W1 PPT- Physio - Physiology, Chemistry, Physics, and Cells PDF Lecture Notes

Fox, Stuart; Rompolski, Krista. Human Physiology, 16th Edition. McGraw-Hill 2022. Stanbridge 2023 1 Stanbridge 2023 2 Lecture Objectives  Define anatomy versus physiology  List the necessary functions of...

Fox, Stuart; Rompolski, Krista. Human Physiology, 16th Edition. McGraw-Hill 2022. Stanbridge 2023 1 Stanbridge 2023 2 Lecture Objectives  Define anatomy versus physiology  List the necessary functions of “life” and survival needs  Learn the structural levels of organization of living things  List the main organ systems of the human body and include organs and various functions of each  Understand negative and positive feedback loops and their relationship to homeostasis  List the body cavities and their components  List the 4 abdominopelvic quadrants  List the 9 abdominopelvic regions Stanbridge 2023 3 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology  Anatomy  Study of structure  Arrangement of and relations between parts or elements of something complex  Physiology  Study of the function of the body  Special, normal, or proper action of any part or organ Anatomy looks at what it is, while Physiology looks at what it does Stanbridge 2023 4 Levels of Structural Organization 1. Chemical Level Marieb, 2019  Atoms and molecules 2. Cellular Level  Organelles and cells 3. Tissue Level  Groups of similar cells 4. Organ Level  Two or more types of tissues 5. Organ System Level  Organs that work together 6. Organism Level  All organ systems 5 Stanbridge 2023  Marieb, 2019 Stanbridge 2023 6 Necessary Life Functions ❑ Maintaining boundaries  Internal and external environments  E.g., skin ❑ Movement  Contractility  E.g., skeletal muscle ❑ Responsiveness  Central Nervous System  E.g., getting out of harms way Stanbridge 2023 7 Necessary Life Functions ❑ Digestion  Breakdown and absorb food ❑ Metabolism  Anabolism and Catabolism ❑ Excretion  Respiratory system  E.g., exhaling CO2 ❑ Reproduction  Cellular division ❑ Growth  Increased size of organism Stanbridge 2023 8 Interdependence of Body Cells  Humans are multi-cellular  Different organ systems contribute to necessary bodily functions  These systems work together Stanbridge 2023 9  Digestive System Respiratory System Breakdown nutrients and Take in oxygen and eliminate unabsorbed eliminates carbon dioxide Food O2 CO2 matter (feces) Blood CO2 Cardiovascular O2 System Urinary System Blood distributes Nutrients Heart Eliminates nitrogenous oxygen/nutrients to cells wastes and excess ions and delivers carbon Interstitial fluid dioxide/wastes to disposal organs Nutrients and wastes pass between blood and cells via interstitial fluid Feces Urine Marieb, 2019 Integumentary System Stanbridge 2023 10 Protects body from external environment  The body’s organ systems and major functions of each  Integumentary  Lymphatic and immune  Skeletal  Respiratory  Muscular  Digestive  Nervous  Urinary  Endocrine  Male reproductive  Cardiovascular  Female reproductive Stanbridge 2023 11  Nails Marieb, 2019 Integumentary System  Forms external body covering and protects deeper tissues from injury (skin, hair, nails, and exocrine glands)  Synthesizes vitamin D and houses cutaneous receptors (pain, pressure, etc.), sweat and oil glands Stanbridge 2023 12  Marieb, 2019 Skeletal System  Protects, supports body organs, and provides a framework for muscles to cause movement  Blood cells are formed within bones  Bones store minerals Stanbridge 2023 13  Skeletal muscles Marieb, 2019 Muscular System  Allows locomotion and facial expression  Maintains posture and produces heat Stanbridge 2023 14  Brain Marieb, 2019 Nervous System  Fast-acting control system of the body  Responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands Spinal Nerves cord Stanbridge 2023 15  Pineal gland Thyroid Pituitary Marieb, 2019 gland gland Endocrine System  Glands that secrete  hormones that regulate  growth, reproduction,  and metabolism Ovary Stanbridge 2023 16  Heart Marieb, 2019 Cardiovascular System  Blood vessels transport blood (carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and wastes Blood vessels Stanbridge 2023 17  Red bone marrow Thymus Lymphatic Marieb, 2019 vessels Lymphatic System/Immunity  Pick up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood  Disposes