Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology Lecture Notes PDF

Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology Prepared by: Mr. Eduard Shannon Alvior LPT, RN, MAN Basic Body Chemistry Organic Compounds Any chemical compound that contains carbon. Due to carbon's ability to catenate, millions of organic compounds are known. Study of the pro...

Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology Prepared by: Mr. Eduard Shannon Alvior LPT, RN, MAN Basic Body Chemistry Organic Compounds Any chemical compound that contains carbon. Due to carbon's ability to catenate, millions of organic compounds are known. Study of the properties and synthesis of organic compounds is the discipline known as organic chemistry. Natural compounds refer to those that are produced by plants or animals. Examples include most sugars, some alkaloids and terpenoids, and certain nutrients such as vitamin B12. Compounds that are prepared by reaction of other compounds are known as "synthetic”. They may be either compounds that already are found in plants or animals or those that do not occur naturally. Most polymers are organic synthetic or semi-synthetic compounds. Inorganic Compounds A chemical compound that lacks C-H bonds. Examples include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbonates, cyanides, cyanates, carbi des, and thiocyanates. Trace Elements Although required in very small amounts, trace elements such as iron, iodine, fluoride, copper, zinc, chromium, selenium, manganese and molybdenum are vital for maintaining health. These trace elements are part of enzymes, hormones and cells in the body. Iron In myoglobin it enables storage of oxygen in muscle cells. It is part of many enzymes and is essential for growth, healing, immune function and synthesis of DNA. For adequate intakes of this essential nutrient, include foods such as beef, poultry, fish, soybean flour, spinach, beans and fortified cereals in your diet. Iodine Iodine is critical for formation of thyroid hormones T3 and T4. Inadequate production of thyroid hormones can cause enlargement of the thyroid gland, while its deficiency during pregnancy can cause irreversible brain damage in newborns. Sufficient amounts of iodine is obtained by consuming iodized salt, seafood, eggs and milk. Fluoride Well recognized for its role in forming bones and teeth, fluoride is present in the body as calcium fluoride. Fluoride hardens tooth enamel, reduces incidence of tooth decay and may prevent bone loss. While the main source of fluoride is fluoridated water, it is also present in saltwater fish, tea and coffee. Copper Prevents damage to cells due to its antioxidant action, and as a component of many enzymes it helps in production of energy from carbohydrates, protein and fat. It is essential for formation of bone, connective tissues and red blood cells. It is present in many foods including organ meats, shellfish, chocolate, beans and whole-grain cereals. Zinc In addition to its role in formation of enzymes, zinc improves immune function, helps clot blood, maintains sense of taste and smell, keeps skin healthy and enables normal growth and development. Zinc is obtained by regularly eating eggs, seafood, red meats, fortified cereals and whole grains. Chromium An important trace mineral that is necessary for normal functioning of insulin. It is also essential for metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Some important sources of chromium include liver, processed meats, brewer’s yeast, whole grains, cheese and nuts. Selenium Selenium, along with vitamin E works as an antioxidant that prevents damage of cells, may prevent some cancers and is essential for the normal functioning of the thyroid gland. Meat, seafood, nuts and cereals are good sources of selenium. Manganese A trace element necessary for enzyme activation. It works as an antioxidant, helps develop bones and heals wounds by increasing collagen production. Good sources of manganese include pineapple, nuts, whole grains and beans. Molybdenum Like manganese, molybdenum helps activate some enzymes and enables normal cell function. Dietary sources of molybdenum include milk, legumes, whole-grain breads and nuts. Human Nutrition Deals with the provision of essential nutrients in food that are necessary to support human life and health. Poor nutrition is a chronic problem often linked to poverty, food security or a poor understanding of nutrition and dietary practices. Good nutrition is necessary to grow physically and for normal human biological development. These nutrient classes are categorized as either macronutrients or micronutrients (needed in small quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, proteins, and water and the micronutrients are minerals and vitamins. Malnutrition Refers to insufficient, excessive, or imbalanced consumption of nutrients. In developed countries, the diseases of malnutrition are most often associated with nutritional imbalances or excessive consumption. The causes of malnutrition are directly linked to inadequate macronutrient consumption and disease, and are indirectly linked to factors like “household food security, maternal and child care, health services, and the environment.