Anatomy 2 Exam Review PDF

Anatomy 2 Exam Review upper and lower appendicular skeleton video notes upper – upper limb bones: humerus, ulna, radius, carpals(8), metacarpals(5), and phalanges(14) – the thumb is an indicator for where your radius is – there is interosseous membrane between the radius and ulna – the distal...

Anatomy 2 Exam Review upper and lower appendicular skeleton video notes upper – upper limb bones: humerus, ulna, radius, carpals(8), metacarpals(5), and phalanges(14) – the thumb is an indicator for where your radius is – there is interosseous membrane between the radius and ulna – the distal radial joint allows us to turn our arms up and down – pneumonic for carpal bones is “Some Lovers Try Positions That They Can’t Handle” – the clavicle is a long bone and the scapula is an irregular bone lower – lower limb bones: femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals(7), metatarsals(5), and phalanges(14) – the fibula is lateral and the tibia is medial – your ankle is made up of the fibula, fibula, and tarsal bone – there are 2 ligaments between the femur and tibia, posterior and anterior cruciate ligaments (ACL and PCL) – your PCL helps when you are walking downwards like a hill – your ACL is weaker than your PCL, it can get stretched or torn – your hip bone is a ball and socket join, the fibrocartilage lip creates a rubber seal that keeps the acetabular labrum and femoral head together which is crucial for stability – the pelvic girdle give us strength and stability in class notes – the sternoclavicular joint connects the upper limbs to the axial skeleton and the sacroiliac joint connects the lower limbs to the axial skeleton – the pelvis is made up of 4 bones: 2 os coxa(hip bone), 1 sacrum, and 1 coccyx – the hip joint is formed when the head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum of the os coxa – our knee is composed of 2 joints the patellofemoral joint and the tibiofemoral joint – the ACL runs from the posterior aspect of the femur and attaches to the anterior part of the tibia – the head of the humerus connects to the scapula with the glenalhumeral fossa – a hip fracture refers to the tibia bone breaking – if a the bone is still in place but broken it is called a non-displaced femoral neck – flexion is decreasing the angle between 2 bones(fold) and extension is  – increasing the angle – kids are not born with their patella’s – supination: you can hold something(holding a bowl of soup) – pronation: your palm is looking down – the olecranon process is part of the ulna which forms the prominence of the elbow and facilitates articulation between the forearm and arm joints video notes – articulation: where bones join together – fibrous joints are dense irregular connective tissue(strong in all directions), it allows little to no movement, ex: suture(cranial bones), syndesmosis(ulna and radius), and gomphosis(inside the gum) – cartilaginous joints can be split into 2 groups: synchondrosis which is hyalin cartilage(ribs to sternum) and symphysis which is fibrocartilage(pubic bones and body of the vertebrae) – synovial joints joints are the most common and mobile, they are between 2 bones – synovial joints include: plane/gliding, hinge, pivot, condyloid/ellipsoid, saddle, and ball and socket – pneumonic for synovial joints is “Please Help Pivot Condom Sales Back” – joints can either be uniaxilar, biaxial, or multi axial – plane/gliding: are found in inter-tarsal, sternoclavicular, and are multi axial – hinge: are found in the elbow, knee, interphalangeal, and they are uniaxial – pivot: are found in the first 2 vertebrae( C1 and C2) and proximal radioulnar joint, it turns left or right and is uniaxilar – condyle/ellipsoid: are found in radiocarpal, metacarpal pharyngeal, temporal mandibular, and is a biaxial movement – saddle: are found in carpal metacarpal, and is a biaxial movement – ball and socket: are found in the hip joint, glenohumeral, and is a multiaxial movement – synarthrosis allow no movement, they are so close together that they do not move, like suture and gomphosis – amphiarthrosis allows slight movement like syndesmosis, symphysis, and synchondrosis – diarthrosis are freely moveable like synovial – a movement away from your body it is considered abduction – a movement towards your body is adduction in class notes – the meniscus is not a common feature to all synovial joints – if you cannot move your wrist towards your body(adduction) what bones are affected? and what joints? your radius and scafoid bones are affected and the condyle/ellipsoid synovial joint  – the sternoclavicular joint is characterized as a plane/gliding joint – monoaxial and uniaxilal are the same thing – the special movements of the ankle joint include plantar flexion and dorsiflexion – A high five moves your elbow and shoulder joints by extending and retracting nervous tissue video notes – the nervous system is divided into 2 groups the central nervous system(CNS) which is the brain and spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system(PNS) which is the neural tissue – peripheral nervous system: cranial nerves (nerves that leave the base of the brain) → spinal nerves → ganglia (group of neuronal