of debris  Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) in volved in immunity that attack foreign substances Stanbridge 2023 18  Nasal cavity Pharynx Larynx Trachea Lung Respiratory System  Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide Disposes of debris Stanbridge 2023 19  Marieb, 2019 Oral cavity Esophagus Digestive System Liver  Breaks down food into Stomach absorbable Small units that enter Intestine blood for distribution to body cells Large Intestine  Indigestible Rectum foodstuffs are eliminated Anus as feces Stanbridge 2023 20  Marieb, 2019 Urinary System Kidney  Eliminates Ureter nitrogenous wastes from body  Regulates water, electrolyte Urinary and acid-base balance of blood bladder Urethra Stanbridge 2023 21  Marieb, 2019 Mammary glands (in Prostate breasts) gland Ovary Penis Testis Ductus deferens Uterine Scrotum Uterus tube Vagina Male Reproductive System Female Reproductive System  Production of offspring  Production of offspring Testes produce sperm and sex Ovaries produce eggs and sex hormone hormone Sites for fertilization and development of Ducts and glands aid in delivery of fetus sperm to the female reproductive Mammary glands of breasts produce milk to 22 tract nourish newborn Stanbridge 2023  Survival Needs Marieb, 2019 Appropriate amounts for life: Too little or too much is harmful  Nutrients  Macronutrients (Carbohyrates, Protein, Fat)  Oxygen Stanbridge 2023 23 Survival Needs Marieb, 2019  Water  Normal body temperature  Core temperature  Appropriate atmospheric pressure  Pressure exerted by the weight of air (760 mmHg) Stanbridge 2023 24 Homeostasis  Homeostasis or “staying the same” Maintenance of relatively stable conditions Dynamic (changeable) state of equilibrium Maintained by contributions of all organ systems Accomplished by feedback loops Stanbridge 2023 25 Feedback Loops  Negative Feedback Loops Maintains homeostasis and is more stable  Positive Feedback Loops Away from homeostasis and more unstable Stanbridge 2023 26 Negative Feedback Loops most common  Receptor: monitors environment  Responds to stimuli → sends information to the control center via the afferent pathway  Control Center: determines set point or acceptable range  Analyzes input and determines response → sends information to the effector via the efferent pathway  Effector: follows response from control center  Examples: blood glucose regulation, body temperature Stanbridge 2023 27 Negative Feedback Loops most common  Afferent pathway (“approach” control center)  Sensory nerves  Toward central nervous system  Efferent pathway (“exit” control center)  Motor nerves  Away (exit) from central nervous system Stanbridge 2023 28  Marieb, 2019 Stanbridge 2023 29 Negative Feedback Loops most common  Step 1 = Body’s physiology moves out of balance  (e.g., Body temperature rises)  Step 2 = Body recognizes unbalance or change  (e.g., Receptors in the nervous system)  Step 3 = Body sends a command to an “effector” organ to address the unbalance  (e.g., Nervous system tells sweat glands to sweat)  Step 4 = Balance is restored and process is signaled to shut off  (e.g., Stop sweating) Stanbridge 2023 30  Marieb, 2019 Stanbridge 2023 31  Marieb, 2019 Stanbridge 2023 32  Marieb, 2019 Stanbridge 2023 33 Positive Feedback Loop Less Common  Response  Enhances or exaggerates original stimulus  May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect  Usually controls infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustment  Examples: childbirth, blood clotting, lactation Stanbridge 2023 34  Marieb, 2019 Stanbridge 2023 35 Comparison of Feedback Loops  Negative feedback loop  The output reduces the original effect of the stimulus  Positive feedback loop  The output enhances the original stimulus Stanbridge 2023 36 Homeostatic Imbalance  Most diseases are a result of a disturbance of homeostasis or from homeostatic imbalance  Examples:  Increasing age → less efficient body systems → increased risk of homeostatic imbalance  If negative feedback loops become less active in a process compared to positive feedback loops Stanbridge 2023 37  BODY CAVITIES Stanbridge 2023 38 Body Cavities Marieb, 2019  Many organs are contained in membrane-lined body cavities  Two sets of internal body cavities 1. Dorsal (posterior) body cavity 2. Ventral (anterior) body cavity