Copy of Human Anatomy Notes PDF

: UNIT 2: Basic Chemistry Only 1 in # ○ H, C , O More than 1 in # ○ H(20, O(3) Cannot be broken down into or more different substances ○ O(2), H(2) Atoms of two or more elements joined to form chemical combinations ○ H...

: UNIT 2: Basic Chemistry Only 1 in # ○ H, C , O More than 1 in # ○ H(20, O(3) Cannot be broken down into or more different substances ○ O(2), H(2) Atoms of two or more elements joined to form chemical combinations ○ H(2)O,C(6)H(12)O(6),CO(2) Dehydration Synthesis to remove and make bigger molecules Electronegativity is when a Atom is closer to being full than a element than its not. As you go to right more the element gets electronegative. Attraction are called hydrogen bonds since they want to pair with negative or positive elements ○ REsults from unequal charge distribution on molecules ○ Polar ○ Weaker than ionic or covalent bonds Nonpolar covalent bonds are song ○ Polar covalent bonds are stronger than Different Type of chemical reactions Exothermic, dissolving of heat and Endothermic opposite of that An Acid is any substance that increase H+ concentration of a Solution A base is any substance that reduce the H+ concentration of a Solution ○ EX: HOH + NaCL Change the shape, change the function / Temperature, measurement of the energy level. High level = kinetic energy Stabilize pH by removing or replacing H^+ ions ○ Helps us keep the set point the same ○ Protons are sensors (EX: Alka Seltzer) Acids: Bases: Release H+ Remove H+ Raises pH Lowers pH Proton Acceptors Proton Donors EX: HCI Unit 3: Cellular Level Of Organization Structure ○ Names and Location ○ Anatomy ○ Often memorized Function ○ What it does ○ Physiology CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION.Prokaryotic Cells: ○ Cells without a nucleus; examples include bacteria. Eukaryotic Cells: ○ Cells with a nucleus; found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists. Nucleus: ○ Organelle containing genetic material (DNA). Cytoplasm: ○ Gel-like substance filling the cell, holding organelles in place. Plasma Membrane: ○ Cell membrane that controls entry and exit of substances. Cell Wall: ○ Rigid outer layer in plant, fungi, and some bacterial cells. Ribosomes: ○ Produce proteins; found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): ○ Transports materials; smooth ER (lipid synthesis) and rough ER (protein synthesis). Golgi Apparatus: ○ Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for transport. Mitochondria: ○ Powerhouse of the cell; site of cellular respiration. Chloroplasts: ○ Site of photosynthesis in plant cells. Lysosomes: ○ Digestive enzymes that break down waste and cell debris. Vacuoles: ○ Storage sacs for nutrients, water, and waste. Cytoskeleton:  ○ Provides structure and helps in cell movement. Microtubules: ○ Part of the cytoskeleton; help in cell division and shape. Microfilaments: ○ Thin protein strands involved in cell movement. Centrioles: ○ Aid in cell division in animal cells. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): ○ Genetic material in the nucleus. RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): ○ Plays a role in protein synthesis. Chromosomes: ○ Condensed DNA structures during cell division. Mitosis: ○ Division of a eukaryotic cell nucleus, forming two identical cells. Meiosis: ○ Cell division that results in four unique gametes (sex cells). Diffusion: ○ Movement of particles from high to low concentration. Osmosis: ○ Diffusion of water across a membrane. Active Transport: ○ Movement of molecules against a concentration gradient, requiring energy. Endocytosis: ○ Process of taking in substances by engulfing them. Exocytosis: ○ Process of expelling substances from the cell. Cell Signaling: ○ Communication between cells via chemical signals. Tissue: ○ Group of cells working together to perform a function. Homeostasis: ○ Cells maintain a stable internal environment. Types of Tissues Tissue that supports, binds, or separates other tissues and organs Extracellular matrix: ○ network of fibers and ground substance outside cells, providing support Fibroblasts: ○ cells that produce fibers in connective tissue Collagen fibers: ○ strong, flexible fibers providing strength and structure Elastic fibers:  ○ stretchy fibers that allow tissues to return to shape Reticular fibers: ○ thin fibers forming a supportive mesh Loose connective tissue: ○ cushions organs and stores fluids Dense connective tissue: c ○ contains tightly packed fibers; found in tendons and ligaments Adipose tissue: f ○ at storage tissue providing insulation and cushioning Cartilage: f ○ firm, flexible tissue that supports