cell bodies) → enteric plexuses → sensory receptors – central nervous system: somatic nervous system (SNS) which is skeletal muscles, sympathetic which keeps your blood pressure low and parasympathetic divisions which helps raise your blood pressure and includes smooth and cardiac muscles and glands (automatic) – enteric nervous system (ENS) (smooth muscle, glands, and endocrine cells of GI) – somatic means we are consciously aware of the those sensations, and the neurons that transfer the information to the the CNS are somatic sensory neurons – The neurons that transfer information to the CNS that are automatic are the autonomic(visceral) sensory neurons – somatic nervous system = afferent – sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric nervous system= efferent – excitable cells: muscle cells & neurons – it becomes depolarized because the sodium ions open a gate into the cell, rush in, and cause the insIde of the cell to become more positive than its environment – neurons are nerve cells – glial glial cells are stronger than neurons – microglial are the smallest and literally mean small eaters – astrocytes are the most abundant and provide structural support, they wrap around blood capillaries in the brain and prevent toxins – ependymal cells are responsible for producing cerebral spinal fluid(CSF) – oligodendrocytes make myelin sheaths – protoplasmic astrocytes – neurogenesis comes from stem cells & is very rare – we can make new memories due to plasticity, new pathways happen only  – in the PNS – PNS has 2 neuroglia: schwann cells which create myelin sheath and satellite cell – grey matter is darker & white matter in lighter – myelin sheaths make them white (oligodendrocytes) – astrocytes regulate the chemical environment around neurons, provide structural support and maintain the blood-brain barrier, and wrap around blood capillaries to prevent toxins from entering the brain in class notes – It is believed that one half of the brain takes over the functions that would be attributed to the missing half. This is an example of what characteristic ? plasticity – neurogenesis happens rarely in the CNS but often happens In PNS – cells at rest like positive environments (depolarized / excited cell) – the sodium potassium pump uses ATP to open gates into the cell – NOKIA= 3Na+ out and 2K+ in – neurons have plasma membrane, nucleus, a cytoplasmic organisms – muscle and neuron cells are the only excitable cells – neurons never physically touch another excitable cell, there is always a gap (synaptic gap or synaptic cleft) – Information is transferred with neuron transmitters – selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are antidepressants they increase the amount of serotonin in the synaptic gaps – astrocytes also known as “big stars” provide structural support for the CNS – myelinated neurons are faster because they can skip parts of the length they need to travel – glioma’s are brain tumors Spinal Cord video notes – There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves with motor and sensory info flowing – Sensory information comes form the periphery of our body towards the CNS and motor information comes from the CNS to the periphery of our body – The spinal cord is the main communication but not only component for our brain and body – The cranial bones and vertebral column protect our brain and spinal cord – In between the bones and nervous tissue are membranes known as meninges – The brain protection order is dura matter, arachnoid matter, Pia matter which is the closest to our brain and the most flexible – We have fat and connective tissue keeping our spinal cord in its place – that protects against injury like a cushion and is located in the epidural space – Between the dura matters and the arachnoid matter is the subdural space with interstitial fluid – Between the arachnoid and Pia matter is the subarachnoid space with CSF – Thickenings of Pia matter that fuse with arachnoid matter are known as denticulate ligaments – Grey matter is deeper than white matter – Onside the dorsal root ganglion are unipolar neurons – The dorsal aspect of the spinal cord is for sensory information and the ventral is for motor information – Motor neurons are multipolar neurons within the grey matter – All spinal nerves are mixed nerves – The grey commissure allows the L and R sides communicate with each other, they are bundles of nerve fibers – Grey matter has horns that receive dorsal sensory information – The anterior grey horn sends signals to the skeletal muscles and belong to the somatic motor neurons – The lateral gray horns has automatic motor neurons that go to cardiac and smooth muscles as well as glands; motility that happens automatically that we don’t control – The spinal nerve is formed by axons of motor neurons and dendrites are sensory neurons – The epineurum makes up about 50% of the cross section in the nerve and gives the spinal nerves strength, it is a tough layer around spinal nerve – The spinal cord ends at L1 which is known as conus meduallaris and fuses with arachnoid and dura matter – Under the conus medlars is the cauda equina which is all the hairy-like nerve endings – 8 cervical spinal