Stanbridge 2023 39 Dorsal Body Cavity  Protects nervous system  Two subdivisions: 1. Cranial cavity Encases brain 2. Vertebral cavity Encases spinal cord Marieb, 2019 Stanbridge 2023 40 Ventral Body Cavity  Houses internal organs (viscera)  Two subdivisions 1. Thoracic cavity 2. Abdominopelvic cavity Stanbridge 2023 Marieb, 2019 41 Ventral Body Cavity – Thoracic Cavity  Two thoracic cavity subdivisions  1. Two pleural (membrane) cavities  Contain the lungs  2. Mediastinum  Contains pericardial cavity:  Encloses heart  Surrounds thoracic organs (i.e. Marieb, 2019 esophagus, traches, etc.) Stanbridge 2023 42 Ventral Body Cavity- Abdominopelvic Cavity  Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions  Abdominal cavity Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver  Pelvic cavity Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum Marieb, 2019 Stanbridge 2023 43  Figure 1.10 Dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions. Cranial Cranial cavity cavity (contains brain) Vertebral cavity Superior Dorsal mediastinum body Thoracic cavity Pleural cavity (contains heartcavity and lungs) Pericardial cavity within the mediastinum Vertebral cavity Diaphragm Ventral body (contains spinal cavity cord) (thoracic and Abdominal cavity (contains digestive Abdomino- abdominopelvic viscera) pelvic cavities) cavity Pelvic cavity Dorsal body cavity (contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and Ventral body cavity rectum) Lateral view Anterior view Stanbridge 2023 Marieb, 2019 44  Ventral Body Cavity (cont.)  Serous membrane or serosa  Thin, double-layered membrane Parietal serosa (outer) - lines internal body cavity walls Visceral serosa (inner) - covers internal organs (viscera)  Layers separated by slit-like cavity filled with serous fluid Fluid secreted by both layers of Stanbridge 2023 membrane 45 Marieb, 2019  Figure 1.10 Serous membrane relationships. Outer balloon wall (comparable to parietal serosa) Air (comparable to serous cavity) Inner balloon wall (comparable to visceral serosa) A fist thrust into a flaccid balloon demonstrates the relationship between the parietal and visceral serous membrane layers. Heart Parietal pericardium Pericardial space with serous fluid Visceral pericardium Marieb, 2019 Stanbridge 2023 The serosae associated with the heart. 46 Other Body Cavities  Exposed to environment  Oral and digestive cavities (nose and throat)  Nasal cavity (nose)  Orbital cavities (eyes)  Middle ear cavities (middle ear)  Not exposed to environment  Synovial cavities and joint spaces  E.g., knee Stanbridge 2023 47  Marieb, 2019 The 4 Abdominopelvic Quadrants Marieb, 2019 Right upper Left upper quadrant quadrant (RUQ) (LUQ) Right lower Left lower quadrant quadrant (RLQ) (LLQ) Stanbridge 2023 48  Marieb, 2019 The 9 Abdominopelvic Regions Liver Diaphragm Right Left Epigastric Spleen hypochondriac hypochondriac region region region Gallbladder Stomach Ascending colon of Transverse colon Right Left of large intestine Umbilical large intestine lumbar lumbar region Descending colon region region Small intestine of large intestine Cecum Right iliac Hypogastric Left iliac Initial part of sigmoid colon (inguinal) (public) (inguinal) Appendix region region region Urinary bladder Nine regions delineated by four planes Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs Marieb, 2019 Stanbridge 2023 49  Fox, Chapter 2 Stanbridge 2023 50 Objectives for Lecture 1bP  Describe matter, energy, elements, atoms, and mixtures  Understand and be able to explain the difference between different types of chemical bonding and chemical reactions  Describe and explain organic compounds, biochemistry, and examples of each of the types of macromolecules  Describe the role of adenosine triphosphate and the energy it carries Stanbridge 2023 51 Matter Matter = Anything that has mass and occupies space; is composed of elements Weight = pull of gravity on matter 3 States of Matter:  Solid = definite shape and volume  Liquid = changeable shape; definite volume  Gas = changeable shape and volume Stanbridge 2023 52 Energy Energy = capacity to do work or put matter into motion Types of energy:  Kinetic = energy in action  Potential = stored or inactive energy Energy can be transferred from potential to kinetic energy Stanbridge 2023 53 Major Elements of the Human Body 4 elements make up 96.1% of body mass  Carbon (C)  Hydrogen (H)  Oxygen (O)  Nitrogen (N) Stanbridge 2023 54 Elements that make up 3.9% of the Human Body  Calcium (Ca)  Phosphorus (P)  Potassium (K)  Sulfur (S)  Sodium (Na)  Chlorine (Cl)  Magnesium (Mg)  Iodine (I)  Iron (Fe) Stanbridge 2023 55 Atomic Structure  Atoms = Building blocks for each element  Composition: nucleus and electron cloud  Protons (positive charge); in nucleus  Neutrons (no charge); in nucleus  Electrons (negative charge) Stanbridge 2023 56  Combining Matter: Molecules and Compounds Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded together (ex. H2 or C6H12O6) Smallest particle of a compound with specific characteristics of the compound Atoms can be the same or different Compound: A molecule that contains at least two different elements Two or more different atoms bonded together (ex. C6H12O6, not H2) Stanbridge 2023 57 Mixtures  Two or more components intermixed  Three types of mixtures:  Solutions Marieb, 2019  Colloids  Suspensions Stanbridge 2023 58 Types of Mixtures: Solutions A homogenous mixture meaning same composition throughout Ex. gases, liquids, or solids dissolved in water Solvent: Substance present in the greatest amount Usually a liquid; water is the body’s main solvent (called true solution) Solute: Marieb, 2019 Present in smaller amounts Stanbridge 2023 59 Types of Mixtures: Colloids and Suspensions Colloids: Marieb, 2019 -Large solute particles do not settle out -Some undergo sol-gel transformations ex. cytosol during cell division Suspensions: -Large, visible solutes that settle out Stanbridge 2023 60 Chemical Reactions  Occur when chemical bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken  Chemical equations contain:  Reactants: number and kind of reacting substances  Products: number and kind of ending substances  Must be balanced equations Marieb, 2019 Stanbridge 2023 61 Synthesis Reactions  Building up reactions  Anabolic reactions  Atoms or molecules combine to form a larger more complex molecule  Includes bond formation in the process  Reactants are smaller and products are larger Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 62 Synthesis Reaction Amino acids built into a polypeptide chain 63 Stanbridge 2023 Decomposition Reactions  Molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or atoms  Breaking of bonds  Catabolic reactions  Must have a balanced equation  Reactants are larger and products are smaller Stanbridge 2023 64 Decomposition Reaction Glycogen being broken down into glucose molecules Marieb 2019 65 Stanbridge 2023 Exchange Reactions  Displacement reactions  Involve synthesis and decomposition reactions  Bonds made and broken  Equation must be balanced  Ex. ATP + glucose → ADP + Glucose- phosphate Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 66 Biochemistry  Study of chemical composition and reactions of living matter  All chemicals are either organic or inorganic  Organic: contain carbon  ex. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids  Inorganic: does not contain carbon  ex. water, salts, many acids and bases Stanbridge 2023 67 Salts  Ionic compounds that dissociate into ions in water  Ions (called electrolytes) conduct electrical currents in solution Stanbridge 2023 68 Acids and Bases Both are electrolytes: ionize and dissolve in water  Acids: proton donors  Release hydrogen ions in solution (H+)  Ex. HCl → H+ + Cl-  Bases: proton acceptors  Take H+ up from solution  Ex. NaOH → Na+ + OH- Stanbridge 2023 69 Acid-Base Concentration and pH  Free H+ of a solution are measured on a pH scale (0-14)  Neutral solutions:  Equal numbers of hydrogen (H+) and hydroxyl (OH-) ions  pH of 7  Acidic solutions:  ↑[H+]; low pH (0-6.99)  Basic solutions:  ↓[H+]; high pH (7.01-14) Stanbridge 2023 70  pH Scale Marieb, 2019 Stanbridge 2023 71 Homeostasis of Acids and Bases  pH change interferes with cell function and may damage living tissue  Even the slightest change can be fatal  pH is regulated by the kidneys, lungs, and chemical buffers  Buffers: substances that can resist abrupt and large changes in pH  Ex. release hydrogen ions if the pH rises  Ex. bind hydrogen ions if the pH lowers Stanbridge 2023 72  Organic Compounds Macromolecules: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids Stanbridge 2023 73 Carbohydrates  Sugars and starches  Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen  Three types of classes:  Monosaccharides (one sugar)  Disaccharides (two sugars)  Polysaccharides (many sugars)  Functions of carbohydrates:  Major source of cellular energy (ex. glucose)  Structural molecules (ex. in DNA, deoxyribose is a sugar) Stanbridge 2023 74 Monosaccharides = simple sugars (3-7 carbon atoms) Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 75 Disaccharides = two sugars (monosaccharides) together Large enough so cannot pass through cell membranes Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 76 Polysaccharides = many sugars together  Not very soluble  Ex. starch and glycogen Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 77 Lipids  Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sometimes phosphorous  Insoluble in water  Main types:  Triglycerides  Phospholipids  Steroids  Eicosanoids Stanbridge 2023 78 Triglycerides  One glycerol head and 3 fatty acid tails  Glycerol is the same in all triglycerides but the tails are different  Fatty acid tails make it nonpolar and therefore not soluble in water Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 79 Saturation of Fatty Acids  Saturated fatty acids:  Single covalently bonded carbon atoms, holds maximum hydrogen atoms  Solid (at room temperature) animal fats, ex. butter  Unsaturated fatty acids:  One or more double bonds between carbon atoms, fewer hydrogen atoms  Liquid (at room temperature) plant oils, ex. olive oil  Trans fats/modified oils:  Oils made into solids by adding hydrogen atoms where double bonds occur  ↑ risk of heart disease  Omega-3 fatty acids:  ↓ risk of heart disease Stanbridge 2023 80 Saturated and Unsaturated Fat Marieb, 2019 Stanbridge 2023 81 Phospholipids  Modified triglycerides:  Glycerol head and two fatty acid tails (fatty acid and phosphorous containing group)  Important in cell membrane structure Stanbridge 2023 82 Phospholipid Structure Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 83 Steroids  Interlocking 4 ring structure  Most important is cholesterol:  Important in cell membrane structure, vitamin D synthesis, steroid hormones and bile salts  Vital to homeostasis Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 84 Eicosanoids  Derived from a fatty acid in cell membranes  The most important one is prostaglandins:  Important in blood clotting, blood pressure control, inflammation, and contractions during child birth Stanbridge 2023 85 Proteins  Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sometimes sulfur and phosphorous  Proteins are polymers, made up of amino acids (monomers)  20 different amino acids  Joined by covalent bonds called peptide bones  Can act as either an acid or base  Amino acids are linked together to form polypeptide chains  Proteins are certain polypeptide chain length and then must be folded in various structures in order to function Stanbridge 2023 86  Structure of Proteins Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 87 Protein Functions and Types  Structural (collagen)  Enzyme  Transport (hemoglobin)  Contractile ( actin and myosin in muscle)  Communication (cellular membrane proteins)  Defensive (antibodies) Stanbridge 2023 88 Proteins: Enzymes  Globular proteins that function as biological catalysis  Regulate and increase speed of chemical reactions  Act on a specific substrate  Named usually for what they catalyze, ex. hydrolases and oxidases  Usually end in “-ase” Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 89  How Enzymes Catalyze Reactions Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 90 Nucleic Acids  DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid  RNA = ribonucleic acid  Largest molecules in the body  Contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorous Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 91 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)  The nucleic acid is made up of a nitrogen base, pentose sugar, and a phosphate group  Uses 4 nitrogen bases:  purines (adenine, guanine); pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine)  Double stranded helical molecule (double helix) in the cell nucleus  Provides instruction for protein synthesis Stanbridge 2023 92  DNA Structure Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 93  Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)  Uses 4 bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil  Single stranded molecule usually most active outside the nucleus  Carry out orders from DNA  Three types:  messenger RNA (mRNA)  Transfer RNA (tRNA)  Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Stanbridge 2023 94 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)  Chemical energy that directly powers the chemical reactions of the cells  Adenine-containing RNA nucleotide with two additional phosphate groups Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 95 Function of ATP  Phosphorylation:  Terminal phosphates are enzymatically transferred to and energize other molecules  Molecules perform cellular work (life processes) using the phosphate bond energy that is released  The highest energy is stored in the bond between the phosphate groups Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 96  Lecture 1cP Fox: Chapter 3 Stanbridge 2023 97 Objectives for Lecture 1cP  List the various components of the human cell and each component’s structure and function Stanbridge 2023 98 Cell Theory  A structural and functional unit of life; all organisms are made up of one or more cells  The smallest unit of life  Cells only arise from other cells Stanbridge 2023 99  Cells  Over 250 different types of human cells  Differ in size, shape, cellular components, and functions Stanbridge 2023 100  Generalized Cell Structure Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 101 3 Main Components of the Human Cell  Plasma membrane: semipermeable outer cell boundary; phospholipid bilayer  Cytoplasm: area of intracellular fluid containing organelles  Nucleus: controls cellular activity Stanbridge 2023 102 The Plasma Membrane  Also called cell membrane  Made up of a phospholipid bilayer:  Nonpolar tails (hydrophobic) line up to face each other from both phospholipid bilayers, the hydrophilic heads line up to face the inside of the cell and the outside of the cell Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 103 Fluid Mosaic Model  Proteins that float in the lipid bilayer change their configuration or mosaic  Cholesterol (20%) maintains the membrane’s fluidity  Carbohydrates and glycocalyx project extracellularly:  Membrane lipids with sugars attached are called glycolipids  Membrane proteins with sugars attached are called glycoproteins  Glycocalyx are the sugars (important marked for identity of the cell) Stanbridge 2023 104 Membrane Proteins  Integral proteins:  Attached to membrane, some stick out one side of the membrane but most span entire membrane and stick out both sides  Some form channels in membrane or act as carriers, receptors, enzymes  Peripheral proteins:  Attached to integral proteins or to the membrane itself, inside cell  Support cell structure, enzymes, link cells Stanbridge 2023 105 Functions of Membrane Proteins Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 106  Functions of Membrane Proteins Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 107  Functions of Membrane Proteins Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 108 Attachments/ Projections From the Cell Membrane  Cilia: motile cellular extensions usually found in large numbers on some cells; can move things along the cell’s surface, (ex. mucus in lungs)  Flagellum: one long tail on end of sperm only (in humans) to propel cell itself  Microvilli: fingerlike projections of the cell’s membrane to increase surface area (ex., small intestines) Stanbridge 2023 109 Cytoplasm  Cellular material that contains organelles and cytosol outside of the nucleus  Cytosol is the fluid in the cytoplasm that has properties of a colloid and a true solution Stanbridge 2023 110 Cytoplasmic Organelles  Mitochondria  Ribosomes  Rough endoplasmic reticulum  Smooth endoplasmic reticulum  Golgi apparatus  Peroxisomes  Lysosomes Stanbridge 2023 111 Mitochondria  Double-membrane structure with outer membrane and inner shelf-like cristae (inner membrane)  Makes most of the cell’s ATP (adenosine triphosphate) through cellular respiration (oxygen required)  Contain their own DNA, RNA, and ribosomes Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 112 Ribosomes  Small granules made of protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)  Two globular subunits fit together to perform protein synthesis  Can be free floating or bound to rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Marieb Stanbridge 2023 2019 113 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)  Interconnected tubes and parallel sacs (called cisterns) filled with fluid  Continuous with the outer membrane of the nucleus  Rough ER: site of protein assembly  Smooth ER: site of most lipid assembly  Smooth and rough ER membranes are continuous with each other Stanbridge 2023 114 Rough ER  External membrane has ribosomes embedded in it (called “rough”)  Its ribosomes manufacture all of the proteins made for export  Integral and membrane proteins for the cellular membrane are also manufactured here Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 115 Smooth ER Enzymes catalyze reactions involved with:  Metabolizing lipids, synthesizing cholesterol and phospholipids, and the lipid components of lipoproteins  Synthesize steroid based hormones  Detoxify drugs, some pesticides, and cancer causing chemicals (in the liver and kidneys)  Break down stored glycogen into glucose (especially in liver cells)  Store calcium ions for most cells (ex. skeletal and cardiac muscle cells) Stanbridge 2023 116 Golgi Apparatus  Receives proteins being made after they leave the rough ER  Modifies the protein  Packages the protein in vesicles for transport Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 117 Processing and Distributing Newly Made Proteins Marieb, 2019 Stanbridge 2023 118 Lysosomes  Membrane bound organelles containing hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes  Can digest almost all biological molecules  Digest particles taken in by endocytosis (esp. bacteria, toxins, viruses)  Degrade dead or affected cells and old organelles  Glycogen breakdown and release and other metabolic functions  Break down bone to release calcium into the blood Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 119 Peroxisomes  Look like lysosomes  Break down and synthesize fatty acids  Contain powerful enzymes, ex. oxidases and catalases  Oxidases use oxygen to detoxify harmful substances, ex. alcohol and neutralize free radicals (highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons, can affect biological molecule structure)  Catalases complete the free radical neutralization process Stanbridge 2023 120 Cytoskeleton  Support cell structure, generate cell specific movements  3 types:  Microfilaments  Intermediate filaments  Microtubules Stanbridge 2023 121 Cytoskeleton: Microfilaments Marieb  Thinnest 2019  Strands of actin (a protein)  Cell motility, cell shape Stanbridge 2023 122 Cytoskeleton: Intermediate Filaments  In between the diameter of the microfilaments and the microtubules  Most stable and permanent of cytoskeleton  Strongly resist tension  “Neurofilaments” in nerve cells  “Keratin filaments” in epithelial cells Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 123 Cytoskeleton: Microtubules  Largest diameter of the cytoskeleton  Determine overall cell shape and location of organelles  Motor proteins move along the microtubules to move organelles  Involved with cell division Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 124 Centrosomes and Centrioles  Centrosomes: contained paired centrioles  Generate microtubules  Organize for cell division  Centrioles form bases of cilia and flagella Stanbridge 2023 125 Nucleus  Largest organelle  Contains genetic material for the cell  Most human cells have one nucleus but some cells have more, ex. skeletal muscle cells  Determines proteins being synthesized by the cell  Three main regions:  nuclear envelope or membrane, nucleoli, and chromatin Stanbridge 2023 126 Nuclear Envelope/Membrane  Double membrane, encloses nucleoplasm  Outer layer continuous with rough ER and has ribosomes  Inner lining maintains nucleus shape and organizes DNA  Nuclear pores through the envelope allows and regulates substances passing through Stanbridge 2023 127 Nucleoli  Small areas in the nucleus  Sites for ribosome subunit assembly  Usually 1-2 per nucleus Stanbridge 2023 128 Chromatin  30% DNA  60% histone proteins (package and regulate DNA)  10% RNA chains (completed or in the process of being made)  Before mitosis, chromatin condenses to form chromosomes Stanbridge 2023 129  Chromatin and Chromosome Structure Marieb 2019 Stanbridge 2023 130