, the nutritional status of animals involved in [biomedical research](https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/biomedical-research) has a profound effect on the quality of experimental results. The process of supplying adequate nutrition for laboratory animals involves establishing requirements for approximately 50 essential nutrients, formulating and manufacturing diets with the required nutrient concentrations, and managing numerous factors related to diet quality. Factors potentially affecting diet quality include the bioavailability of nutrients, payability or acceptance by animals, procedures involved in preparation or storage, and the concentration of chemical contaminants ([Lewis,](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780120749034500121#!) 2006). 1. Each animal has a maintenance requirement for feed/ration on the various nutrients for the following purposes: a. To maintain body weight or size (no gain or loss) b. To support the essential life processes (respiration, circulation, normal muscle activity, etc.) c. To maintain body temperature d. To maintain the different body secretions 2. Basal metabolism or Fasting Catabolism -- refers to the minimum energy expenditure to maintain essential life processes. The starting point in determining the maintenance requirements for energy of an animal. Basal metabolism (BM) is measured in kilocalories and can be estimated using the following formula derived from experimental data: Where: W~kg~ = animal's body wt. in kg W~kg~^0.75^ = body wt raised to the ¾ power W~kg~ MBS --------- -------- 1.0 5.62 50.0 18.80 100.0 31.62 150.0 42.86 200.0 53.18 300.0 72.08 400.0 89.44 500.0 105.74 1,000.0 177.80 3. Energy requirement for maintenance is related to the body surface area or metabolic body size, ex. ¾ power of the live weight. This made up of the net energy (for Basal metabolism) and a so-called "activity increment" (refers to the energy expenditure due to normal body movements and associated activities. E.g. for chicken, + 50%; cattle and swine, +20-30%; grazing cattle, another + 40%. 4. Protein requirement for maintenance is made up of two portions: a. Endogenous urinary nitrogen (EUN) = the normal wear and tear of the body organs and tissues. On an energy adequate, N-free diet, EUN is about 2 mg N per basal kilocalorie. b. The "adult growth" functions -- e.g. feathers, hairs, hoofs, nails, etc. B. GROWTH a. Increase in the number of cells b. Increase in size of the cells. This consists primarily of the build-up of skeletal structure, muscles and organs, and fat tissues. Nutritionally, it means largely increase in minerals (mainly Ca and P) and protein. 2. Protein requirements for growth. 3. Energy requirements for growth. 4. Ways of energy restriction -- to limit the energy intake of an animal, either or both of these ways may be followed: a. Limit the total feed intake b. Lower the energy content or density of the ration -- example, make the ration bulky 5. Growth rates and feed efficiency c. Hereditary (breed or strain of the animal) d. Environment (nutrition and management). Under Philippine conditions, following are the normal values for reasonably good rations. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | | **FCR (kg feed/kg | | | | live weight gain)** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Growing pigs | | 2.5 -- 3.5 | | | | | | (crossbred) | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Growing cattle | | 11.0 -- 12.0 | | | | | | (native) | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Growing cattle | | 10.0 -- 11.0 | | (native x zebu | | | | | | | | grades) | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Broilers (modern | 2.5 -- 1.8 (6 -- 7 | 2.0 -- 2.3 | | | wks) | | | strains) | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ C. REPRODUCTION a. Female's coming into estrus, subsequent conception and development of the fetus until birth. b. Male's maintenance of the integrity of the reproductive organs and its sperm cells and sec hormones. 2. The substantial requirement, especially of energy, protein, calcium, phosphorous is for the development of the fetus ("pre-natal growth" but considered part of reproduction requirement of the dam) particularly during the last quarter of the gestation period. 3. Too serve nutrient deficiencies for a long period can be a. Cessation of estrus b. Resorption of fetus c. Abortion d. Stillbirth or weak young D. MILK PRODUCTION 1. Lactation in any species requires substantial nutrients for synthesis of adequate amount of milk to nourish the young. This additional requirement above those for maintenance and possibly growth in the case of still growing breeding female is much more pronounced in the dairy animal, especially the dairy cow. Dairy type animals produce milk for human consumption and relatively very much less for the nourishment of their young. 2. Good dairy cows in the temperate countries like US yield about 25-30 kg milk daily in a 305 day lactation period. Relatively good dairy cows in the Philippines and in most of the tropics correspondingly yield only about 8-12 kg daily. Genetics and climate (direct and indirect effects) have very much to do with this difference. 3. Commercial dairying would generally need intensive grazing management or intensive forage production, compared with extensive pasture or range grazing in cattle ranching for beef production. Dairy cows need improved forages for efficient and economical production. As much of good quality forage that a dairy cow can and should consume, would generally be able to meet only the requirements for maintenance and the production of not more than 5 kg milk daily in the Philippines. Energy rather than CP seems to be more critical problem in meeting adequate needs of the dairy cows in the Philippines. Concentrate would be needed to provide that energy deficit. A common "rule of thumb" is to feed 1 kg of good concentrate mixture for every 2.5 kg of milk in excess of 5 kg if the forage is of good quality. 4. Milk constituents and blood sources: Casein Blood amino acids Immune globulins Blood globulins Fat Fatty acids, acetate Lactose Glucose Minerals Minerals in blood Vitamins Vitamins in blood E. EGG PRODUCTION a. Rate of egg production b. Egg size or weight c. Egg shell thickness d. Body size of layer 2. The principal factor affecting egg shell quality is dietary calcium. Egg shell quality can be measured by specific gravity of egg, shell thickness, shell smoothness, breaking strength, percentage of crack or shell appearance. 3. Portion of nutrient requirements of egg type chicken.\*\*\* +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | | **o-6 | **6-14 | **24-30 | **Lying** | | | weeks** | weeks** | weeks** | | +=============+=============+=============+=============+=============+ | | | 16 | 14 | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | | | | | 2,750 | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | | | | | 0.65 | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Methionine, | | | | 0.32 | | % | | | | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Methionine | | | | 0.55 | | + Cystine, | | | | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | | | | | 3.40 | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | | | | | 0.32 | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ 1. Younger animals needed more nutrients than adult animals. Justify your answer. 2. Which birds need more nutrient, 45 days old broiler or laying hens? Explain your answer. MODULE SUMMARY ============== In this module you have learned about the nutrient composition of feeds and feedstuffs. Lesson 2 identified and discussed classes of nutrients, their compositions and functions Lesson 3 familiarized and collected samples based on the classification of feedstuff Lesson 4 explained and correlate the nutrient requirements for various physiological activities of different stages in life cycle of animals Congratulations! You have just finished and learned many things in this Module I, now you are ready to evaluate how much have you have benefited from your reading by answering the summative test. GOOD LUCK! and ENJOY! SUMMATIVE TEST ============== 1. Organic molecules, Except: a. carbohydrates b. lipids c\. minerals d. vitamins 2. Substance acts on skeletal formation, Except: a. Ca b. Fe c. Cu d. Mg 3. Promote normal appetite & digestion: a. B1 b. B2 c. B6 d. B12 4. Fat soluble vitamins: a. cyanocobalamine b. pyridoxine c. thiamine d. tocopherol 5. Macro-minerals: a. Cu b. Co c. Na d. Se 6. The feed given to the animals with balance nutrients needed by the animals within 24 hours: a. feed b. nutrient c. diet d. ration 7. Laying hen needed, CP %: a. 14 b. 17 c. 19 d. 16 8. Component of visual pigment: a. vitamins b. minerals c. carbohydrates d. protein 9. Calcium levels which cause decrease egg shell quality in chickens: a. 3.5 b\. 3 c. 2.5 d. 1.5 1. Explain animal nutrition. (10 points) 2. Why is that nutrients are needed during various physiological activities of animals at different stages in their life? (30 points) 31 EVALUATION OF FEEDSTUFF FOR FARM ANIMALS ---------------------------------------- Lesson 1 Analytical Methods for Nutrient ---------- --------------------------------- Comparison Lesson 2 Proximate Analysis Lesson 3 Van Soest (detergent) Method of Forage Evaluation Lesson 4 Other Methods for Feed Analysis Lesson 5 Feeding Trial and Digestion or Metabolism Trial **MODULE II** **[EVALUATION OF FEEDSTUFF FOR FARM ANIMALS]** INTRODUCTION ------------- **This module enables to introduce, understand and apply the feedstuff evaluation in teaching animal nutrition and feeding in the primary grades. It is expected that the content lessons on this module will enable you to gain knowledge and skills in teaching animal nutrition and feeding.**  1. discuss the various analytical methods used to determine the nutrient composition of feedstuff. 2. explain how feed samples should be collected for analysis and how a nutrient composition is reported. 3. describe procedures in determining the apparent digestibility of feedstuffs. 4. describe the various energy measurements and explain their usage in diet formulation or evaluation. 5. describe how feeds can be physically and economically evaluated. DIRECTIONS / MODULE ORGANIZER ----------------------------- **There are five lessons in the module. Read each lessons carefully then answers the self-check/activity/summative test to find out how much you have benefited form it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output to your subject professor.** **In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your subject professor during the scheduled face-to-face meeting.** **Good luck and happy reading!!!** **LESSON 1.** Evaluating feedstuffs for use in livestock diets may employ a number of procedures. These procedures should identify nutrient composition, palatability, digestibility and productive value, physical or handling characteristics and provide economic comparisons. ### Analytical Methods for Nutrient Comparison For many nutrients required by animals there are direct analytical methods by which we can establish the potency of feedstuffs in their nutrients. Three general types of analytical methods: 1. Chemical procedure (gravimetric procedures, titration, colorimetry, chromatography, etc.). 2. Biological procedures (employ animals such as chicks or rat to give a much more accurate estimate of animal utilization but which makes procedure more tedious and expensive) 3. Microbiological procedures (similar to biological procedures but employ isolated bacteria) 1. Identification 2. Sampling Recommendations: 1. Sacked feeds should be sampled by taking two samples (a handful) 2. Bulk feeds or grain in bins should also have 12 -- 15 samples taken from a given lot. Samples should be as widely separated as possible. Easiest to sample this material while being delivered of fed, so a representative sample is obtained. Grain probe will aid in obtaining a good random sample. 3. General a. If protein is higher than needed then it can be reduced and supplement costs decreased. b. If underfeeding is the problem, then adding additional protein or energy may increase production with only a slight increase in supplemental cost. c. If protein and energy meet requirement, yet production is below expectation, feed analysis can confirm that some other factor is limiting production. 1. What are the factors to consider in obtaining samples for analysis? 2. Important things to do for the samples to be analyse. **LESSON 2**  PROXIMATE ANALYSIS ==================== Proximate analysis is a combination of analytical procedures developed in Weede, Germany more than a century ago. Different fractions that result from the proximate analysis include water, ash, CP, EE, CF and nitrogen-free extract (NFE). It is the most generally used chemical scheme for describing feedstuffs in spite of the fact that the information it gives often is of uncertain nutritional significance, or may even be misleading. Therefore, consider in some detail the nature, peculiarities and limitations of proximate analysis as a description of the nutritional properties of feedstuffs. a. Dry matter b. Ash (mineral) c. Crude protein (Kjeldahl process) d. Ether extract (fat) e. Carbohydrates (CHO) a. Crude Fiber (CF) After removal of water and ether extract from a sample of feed, the sample is b oiled in weak acid (0.255 N H~2~SO~4~), b. Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) LESSON 3 ======== **VAN SOEST (DETERGENT) METHOD OF FORAGE EVALUATION** Van Soest (detergent) Method of Forage Evaluation ------------------------------------------------- a. Detergent feed analysis scheme (Figure 1). b. Uses for the Van Soest system. a. Predict intake -- NDF is used as an index of gut fill to predict voluntary feed intake. b. Predict digestibility -- ADF is used as an indicator of forage digestibility.  ### Figure 1. Detergent feed analysis scheme c. Heat damaged forages -- heat damage is caused by ensiling of forages particularly alfalfa, at low moisture levels, allowing air into the ensiled mass. This results in aerobic instead of anaerobic fermentation. During aerobic fermentation, temperature in the silo increases and the forage protein and CHO combine, making the protein unavailable to animals. Other forage or concentrate feeds exposed to heat may also be susceptible to this reaction. The amount of heat damage or decrease in protein availability can be determined by the acid detergent insoluble nitrogen (ADIN) method. This test involves analysis of the forage for ADF, total N, and N in the ADF (both by Kjeldahl). The unavailable or indigestible protein content of feed (ADIN) is subtracted from the total protein content (total N) to determine the amount of protein actually available to the animal. 1. Alfaalfa silage analysis (DM basis): 2. 3,05 -- 0.25 = 2.80% N available 3. 2.80 divided by 3.05 (100) = 91.8% of the total N (protein) is available to the animal ( or 8.2% is Unavailable) 4) As a general guideline: **Unavailable Protein** **Level of heat damage** ------------------------- -------------------------- Severe d. Determining net energy (NE) and TDN levels of forage -- the following equations can be used to calculate the energy content of forage (all values are on a DM basis): **LESSON 4**  OTHER METHODS FOR FEED ANALYSIS ================================= The discovery of near-infrared energy is ascribed to [William Herschel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Herschel) in the 19th century, but the first industrial application began in the 1950s. In the first applications, NIRS was used only as an add-on unit to other optical devices that used other wavelengths such as [ultraviolet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet) (UV), visible (Vis), or mid-infrared (MIR) spectrometers. In the 1980s, a single-unit, stand-alone NIRS system was made available, but the application of NIRS was focused more on chemical analysis. With the introduction of light[-fiber optics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber_optics) in the mid-1980s and the monochromator-detector developments in the early 1990s, NIRS became a more powerful tool for scientific research. A. NEAR INFRARED REFLECTANCE SPECTROSCOPY 1. Speed 2. Simplicity of sample preparation 3. Ability to analyse multiple components in one operation 4. No portion of the sample is consumed by the procedure 1. Requirement of a high precision instrument 2. Dependence on calibration procedures 3. Inability to measure minor constituents B. DETERMINATION OF VITAMINS C. DETERMINATION OF ENERGY D. THE NUTRIENT OR ENERGY CONTENT OF A FEED MAY BE EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OR QUALITY PER UNIT OF WEIGHT (mg/kg, g/lb, etc.) ON ONE OF THE FOLLOWING BASIS: 1. Dry matter basis -- amount contained in only the dry matter fraction, without water. 2. As-fed basis -- amount contained in the feed as it would be fed to the animal, including water. 3. Air-dry basis -- generally assumed to be approximately 90% dry matter. Most feeds will equilibrate to about 90% dry matter after prolonged storage (aerobic). Air-dry and as-fed basis may be the same for many common feeds. 4. Since feeds contain varying amounts of dry matter. It would be much simplier and more accurate, if both feed composition and nutrient requirement values were on a dry matter basis. 5. Conversion of feeds nutrients from an as-fed to a dry matter basis. \% feed DM 100% DM 1.  2. 40𝑥 = 700 (𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 3. 4. The alfalfa silage contains 17.5% CP on a DM basis. Dry corn High moisture corn 89.0 % DM 75.0 8.8 % CP (as-fed basis) 7.4 1.  2. 89X = 880 3. X = 2. 3. i.  ii. 100x = 910 iii. X = iv. The linseed meal contains 9.1% CF on as-fed basis. Sample DE, kcal/kg \% DM -------- ------------- ------- i.  ii. 100x = 49,200 iii. X = i.  ii. 100x = 44,100 iii. X = i.  ii. 100x = 40,821 iii. X = A. = 492 kcal/kg B. = 441 kcal/kg C. = 408 kcal/kg Corn silage 10.0 kg (40% DM) ------------- --------- ---------- Corn grain 4.0 kg (89% DM) Supplement 0.5 kg (92% DM) Total 14.5 kg As-fed ration Thus: ------------- ------------ --- ------ --- -- Feed Kg, as-fed \%DM = Corn silage X = Corn grain X = Supplement = 14.5 8.02 kg Rolled oats 1045 ------------------------- ------ Cracked corn 425 Soybean meal 182 Molasses (liquid) 80 Dicalcium phosphate 23 Vitamins-mineral premix 10 1765 lb DM Feed Lb, DM ÷ \%DM = Lb, as-fed ------------------------- -------- --- ------ --- ------------ Rolled oats 1045 ÷.87 = 1201.1 Cracked corn 425 ÷.90 = 477.5 Soybeam meal 182 ÷.91 = 200.0 Molasses (liquid) 80 ÷.75 = 106.7 Dicalcium phosphate 23 ÷.96 = 24.0 Vitamins-mineral premix 10 ÷ 1.00 = 10.0 1765 2,019.3 a. Nutrient concentration will increase b. Weight will decrease a. Nutrient concentration will decrease b. Weight will increase 1. Napier silage analysed 6.5% CP on as-fed basis and contained 45% DM. What percent CP would be napier silage contain when expressed on a DM basis? 2. Corn silage analysed 8% CP on as-fed basis and contained 55% DM. What percent CP would be corn silage contain when expressed on a DM basis? LESSON 5 ======== Animal feeding trial experiments are performed to investigate the comparative effects on growth of different diets. The experiments are carried out over several generations of a large number of animals. Digestion trials provide an estimate of the total amount of a specific nutrient absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. Digestion trials can be performed to measure the digestibility of a range of feed components including the general nutrient class or a specific component within the class. The two measures of digestibility are apparent and true digestibility. Apparent digestibility does not account for endogenous sources and true digestibility does account for endogenous sources of the nutrient of interest. Endogenous materials include intestinal cells, enzymes, and microbes. Apparent digestibilities have limited use for nutrients significantly influenced by endogenous materials. Generally, digestion trials measure apparent digestibility. A digestion trial will have an initial adjustment period followed by a sampling period. A. FEEDING TRIAL A. feeding trial simply gives an indication as to whether the animal will accept the feedstuff and the performance obtained from the feedstuff as compared to other. It tells nothing of why different results were obtained. B. DIGESTION OR METABOLISM TRIAL B. Chemical analysis is the starting point determining the nutritive value of feeds. But the actual value of ingested nutrients depends on the use the body can make of them. The first consideration here is digestibility, since undigested nutrients do not get into the body proper. C. A Digestion Trials Consists chiefly of a. Running a proximate analysis of feed. b. Feeding an animal a given amount of feed, or feeding at a constant rate. c. Collecting feces from given amount by use of a marker or collecting feces at a given time on a constant rate feeding. d. Running a proximate analysis of feces e. The difference is the apparent digestible portion of the feed. f. Computed as follows: C. Methods Employed for Fecal Collection - Physiologically inert - Contain no element under investigation - Will not diffuse - Carmine - Ferric oxide - Chromic oxide - Soot c. Use of markers is not desirable in animals with larger and more complicated digestive tracts (ruminants). d. Using the marker method requires accurate measurement of the total amount of feed. - Totally indigestible and unabsorbable. - Have no pharmacological action on the digestive tract. - Pass through the tract at a uniform rate. - Are readily a natural constituent of the feed under test. - Preferably a natural constituent of the feed under test. b. By determining the ratio of the concentration of the reference substance to that of a given nutrient in the feed and the same ratio in the feces resulting from the feed, the apparent digestibility of the nutrient can be obtained without measuring either the feed intake of feces output. c. The calculation is made as follows: d. Indicators materials 1. Chromic oxide 2. Lignin 3. Various naturally occurring "chromogen" compounds. 3. Metabolism or digestion stalls -- used to confine the animal for quantitative collection of the feces uncontaminated by urine. An essential feature of these stalls is that the animal must have freedom of movement, particularly as regards lying down or getting up. Can also be designed to collect urine separately. 4. Feces collection bags -- a bag on a harness arrangement attached to the animal in which feces and or urine be collected from animals grazing on pasture. 5. Digestion trials generally consists of two periods: a. Preliminary or adjustment period -- to free digestive tract of any prior undigested feed and accustom animal to the facility. b. Collection period -- time period in which measurement of feed and collection of feces occurs. c. For pigs, preliminary and collection periods of 3 -- 5 days each are commonly used. For ruminants, these periods must be extended to 8 or 10 days. D. A digestion trial 1. An example of the date obtained in a digestion trial is presented below: 2. In obtaining the date for intake of nutrients, feed intake was multiplied by figures for its percentage composition as determined by chemical analysis. Similarly, the data for excreted nutrients were calculated and the digested nutrients obtained by subtraction. The final figures, expressed as percentages, are called digestion coefficients. The general formula for determination of the digestion coefficient may be written as:  x 100 ---------------------------- Given: -------------------------------- ---------- ------- ------- 50,800 g DM grass consumed 11,609 g DM feces excreted Proximate analysis (DM Basis): Grass Feces CP, % 20.11 22.04 Fiber, % 16.25 18.59 NFE, % 40.99 34.82 EE, % 3.34 6.74 [Calculate: CP Fiber NFE EE ] +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Nutrients | 2,559 | 2,158 | | | | excreted | | | | | | | | | | | | (feces | | | | | | excreted x | | | | | | % anal.) g | | | | | +=============+=============+=============+=============+=============+ | Nutrient | 7,657 | 6,097 | 16,781 | | | digested | | | | | | | | | | | | (cons. -- | | | | | | excreted), | | | | | | g | | | | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Digestion | | | | [53.9 | | coefficient | | | | ]{.underlin | | | | | | e} | | [(dig. ÷ | | | | | | cons x | | | | | | 100), % | | | | | | ]{.underlin | | | | | | e} | | | | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ 3. The apparent digestibility of individual feed may be determined in so far as they provide a satisfactory ration for the period of the test, when fed alone. The apparent digestibility of concentrates by ruminants cannot be determined in this way because they do not furnish sufficient bulk; the coefficients can be obtained only by difference. In this procedure the apparent digestibility of roughage as a basal ration is first determined, and then the concentrate is added to the roughage for a second test. By a consideration of differences between the figures obtained from the roughage alone and for the combination, coefficients for digestibility of the concentrate are calculated. 4. Errors in digestibility trial a. The nutrient digestibility is only apparent because the feces may contain portions of nutrients from sources other than from the consumed feed such as: 1. Enzymes excreted into the digestive tract. 2. Nutrients of bacterial origin. 3. Nutrients (primarily N) from a branded intestinal mucosa. 4. Some mineral excretion into the digestive tract. b. Feed or fecal spillage and wastage. c. Errors in proximate analysis; E. Factors affecting Digestibility Within Species 1. Age -- small influence; could be associated with teeth, etc. 2. Disease and/0r parasites (worms). 1. Which species have longer collection period in digestion trials, cattle or swine? How long? Explain your answer. 2. Enumerate parameters mostly being obtained during feeding trials. MODULE SUMMARY -------------- Congratulations! You have just finished and learned many things in this Module II, now you are ready to evaluate how much have you have benefited from your reading by answering the summative test. GOOD LUCK! and ENJOY! SUMMATIVE TEST ------------------------------------ 1. How long it takes to obtained ether extract? a. 5 hrs b\. 3 hrs c. 2 hrs d. 1 hr 2. How long ash could be obtained from a feedstuff samples? a\. 2hrs b. 3 hrs c. 4 hrs d. 5 hrs 3. c. 2 days d. 8 days 4. a\. 5 b. 10 c. 15 d. 20 5. ci. 3 minutes d. 6 minutes 1. Soybean meal as containing 6% CF on a DM basis. If the soybean meal contains 88% DM, What is the percent CF expresses on an as-fed basis? 2. Corn gluten meal as containing 4% CF on a DM basis. If the soybean meal contains 88% DM, What is the percent CF expresses on an as-fed basis? 3. Para grass silage analysed 8.5% CP on as as-fed basis and contained 56% DM. What percent CP would be alfalfa silage contain when expressed on a DM basis? 4. Centrosema silage analysed 20.2% CP on as as-fed basis and contained 61.4% DM. What percent CP would be alfalfa silage contain when expressed on a DM basis? 1. Thumb of rule when converting DM to as-fed. 2. Thumb of rule when converting as-fed to DM. ### MODULE III Lesson 1 Digestive System Lesson 2 Nutrient Digestion and Absorption Lesson 3 Metabolism of Absorbed Nutrients **MODULE III** **[DIGESTION, ABSORPTION OF DIFFERENT NUTRIENTS]** ### INTRODUCTION **This module enables to introduce, understand and apply the digestion and absorption of different nutrients in teaching animal nutrition and feeding in the primary grades. It is expected that the content lessons on this module will enable you to gain knowledge and skills in teaching animal nutrition and feeding.** 1. identify parts and explain their functions of the digestive systems. 2. explain the mechanism of digestion and absorption of nutrients. 3. discuss the different processes related to digestion and nutrients absorption. 4. discuss and explain the different pathways of nutrients metabolism until being utilized by animal body. 5. understand the basic principles of nutrition, how nutrients are delivered to the body, and the chemical processes needed to convert them to a form suitable for absorption. ### DIRECTIONS / MODULE ORGANIZER **There are three lessons in the module. Read each lessons carefully then answers the self-check/activity/summative test to find out how much you have benefited form it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output to your subject professor.** **In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your subject professor during the scheduled face-to-face meeting.** **Good luck and happy reading!!!**  DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ------------------ 1. GENERAL 1. Prehension -- taking in of feed or water. 2. Mastication -- reduction of feed particle size; by chewing. 3. Deglutation -- act of swallowing. 4. Regurgitation -- casting up of undigested material. 5. Digestion -- breakdown of feed particles into suitable products for absorption. May include: a.) mechanical forces; b.) chemical reaction; c.) enzymatic activity 6. Absorption -- transfer of substances from GIT to the circulating blood or lymp system. 7. Anabolism -- growth or building process. 8. Catabolism -- breakdown or destruction reactions. 9. Metabolism -- combination of anabolic and catabolic reactions occurring in the body with the liberation of energy. 10. Excretion -- removal of wastes. 11. Herbivores -- species of animals that fed entire on plants. 12. Carnivores - species of animals that fed almost entire on flesh of other animals 13. Omnivores - species of animals that consume both plants and flesh. 2. MONOGASTRIC DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (NON-RUMINANT) 1. Tongue -- prehension, mixing and deglutition 2. Teeth -- prehension, mastication 3. Salivary glands -- three paired that secrete fluid called saliva, components of saliva: - Water -- moistens consumed feed and aids in the taste mechanisms. - Mucin -- lubrication aid for swallowing. - Bicarbonate salts -- act as a buffer to regulate pH of stomach - Enzyme -- salivary amylase initiates CHO breakdown, not present in all species. b. Esophagus -- hollow muscular tube that transport ingesta from mouth to the stomach, ingesta material is moved by a series of muscular contractions referred to as peristaltic waves. A valve (cardiac sphinter) is at the junction of the stomach and esophagus. c. Stomach -- hollow, pear-shaped, muscular digestive organ. - Storage of ingested feed - Muscular movements causing physical breakdown. - Secretes digestive juices -- Hydrochloric acid, Pepsin, Rennin 2. Stomach contents approximately pH 2 (bacterial effect). 3. Material leaving stomach is called chime. 4. Parts of the stomach. a. Cardia -- sphincter at the junction of the esophagus and stomach, which controls passage of ingesta into the stomach or out. b. Esophageal region -- nonglandular area surrounding the cardia. c. Cardiac gland region -- contains cells that produce primarily mucus (protects stomach lining) d. Fundic gland region -- contains cells that provide the gastric secretions needed for the initial stages of digestion. 1. Parental cells -- produce HCL 2. Chief cells -- produce enzymes or precursors of enzymes. e. Pyloric gland region -- contains cells that produce mucus and some proteolytic enzymes. f. Pyrluros - sphincter at the beginning of the small intestine which control passage of material (chime) out of the stomach. d. Small Intestine 1. Divided into 3 sections: a. Duodenum -- 1^st^ section b. Jejunum -- middle section, active in nutrient absorption c. Ileum -- last section, active in nutrient absorption 2. Walls of the SI are lined with a series of fingerlike projections called villi, which in turn have minute projections called microvilli that increase the nutrient absorption area. Each villus contains an arteriole and venule, together with a drainage tube of the lymphatic system, a lacteal. The venules ultimately drain into the portal blood system, which goes directly to the liver, the lymp system empties via the thoracic duct into the vena cava. 3) Small intestine contents approximately pH 6 -7. e. Large Intestine 3. Divided into 3 sections: d. Cecum -- 1^st^ section, size varies in different species, little functional significance in the pig. e. Colon -- middle section, largest part of LI f. Rectum -- last section 4. Functions of LI g. Site of water reabsorption. h. Secretion pf some minerals elements -- calcium i. Storage reservoir of undigested GIT contents. j. Bacterial fermentation a. Synthesis of some water soluble Vit. And Vit. K. b. Some bacterial breakdown of fibrous ingredients c. Synthesis of some protein ### Figure 1. Swine Digestive System b. Horse a. Mouth 1. Prehensive agents -- teeth, upper lip, tongue 2. Teeth - Jaw movement is both vertical and lateral. - Upper jaw is wider than lower jaw, thus mastication can occur on only one side of mouth at a time. 3. Saliva - Contain no enzyme - Secretion is stimulated by scratching (mechanical action) of feed on mucus membrane of inner cheeks.  May secrete up to 10gal/day (adult horse). b. Esophagus - 50 -- 60 inch long tube from mouth to stomach on the left side of the neck. - Only one way peristaltic movements, thus it is very difficult for horse to regurgitate. c. Stomach - Horse has smaller stomach compared to other species, thus, must be fed small portions of ration several times daily. - Do not have extensive muscular movement activity as other species, and ingesta tends to arrange itself in layers. This result for being prone to greater digestive disorders originating in the stomach. d. Small Intestine -- same as pig, but does not have a gallbladder, there is a secretion of bile into duodenum. e. Large Intestine - Accounts for large part of GIT capacity (over 60%)  Divide into cecum, large colon, small colon and rectum. - Cecum and colon - Bacterial breakdown of cellulose and other CHO material to produce VFAs (acetic, propionic, butyric) to utilize fibrous feeds. - Bacterial synthesis of water soluble vitamins and proteins - Small colon -- area of water resorption from intestinal contents. - Because the large intestine is usually expanded with ingesta material, impaction may easily occur.  ### Figure 2. Horse Digestive System c. Avian species a. Mouth - No teeth, does contain rigid and attached tongue and poorly developed salivary glands. - Beak is adapted for rapidly picking up small particles of feed, also serve to partially reduce feed to size that may swallowed.  Saliva contains salivary amylase. b. Esophagus -- most birds (except insect eating species and some waterfowl) have an enlarged area in the esophagus referred to as the "Crop", functions: - Serve as an ingesta holding and moistening reservoir. - Allows breakdown reaction by salivary amylase.  Fermentation occurs in some species. c. Proventriculus - Site of gastric juice production (HCL and pepsin), pH approximately 4 - Ingesta passes through rapidly (approx. 14 seconds) d. Gizzard (Ventriculus) - Thick, muscular walled area acting to physically reduce particle size of ingesta, muscle contractions are involuntary occurring at the rate of one every 2-30 seconds. - Lining is a hardened glandular secretion. - Normally contain grit (small stone particles) -- aid in the grinding of ingested seeds and grains. - Does not secrete enzymes; however, HCL and pepsin from the proventriculus work in the gizzard. e. Small Intestine - Most enzymes found in mammalian species are present, with the exception of lactase. - PH is slightly acid. - Absorption is similar to mammalian species except that the hormone enterogastrone which affects fat absorption is not present in birds. f. Ceca and LI - Avian GIT contains 2 "blind pouches" (ceca), compared with one in mammals. - Site for resorption, some fiber digestion and water soluble vitamin synthesis occurs because of bacterial fermentation but much lower leves than in mos mammals. - LI is very short (2-4 inch), empties into the cloaca where fecal material will be voided via the vent. ### Figure 3. Avian Digestive System 1. Mouth a. No upper incisors, only an upper dental pad and lower incisors which act in conjunction with lips and tongue for prehension of feedstuffs. b. Molar teeth (both upper and lower) are so shaped and spaced that the animals can chew only on one side of the jaw at one time. Lateral jaw movements aid in shredding tough plant fibers. c. Saliva - Production is relatively continuos, although greater quantities are produced when eating and ruminating than when resting. Quantity may reach more than 12 gal/day in adult and 2 gal or more daily in sheep. - No enzymes but provides a source of N (urea), P and Na, which are utilized by rumen microorganisms. - Highly buffered, which aids in maintaining an appropriate pH in the rumen. 2. Stomach -- divide into 4 compartments c. Rumen (paunch) - Large, hollow, muscular compartment that extends from the diaphragm to the pelvis and most entirely fills the left side of the abdominal cavity. - Wall of the mature rumen contain small tonguelike projections called papillae, which can be readily identified by the naked eye. a. Storage b. Soaking c. Physical mixing and breakdown d. Fermentation chamber -- provide ideal environment for microbial survival and activity -- moist, warm, anaerobic, durable pH and there is irregular introduction of new ingesta and a more or less continual removal of fermented digesta and end products of digestion. Various types of bacteria are found with typical counts approaching numbers of 25-50 billion per milimeter of ruminal fluid. This extensive pregastric fermentation result in: 1. Bacterial synthesis of water soluble vitamins and vitamin K 2. Bacterial synthesis of amino acids and protein. 3. Breakdown of fibrous feeds (high in cellulose) 4. Rumen compartment is quite undeveloped at birth but may be functional by 6-8 weeks of age. b. Reticulum (honeycomb) 1. Most cranial compartment and not completely separated from the rumen; esophagus opening (cardia) is common to both reticulum and rumen compartments. 2. Walls are lined with mucus membrane containing many interesting ridges that subdivide the surface into honeylike 3. Walls secrete no enzymes. 4. Functions in moving ingested feed into the rumen or into the omasum and in regurgitation of ingesta during rumination. c. Omassun (manyplies) 1. Spherical organ filled with muscular laminae studded with short, blunt papillae. Walls secrete no enzymes. 2. Located to the right of the rumen and reticulum. 3. Function --appers to be in reducing particle size of ingesta before it enters the abomasum and some absorption of water. d. Abomassum (true glandular stomach) 1. 1^st^ glandular portion of the ruminant GIT (walls secrete enzymes) 2. Located ventral to the omasum and extends caudally on the right side of the rumen. 3. Gland regions of the abomasum correspond to the gland regions in the simple stomach of the nonruminant. ### Figure 4. Ruminants Digestive System a. Esophageal groove - Passageway that extends from the omasum, formed by two heavy muscular folds or lips, which can close to direct ingesta from the esophagus into the omasum directly, or open and permit the ingesta to enter the rumen and reticulum. - Allow milk consumed by the suckling animal to bypass the reticulorumen and escape bacterial fermentation. - Does not appear to remain functional in older animals. b. Rumination - Process that permits an animal to forage and ingest feed rapidly, the complete the chewing at a later time; steps include regurgitation of the feed, remastication, resalivation and finally reswallowing. - Regurgitation step is preceded by contraction of the reticulum, probably a reverse peristalsis in the esophagus is the major factor in moving the material up to the mouth, where excess liquid is squeezed out and swallowed. - Regurgitated materials consist largely of roughage and fluid with little if any concentrate. - Cattle average about 8 hrs per day ruminating. One rumination cycle requires about 1 minute, of which 3 -- 4 seconds is utilized for both c. Eructation - Microbial fermentation in - Contractions of the upper sacs of the rumen force gases forward and down, the esophagus then dilates and allows the gases to escape. - Bloat is a common problem in ruminants in which gas cannot escape. This creates a distention of the rumen, which can be seen on the left side of the animal; in most cases