All Chap 1-4 Bio PDF

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy Anatomy: Structure of body parts 1. Gross/macroscopic: large body structures visible to naked eye - Categories: Regional, systematic, surfaces 2. Microscopic: structures too small to see with naked eye (microscope) - cytology, histology (...

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy Anatomy: Structure of body parts 1. Gross/macroscopic: large body structures visible to naked eye - Categories: Regional, systematic, surfaces 2. Microscopic: structures too small to see with naked eye (microscope) - cytology, histology (study of tissues) 3. Developmental: changes through lifespan (i.e. embryology) Physiology: function of the body; how parts work 1. Structure determines function (complementarity) *ex. bones support body bc of hard mineral structure 2. Levels of structural organization 3. Homeostasis From small to large: - Atoms(simplest), molecules, cell, tissue, organ, organ systems, organism(most complex) - Atoms: smallest particles of matter (anything that takes up space, has mass or weight) Link them together with chemical bonds to make - Molecules: 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds - Cell: structural unit of all living things - Tissue: group of similar cells common function (muscle, connective, epithelial, nervous) - Organ: structure made of 2 or more tissue types having a specific function - Organ system: 7 organs working together to accomplish a common purpose 11 Organ Systems: N: Nervous - responds to internal & external change activating muscles & glands U: Urinary - Eliminates nitrogenous wastes - Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-balance of blood R: Reproductive - Produces offspring; testes sperm & male sex hormone - Ducts and glands aid in delivery to female tract S: Skeletal; - protects+supports organs, framework for movement, blood formation, stores minerals E: Endocrine - glands secrete hormones to regulate processes; growth, reproduction, nutrient use (metabolism) D: Digestive: - Breaks down food to absorbable units - Eliminates indigestible food as feces R: Respiratory - Keeps blood supplied with oxygen - Removes co2 through walls of air sacs of lungs C: Cardiovascular - blood vessels transport blood carrying oxygen, co2, nutrients, waste, heart pumps blood L: Lymphatic (Immunity) - picks fluid leaked from blood vessels returns to blood - disposes debris in stream, - houses lymphocytes (white blood cells) - Attacks against foreign substances I: Integumentary - external body covering to protect tissues - synthesis vitamin D - cutaneous receptors (receive pain) - sweat & oil glands M: Muscular - motion, facial expressions, posture, - produces heat Homeostasis: ability to maintain relatively stable internal condition; dynamic equilibrium - Order: Stimulus; Receptor (detects change); Input sent to control center; output; effector carries response a. Negative Feedback: Reduced intensity of effect of stimulus to return to ideal value (i.e. temp; hypothalamus) b. Positive Feedback: Increases/amplifies effect of change (i.e. oxytocin -> more contractions during labor, or blood platelets-> Directional Terms: Dorsal Body Cavity - Contains cranial cavity (skull+brain), and spinal cord - Both the brain and the spinal cord are covered by membranes called meninges. Ventral body cavity - Contains organs called viscera: “visceral organs” - Pleural cavity: lungs, - Pericardial: heart; abdominopelvic: most digestive organs, - Pelvic: some urinary and some reproductive. - Divided to 2 by muscle; diaphragm - Walls of cavity covered by serosa/serous membrane (thin double layered membrane–allows for organs to slide without friction for function (serous fluid; lubricating) - outer=parietal | inner=visceral - especially important for mobile organs like heart pumping & stomach): Outer surface of organs covered by visceral serosa - Pericardium (serous membrane pericardial cavity), pleura (serous membrane of pleural cavities); peritoneum (largest serous membrane of abdominopelvic cavity). Chapter 2: Chemistry Biochemistry: study of chemical composition & reactions of living things What are Chemical Reactions? Major Elements: 96.1% of human body (COHN) Lesser Elements: 3.9% (CA,P,K,S,Na,Cl,Mg,I,Fe) Trace Elements: larger molecule results - Decomposition: Chemical bond breaks down -> smaller molecule results - Exchange: Both synthesis and decomposition 2 Special Kinds of Synthesis in Human Things: Monomers are joined by dehydration synthesis: - hydrogen atom is removed from one monomer and a hydroxyl is removed from the monomer - Covalent bond unites monomers, water molecule released (happens each time monomer added to polymer chain) Monomers broken by opposite reaction Hydrolysis: - Water molecule is added to $each bond that is broken releasing building smaller molecules - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZMTeqZLXBSo Chemical reaction's rate of reaction increase by: - (↑ ) Temperature - (↑) Concentration - (↓) Particle Size (smaller particles move faster) - (Add) Catalyst (substance that speeds up chemical reactions) *main way in body 1. Enzymes are specific biological catalysts (each targets one reaction): a. Protein b. Specific c. Can be reused - Many different enzymes needed for metabolism (sum of all chemical reactions in body) Chemical Composition: Compound: 2 or more elements in a fixed ratio combine with other elements 1. Organic Compounds: usually lack carbon and are made of simple, smaller molecules a. Water (H2O) -> most abundant molecule 60% body b. Salts (Ionic compound; ex. NaCl) c. Acid and Bases (Hcl=Acid; and NaOH=base) - Organic Compounds: carbon-based and usually made of large, complex molecules Properties of Water: 1. High heat capacity: can hold lots of heat without changing its temperature 2. High heat of vaporization: lots heat to heat high temp (turn from liquid to gaseous state) 3. Universal solvent: (excellent dissolving other things) 4. Participates in chemical reactions (i.e. hydrolysis) 5. Cushions the body (i.e. brain cerebrospinal fluid) Ionic Bond: Transfer of electrons When salts dissolve in water, they form charged particles called ions: - Na+ (Sodium ion) Function: maintains fluid balance - K+ (Potassium) Function: works TOGETHER with Sodium in nervous system - Ca+2 (Calcium ions) Function: Skeletal, muscle contraction, blood clotting  Acid and Bases affect H+ concentration of fluids: pH: measures hydrogen ion concentration in solution - pH7: Neutral solution a. Why neutral: Solution has 10-7 H+=10-7 OH- (ex. distilled water) - pH below 7= Acidic solution - pH above 7= Basic Solution - lower pH, more acidic, more H+ ions - One pH higher means 10x fewer H+ ions - higher pH, more basic, less H+ ions - one pH lower means 10x more H+ ions (ex: pH 6 has 10x more H+ ions than pH 7) Each enzyme works at a certain pH (protein) - Blood pH= 7.4 (slightly basic; hemoglobin protein) Buffers (weak acids or weak bases; slightly adjust pH) help maintain pH of solution  Organic Compounds Most organic compounds repeat units called monomers/building blocks. - Organic compounds consists of a: - 1. Carbon skeleton stable; do not participate in chemical reactions) and - 2. Functional group (1 or more) allow compounds to participate in chemical reactions) a. OH hydroxyl b. C=O carbonyl (double bonded) c. COOH carbonyl (acidic) d. NH2 amino (basic) e. SH sulfhydryl -2 f. PO4 phosphate 4 Main Kinds of Organic Compounds (Macronutrients): I. Carbohydrates II. Lipids (only one without building blocks) III. Proteins IV. Nucleic Acids p  I. Carbohydrates - Function: readily usable food fuel for energy - Building blocks/monomers of carbohydrates: monosaccharides; - Isomers: same molecular formula, but different arrangement/structure of atoms - glucose; fructose; galactose Formula C 6H12O6 Remove H2O (Dehydration Synthesis) Polysaccharides: Glycogen: Humans Starch: Plants Mono and disaccharides: end in “ose”  II. Lipids: - Nonpolar molecules insoluble in water (water is polar, lipids nonpolar, electrons shared equally & balanced, like oil) Categories of Lipids: 1. Triglycerides: fats, oils (converted from carbs) - Function: compact storage form of energy fuel - *3 fatty acids attached to glycerol by dehydration synthesis 2. Phospholipids: has polar head, nonpolar tail - Function: main component of cell membranes 3. Steroids: cholesterol (starting molecule from where all steroids come from, i.e. cholesterol modifies to estrogen in females), estrogen, testerone, (sex hormones) - Regulatory molecules, act as hormones & regulate functions in body III. Proteins: - Most diverse, complex type of organic compound Globular (roundish shape) - Ex. Enzymes (speed up chemical reactions), - antibodies (body defense), - transport proteins (ex. Hemoglobin transport oxygen body) Fibrous Structural proteins - Ex. Collagen - muscle protein, Building blocks of proteins: Amino Acids (smallest size repeating unit) R group: Attached to amino and acid group (orange part that always stays