structures like the nose and ears Bone: ○ rigid tissue forming the skeleton, providing support and protection Blood: ○ fluid connective tissue transporting oxygen, nutrients, and waste Hyaline cartilage: ○ smooth, glassy cartilage covering joints Elastic cartilage: ○ flexible cartilage found in the ear and epiglottis Functions: ○ protection, support, binding tissues, energy storage, and transportation Simple epithelium: ○ single layer of cells, allowing easy diffusion and absorption Stratified epithelium: ○ multiple layers, providing protection Squamous cells: ○ flat, thin cells allowing easy movement of substances Cuboidal cells: ○ cube-shaped cells involved in secretion and absorption Columnar cells: ○ tall, column-shaped cells that absorb and secrete substances Simple squamous epithelium: ○ thin layer for diffusion; found in alveoli and blood vessels Simple cuboidal epithelium: ○ lines glands and kidney tubules Simple columnar epithelium: ○ ines the stomach and intestines for absorption Stratified squamous epithelium: ○ multiple layers for protection, like in the skin Pseudostratified epithelium: ○ appears layered but is not; lines respiratory tract Transitional epithelium: ○ can stretch; found in the bladder Cilia:  ○ hair-like structures that move substances along surfaces Tissue responsible for movement in the body Skeletal muscle: ○ voluntary muscle attached to bones, enabling movement Smooth muscle: ○ involuntary muscle in organs, controlling movement in the digestive system, blood vessels, etc. Cardiac muscle: ○ involuntary muscle in the heart, responsible for pumping blood Striations: ○ striped appearance in skeletal and cardiac muscles due to fiber arrangement Myofibrils: ○ long strands within muscle cells that contract Voluntary muscle control: ○ control of movement by conscious effort (skeletal muscle) Involuntary muscle control: ○ automatic movement (smooth and cardiac muscle) Intercalated discs: ○ specialized connections in cardiac muscle for synchronized contractions Functions: ○ movement, posture, heat production, and heartbeat Muscle fiber: ○ individual muscle cell; long, cylindrical, and multinucleated in skeletal muscle Tendons: ○ connect skeletal muscles to bones Smooth muscle locations: ○ found in blood vessels, intestines, and other organs Unit 3: Integumentary System Epidermis ○ Thin Dermis ○ Thick Hypodermis ○ Anchors skin to deeper tissues Sweat Glands, ○ If its to hot Arrector pill muscle ○ Tightins (goosebumps) and make all your hairs stand up. EX: Logan swim jacket coated with fur which cushions of warm air around you Skin is an organ  ○ Make up 16% of ones total body weight Melanin gives skin color ○ Genetic determines how much melanin you make Keratin ○ Waterproofs the skin so no water can be absorbed Keratinocytes ○ Makes keratin ○ Make sup several layers of tough, fibrous protection that waterproofs skin Melanocytes ○ Makes melanin ○ Filter out UV light and contributes to skin color Dendrite cells ○ Find foreign antigens and presents them to other immune cells for recognition and destruction Epidermis Layers Stratum corneum (Horny layer) ○ Composed of dead, expendable squamous cells ○ Desmosomes hold adjacent cells together so skin layers are in sheets ○ Barriers from water, trauma and ETC (microorganism) ○ 15-30 layers of keratinized cells ○ Insensible perspective, sensible perspiration and oil mixed with sloughed cells provide Stratum lucidum (Clear Layer) ○ Cells are flattened, densely packed without organelles and filled with keratin ○ Layer is absent in think skin , but apparent in palms and soles of feet Stratum granulosum (Granular Layer) ○ Has enzymes bec cells here are starting to degenerate but can still make keratin ○ May be missing in some regions of thin skin Stratum spinosum (spiny layer) ○ Keratinocytes are bound together by desmosomes ○ Dendrite cells stimulate defense against microorganism and superficial skin cancers Stratum basale/ germinativum (base layer) ○ Weave int basement membrane and areolar tissues of dermis ○ Basal cells or germinative (stem) cells to replaced superficial keratinocytes ○ Sensitive to touch releasing chemical to stimulate other nerves ○ Contains melanocytes Intercellular Junctions Tight junctions ○ Forms belt around cells preventing leakage of extracellular fluid Desmosomes ○ Function likes rivets, gluing cells together Gap junctions ○ Channels between cells allowing communication of ions, etc0 Strata of Dermis  Papillary Layer ○ Areolar tissue ○ Contains capillaries, lymphatic vessels and sensory nerves ○ Dermal papillae Give us fingerprints (frictions ridges) Allow us to grip and not slip Reticular layer ○ Collagenous fibers (leather) give toughness to skin ○ Some elastic fibers allow skin to rebound ○ Smooth muscle of arrector pili causes goosebumps ○ Has nerves and blood vessels which (constrict and dilate) Need Calcium for Nerves and blood coating Melanin ○ Pheomelanin(Badish) and Eumelanin(Good) Vitiligo - ○ where areas of the skin are not producing enough melanin than there are patches Burns and the Rules of 9’s If the body is dived into 11 parts of 9% 1st degree - minor discomfort, red skin, superficial epidermis 2nd degree - severe, blistering scarring, epidermis and upper dermis 3rd degree - insensitive after injury, follicles sweat glands, epidermis Age changes Youth - Skin heals quickly, elasticity, Layer of Fat under (smooth), Sweat glands are not at optimum efficiency, therefore get red-faced to dissipate heat Adulthood @ puberty - Sweat glands = body order , sebaceous gland therefore skin is oiler Elderly - Sweat - less adaptable in warm temperature, seabecause skin and hair are less resilient, gray hair since malnin Cancer Benign - Slow growing, does not spread Malignant - Develops quickly, spreads near and far (invasive) Basal cell carcinoma ○ Account for more than 90% of cases ○ Least serious because it is slow to grow and spread Squamous cell carcinoma ○ Is more serious because it can spreads more readily to other organs  Malignant Melanoma ○ Most serious because it spreads quickly (Least common)( Tonsils Pharnagel (adenoids) ○ Palatine ○ Lingual Protections against invaders that may enter via the mouth or nose Misc: IF Chronic infection the tonsillectomy Thymus Location: in mediastinum, inferior to thyroid Structure: largest a 2 year old. It invoultes as one ages Function: Final state of lymphocyte dev’ before birth Thymosin matures T Cells Spleen Location: inferior diaphragm, posterior to fundus of stomach, superior to left kidney. Structure: arteries send blood through areas of developing lymphocytes then blood collects in venous sinuses and returns to the heart Function - Defense, Hematopoiesis, RBC destruction, PLatelet destruction, Blood reservoir Misc: Splenectomy (Removal of Spleen`) Immunity Innate - Born with it ○ Rapid Response 1st Barriers: Skin, Mucous, 2nd Internal: Phagocytic cells, Antimicrobial Proteins, Inflammatory response natural killer cells Acquired - Immunity eventually in life ○ Slower Response 3rd: Humoral response - Antibodies against infection in body fluids Cell mediated response - Cytotoxic lymphocytes defend against infection in body cells Barriers Skin, mucous membranes, respiratory, urinary, w/ epithelial tissue (Stratified squamous, ciliated pseudo strat. w/ goblet cells) Lysozymes in mucus, tears, saliva Acid in stomach (pH 2) & from oil and sweat glands (pH 3-5) Internal Defenses Leukocyes (AKA WBC) recognizes pathogens, Capable of phagocytosis, non specifically eats any invader ○ Typical include:  Neutrophils - From blood, travels to infected tissue (chemotaxis) self destruct as they destoy Develops into macrophages ( big eaters) (Eosinophils, Lymphocytes, Basophils) Natural Killer (NK) Cells; ○ Destroy infected and abnormal w/o class 1 MHC (marker) EX: MHC Is like CST looking at ID which is our class 1. AntiMicrobial Proteins Complement Systems: ○ 30 protein cascade leading to cell lysis ○ Will circulate inactive state but will active with microbial proteins ○ The proteins help with the pore unless there is a complement proteins, Letter Y proteins are proteins which trigger other proteins with trigger proteins to help with the pores Interrons: ○ Virus-infected cells secretes these and nearby cells produce substance that inhibit viral report ○ Enhance macrophages phagocytic ability Acquired Immunity - Lymphocytes ○ B lymphocytes (Fr. Bone marrow) and T lymphocytes (fr. Thymus) B cells Look like letter YA Orginates from Strem cells in bone marrow or liver of feature Circulates in blood and lymph Concentrated in spleen, lymph nodes and lymphatic tissue ○ Antigens: Foreign molecules - viruses, bacteria, pollen, transplanted tissue, etc ○ Anti-bodies: Produced ny B Cells in response to antigens that elicit a specific response Acquired Immunity - Miscellaneous ○ Primary Immune response 1st exposure to ○ Secondary immune response 2nd exposure; faster, strong and more effective ○ Based on memory cells - long lived cells bearing receptors specific for an antigen after primary response Macrophase eat whatever is binded with the Anti Bodies ○ Something sort of a tag which tells them what to eat and what not to eat (IRL example: Kind of like a slaughterhouse Complement system help fill out pores Goldilocks Principle’