nerves, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral and 1 coccyx nerves – Posterior ramus is for moving your back – Anterior/ventral ramus is for sensory and motor for your upper and lower limbs – Somatic sensory neurons supply dermatomes – Cutaneous fields are areas that are innervated by a nerve that arrises from a plexus – T2-T12 do NOT form plexus and they run in between intercostal nerves – C1-C5 are cervical plexus C5 goes to the cervical and brachial plexus – C3-C5 is the phrenic nerve (diaphragm skeletal muscle)  – C5-T1 is the brachial plexus – Roots→ Trunks→ Divisions→Cords→ Branches “Remember To Drink Cold Beer” – C7 is in the middle which is why its called the middle trunk – Reflexes are involuntary and will always have the same reaction – A cranial reflex example is eye tracking – A spinal reflex example patellar reflex – The musculocutaneous nerve innervates the muscles in the anterior compartment of the arm. – The radial nerve innervates muscles in the posterior compartment of the arm and forearm, responsible for extension. – The median nerve, innervates muscles in the anterior compartment of the forearm, responsible for flexion. – The ulnar nerve, innervates muscles in the anterior compartment of the forearm, primarily responsible for hand and finger movements. in-class notes – The spinal cord arounds L1 and L2 – The Pia matter becomes a very fine line and goes down to the terminal end in the coccyx also known as the filum terminale – Sensory information is from the spinal cord→ brain – Motor information is from the brain→spinal cord – Sensory neurons are afferent neurons and motor neurons are efferent neurons – Afferent neurons enter and efferent neurons exit – Seizures happen due to a sensory information overload – Convulsions happen due to an overstimulation of motor neurons – The phrenic nerve controls the diaphragm – Poliomyelitis is a viral infection of the somatic motor neurons weekly questions – In the spinal cord, the somas of the lower motor neurons are found in the anterior horns – The spinal cord tapers at a conical tip called the conus medullaris – Which of these are not a region of the spinal cord? Pelvic – Below L1-L2, the vertebral canal Is occupied by a bundle of spinal roots called the cauda equina – When is it that an impulse does not have to reach the brain? If it is a reflex arc – The nerve branching off of C5 can belong to either the cervical or brachial plexuses – The longest nerve in the digestive system is the vagus nerve – Which cord is formed by all trunks? The posterior cord Brain and Cranial Nerves video notes – The brain has 6 major regions of the brain: cerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum, mesencephalon(midbrain), pons, and medulla oblongata – The biggest part is the cerebrum – The diencephalon is made up of 3 parts epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus – The brain stem is made up of mesencephalon, pons, and medulla oblongata – A gyrus is an elevation – A sulcus is a depression – A fissure is a deep depression – Between the 2 hemispheres there is a deep depression known as a longitudinal fissure – Between the cerebrum and cerebellum is the transverse cerebral fissure – Between the frontal and parietal lobes in the central sulcus – Between the parietal and occipital lobs is the peritoneal occipital sulcus – Between the temporal and all the other lobes is the lateral sulcus – The gyri increase surface area – The cerebrum awareness of senses initiate voluntary movements of our body – The cerebrum is cortex is known as grey matter – The thalamus is the biggest nuclei – The corpus collusum anterior commissure are commissure fibers which means they connect 2 hemispheres – Acute fibers and longitudinal fasiculi are associate fibers which means they connect the same side of the hemisphere – The primary motor cortex (pre central gyrus) send nerve impulses towards the spinal cord to the muscle they have pyramidal cells – Premotor is for thinking about the action and primary motor cortex executes – The pre frontal cortex is for thinking, problem solving, concentration, behavior, personality, morality, judgement and psychological disorders – Parietal lobe has the primary somatosensory cortex(post central gyrus) consciously feels sensations, muscles, skin and joints – Somatosensory association area understands texture, size, and shape – Occipital lobe:visual cortex, the visual association area is recognizing faces, perception of visual stimuli – Temporal lobe:auditory cortex(hearing), olfactory cortex(smelling), inside the temporal lobe insula, gustatory cortex(taste) – Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body – The cerebellum”mini brain” is in charge of coordination of complex skeletal muscle movements and repetitive movements, it also has 2 hemispheres which are separated by a vermis – The cerebellums anterior and posterior lobes are divided by the primary fissure – The folds in the cerebellum are known as the folia of cerebellum – Grey matter in the cerebellum is cerebellar cortex and white matter is arbor vitae – The molecular layer has dendrites and purkinje cells – The intermediate layer/purkinje layer has the purkinje