exactly the same) “R” group is the variable group (20 different amino acids - Peptide bond: SPECIFIC covalent bond that links amino acids together through dehydration synthesis - Polypeptide: long chain of amino acids Chapter 3: The Cell Cell: Structural and Functional Unit of Living Things 3 Main Parts: I. Plasma Membrane: cell barrier II. Cytoplasm: region between plasma membrane and nucleus III. Nucleus: holds cells DNA, genetic information I. Plasma Membrane Functions: - Cell barrier  - Selectively permeable - Cellular communication “What is the Structure of the Plasma Membrane?”: Fluid Mosaic Model and Components: Lipids are fluid 1. Phospholipid bilayer 2. Cholesterol 3. Glycolipid - carbohydrate attached to a lipid Proteins form a “Mosaic” 1. Integral proteins 2. Peripheral proteins 3. Glycoproteins (carbs attached to protein) Cell Junctions: connections between neighboring cells’ plasma membranes 1. Tight Junctions: impermeable junctions prevent things from crossing between cell layers - Ex: stomach, acid to not escape 2. Desmosomes: anchoring junctions hold cells together - Ex. hair 3. Gap junctions: communicating junctions, allow cells to talk to each other Microvilli: highly folded plasma membrane present in some cells - Function: increase surface area for absorption - i.e. small intestine: (Plasma membrane permeable) -> Membrane transport Processes 1. Passive Processes: - does not need: ATP - moves substances high→low concentrations (like down a hill, no need energy) 1. Simple Diffusion: only small, nonpolar molecules diffuse this way. Not always in or out, matters concentration high to low 2. Facilitated Diffusion: needs protein channel or protein carrier- ions. (i.e. glucose, amino acids) 3. Osmosis (Diffusion of water across selectively permeable membrane): aquaporins are water channels *(Osmosis Continued) Solution: mixture of water and solutes a. Isotonic: - same solute concentration inside & outside, - water will not diffuse (osmosis does not happen). - Cell stays the same shape. b. Hypertonic: - high water inside, low outside, - water will go out diffuse (osmosis happens) - Cells shrink c. Hypotonic: - Pure/more water outside, - water moves into cell (osmosis happens) - Cell blows up (swells), bursts and pops (LYSIS) 2. Active Processes: - Needs ATP - Substances moved from low to high concentration 1. Primary Active Transport: directly uses ATP to pump particles low to high concentrations - Most important - N/A K+ (Sodium Potassium Pump) 2. Secondary Active Transport: links movement of 1 particle to a second particle 3. Vesicular Transport: uses membrane sacs (vesicles) to move substances 1. Primary active Transport - Most important - Na+ K+ (Sodium Potassium Pump) - Sodium (Na+ pumped out of cell), Potassium (K+ pumped into cell) 2. Secondary Active Transport - 1st, it experiences Primary Active Transport - 2nd, first particle Na+ (tends to diffuse in) to go into cell, and second particle glucose into as well 3. Vesicular Transport - Bulk, big particle movement - 2 Types: 1. Endocytosis: some substance enters cell using vesicles - Phagocytosis: cellular eating (swallowing big particle) - Pinocytosis: cellular drinking - Receptor Mediated Endocytosis: 1 specific molecule or substance binds to receptor proteins 2. Exocytosis: some substances exit cell using vesicles - (Vesicle used becomes plasma membrane) II. Cytoplasm Contains: - Cytosol: fluid in cytoplasm (“sol” solutions) - Inclusions: stored nutrients (i.e. lipids droplets in fat, glycogen granules in carbs) - Organelles: subcellular structures in cell, perform specific functions for the cell III. Nucleus: control center of the cell Structures related to nucleus: Nuclear Envelope: double membrane surrounding nucleus Nuclear Pores: openings in the nuclear envelope Nucleolus: region inside nucleus, where ribosomes are assembled/built Chromosomes: X-shaped structures that contain DNA & histone proteins (organize & pact together DNA) - Chromatin: DNA and histone proteins (chemical makeup of chromosomes) Genes: segments of DNA holding info for 1 particular characteristic The Cell Cycle 1. (90%) Interphase: Growth Phase, - 3 parts: (G1, S, G2) 2. (10%) Mitotic Phase: Cell Division - Mitosis: Division of nucleus - Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm How DNA Transfers Genetic Information: 1. Replication: Makes identical copy of DNA Takes place in Nucleus Occurs only during S phase (of Interphase) of Cell Cycle Main enzyme needed: DNA polymerase Complementary base pairing: A comp to T, C comp to G 2. Transcription: Transfers genetic info from DNA to mRNA Takes place in Nucleus Main enzyme needed: RNA polymerase Complementary base pairing: 3. Translation: - Information from mRNA used to make specific protein - Only transfer taking place in cytoplasm (specifically ribosomes) - “Translate” changing from base language (anticodons to make protein) Chapter 4: Tissue Histology: study of tissues: group of similar cells with common function 4 Types: I. Epithelial: cover body surfaces, line body cavities, secreting glands II. Connective: supports tissue III. Nervous: controls body IV. Muscle: movements I. Epithelial Tissue: 7 Characteristics 1. Closely packed cells 2. Tight junctions (impermeable)/desmosomes (anchoring) 3. Has polarity 4. Supported by (always next to) connective tissue 5. Avascular: - (a-without, vascular (blood vessels):  - Epithelial has no blood vessels, - So, connective (neighbor) provides oxygen and nutrients that epithelial tissue does not have (dependent) through diffusion 6. Innervated: (has nerves) 7. Highly regenerative: (divide rapidly) Epithelial Tissue Classification (different classes) 1. # cell layers (use apical surface to identify) - 1= simple, - many=stratified, - appears many=pseudo 2. Shape: - squamous (squashed), - cuboidal (cubed), - columnar (column) Connective Tissue Tissue Type Vascularization Cells Fibers Location Function Aerolar Rich Fibroblasts Collagen, Elastic, Everywhere -support Reticular (CER) -hold fluids -body defense -nutrient storage Adipose Rich Fat cells Few Hypodermis Insulation Reticular Rich Fibroblasts Reticular Lymphocytes Body defense Dense Regular Poor Fibroblasts Collagen straight tendons/ligaments Binding Dense Irreg Poor Fibroblasts Collagen curly Skin dermis Support Elastic Poor Fibroblasts Elastic Lungs, arteries Stretch & recoil Gland: Epithelial tissue that secretes a product 3 Descriptions of Glands & Example* 1. Unicellular or Multicellular One cell - Ex: goblet cells Multiple cells (all other glands) - Ex: sweat glands 2. Endocrine or Exocrine Endocrine: secretes a hormone product & ductless glands - Ex: thyroid gland (i.e. secretes hormone to blood vessels) Exocrine: secretes a non-hormone product & has ducts - Ex: sweat gland (i.e. secretes to epidermis) 3. Merocrine or Holocrine: Merocrine: secretes product by exocytosis - All other glands Holocrine: secretes by cell rupture - Sebaceous glands (cell fragments generate sebum) Mini quiz: - Goblet Cell: unicellular, exocrine, merocrine - Sweat Gland: multi, exocrine, merocrine - Thyroid gland: multi, endocrine, merocrine - Sebaceous gland: multi, exocrine, holocrine II. Connective Tissue *Most diverse tissue type Characteristics: 1. Mesenchyme: common origin (embryonic CT) 2. Varies in Vascularization (how many blood vessels it has): - Avascular (no blood vessels) - Poorly vascularized - Richly Vascularized 3. Composed of Extracellular Matrix (mesh): outside of cells, nonliving material - Fibers - Ground substance Components: 1. Fibers: fibrous proteins - Collagen (tough & strong) - Elastic (flexible; stretchy) - Reticular (thin version of collagen fibers) 2. Ground Substance: substance surround (space filling) fibers and cells - Fluid - Adhesion proteins (sticky) - Proteoglycans (negatively charged; attracts water; holds fluid) 3. Cells - Fibroblasts: make loose and dense ct - Chondroblast: makes cartilage - Osteoblasts: makes bone tissue - Hematopoietic stem cells: makes blood cells (RBCs, WBCs, platelets made in red bone marrow) *blasts: young productive cells * when cell matures: cytes (i.e. fibrocytes, chondrocytes, osteocytes) *Aerolar: model tissue, others are variation of it Cartilage Tissue is: 1. avascular, 2. all made by chondroblasts 3. 70% cartilage is water (highest water content) - flexible & compressible Types: 1. Hyaline Cartilage: fine collagen fibers 2. Elastic Cartilage: elastic & collagen fibers 3. Fibrocartilage: thick collagen fibers Bone tissue: - Richly vascularized - Made by osteoblasts - 50% calcium salts (hard) -25% collagen, (strong) -25% cells, fluids (blood vessels) Blood: - Cells: 45% RBCs, WBCs, platelets cells - Ground Substance: 55% fluid Plasma - Fibers: clotting protein 3 Membranes: flat sheets of tissue consisting epithelial and connective tissue 1. Cutaneous membrane: lines body surface - Skin 2. Mucous membrane: lines 4 open body cavities - Digestive - Respiratory - Urinary - Reproductive 3. Serous membrane: lines closed body cavities - Peritoneum - Pericardium - Pleura