cell body – The receptive layer/granular layer has axons and tightly packed neurons – The diencephalon is the top of the brain stem, then the epithalamus which has the pineal gland and produces melatonin, then the thalamus which has a L and R side(in-between both sides is the third ventricle and are connected by the inter thalamic adhesion, the thalamus relays sensory information(95%) and has the largest mass of neuronal cell bodies with the CNS, the hypothalamus is the center for homeostasis, temperature control, stimulation of the thirst center, sweat and shivering, is the highest control center, and is in involved with emotions due to the limbic system – The pituitary gland releases hormones and is controlled by the hypothalamus – The mesencephalon(midbrain) aids in sight, sound, and associated reflex, and the unexpected sound reflex – The pons is a relay station between the cerebellum and cerebrum it coordinated skeletal and muscular activity as well as breathing patterns – The medulla oblongata connects the brain and spinal cord, it aids in cardiac and respiratory reflex centers, regulates hear rate, blood pressure, and breathing pattern. – Protection involves the bones of the skull, cranial meninges, CSF, BBB, and rich blood supply – Layers of the head: scalp, epicranial aponeurosis, loose connective tissue, periosteum of the cranium, cranium, dura matter, subdural space, arachnoid matter, subarachnoid space, and pia matter which covers the cerebral cortex – The subdural space is usually empty but it has the potential to be filled with liquid – The dura matter is subdivided Into 2 parts the periostea layer(closer to the skull) and the meningeal layer(closer to arachnoid matter) – The veins empty themselves into sinuses which deliver blood to the internal jugular vein – Arachnoid matter has a weblike appearance due to the arachnoid  – trabecular which help anchor cerebral blood vessels to their place – The arachnoid granulations are extensions of the trabeculae – The subarachnoid space is a true space where CSF is – The superior sagittal sinus receives blood from cerebral veins and CSF from the subarachnoid space – The crista gali anchors the brain – The sella turcica holds the pituitary gland – The diaphragm sellae lines the sella turcica – The fluid filled cavities in the brain and known as ventricles – There are 4 ventricles in the brain lateral (1 and 2), third and fourth – Choroids are blood vessels that are surrounded by ependymal cells – Ependymal cells are a type of glial cells that are responsible for producing CSF (a normal adult will produce 150 milliters/ 8 hours) – CSF is basically gatorade because it is made up of sugar, water, and electrolytes. It transports nutrients into the CNS tissue and waste out. It moves laterally from the 3 ventricle to the fourth through lateral or medial aperture to circulate the cranium and the remaining 10% goes through the central canal to the spinal cord – The reabsorption of CSF is due to the meninges – The BBB regulates substances between our blood and brain tissue, it is made up of capillary epithelial cells surrounded by astrocytes – Only lipid soluble compounds can pass the lipid bilayer due to its tight junctions – BBB allows nutrients especially glucose and oxygen in and CO2 waste out – There is no BBB in the choroid plexus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland – Cranial nerves pneumonic: “Oh Oh Oh To Touch And Feel Very Good Vagina Ah Heaven” – Pneumonic for whether they are sensory, motor, or both: “Some Say Money Matters But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter More” in-class notes – What part of the brain can be cut or severed to avoid seizures from spreading? The Corpus callous/Anterior commissure – In the spinal cord the grey matter is deeper and in the brain it is on the surface – CSF is produced by endothelial cells – If a patients needs a craniotomy due to a hematoma, it’s found in the space of the meninges, where are the surgeons draining this from? The subdural space – Remember “LIT AF” for the ventricles of the brain and that they all lead to the central canal weekly questions – Which of the following is a fold of the dura matter between the left and right cerebral hemispheres? Falx cerebri – Which of the following separates the primary motor cortex from the primary somatosensory cortex? Central sulcus – The vital centers for the control of visceral activities such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure are located in the medulla oblongata – In the brain, the separation of the periostea layer and the meningeal layer from which structures? All dural venous sinuses – The abducens never supplies innervation to the lateral rectus muscle of the eye. – The vagus nerve is the longest cranial nerve. It ends goes down to the abdominal cavity and innervates the digestive system. – Which cranial nerve has a cranial root and spinal root? The accessory nerve(XI)(11) – Damage on which of the following cranial nerves would result in vertigo and unilateral hearing loss? The vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)(8) – The accessory nerve innervates the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid.