Aircraft Operations & Flight Planning PDF

 Atmosphere 01.10.24 Learning Objectives...

 Atmosphere 01.10.24 Learning Objectives Global circulation of the troposphere A complex system in movement of air, that Explain the theory of flight, the structure of the atmosphere distribute near and moisture. and the principle of aerodynamics. This is driven by the uneven heating of the explain the role of aircraft design and performance earths surface. describe the process of flight planning. Compare the commercial the operational design of different Key components: aircraft types. Hadley cell Ferrel cell Polar cell Aim of the module Jet stream Provide aviation management with a basic overview principles of flight useful knowledge for aviation managers and collaborate operations Earth's atmosphere - Pressure engineering and sustainability departments Low pressure - atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the weight of allows the Earth's atmosphere. precipitation and weather to Caused by gravity develop. It decreases the higher the atmosphere. High pressure - Due to less air molecules present. prevents precipitation and weather to Measured as pascals or millibars develop Sea level = 1 ATM (101,325 Pa) Textbooks needed for this module Earth's atmosphere - Temperature Temperature is a measure of thermal energy. It measures average kinetic energy which is the movement of particles. The troposphere gets colder with altitude while the stratosphere gets warmer due to the absorption of UV radiations by ozone layer In the mesosphere temperature decrease with altitude (down to -100 degrees Celsius) but grows on the thermosphere due to solar radiation. Temperature of an object increases as with its movement. Atmosphere International standard Atmosphere An atmosphere is a layer of gasses surrounding object all plan its also have an atmosphere. Nitrogen is also inert The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is a fixed model used to standardise the properties of the Earth's Atmosphere It is stable as it does not easily react. It represents an ideal atmosphere without water vapour, wind and While oxygen is vital for the survival for most organisms, it has allowed it to turbulence, with table of values over a range of altitude. keep at equilibrium. Used to baseline for weather analysis in flight planning. it is also used to design and calibrate aircraft instruments. Nitrogen is responsible for most of the Earth's atmosphere Exosphere (700 - 10000km) Less pressure the higner altitude. Thermosphere Fuel efficiency due to (80-700 km) thinner air and air resistance. (drag) Weather avoidance Mesosphere (50-80 km) Most commercial airliners fly at the Lower part of the Stratosphere stratosphere Requires to Contains ozone layer withstand cosmic (12-50km) radiation, very low temperatures and high pressure Troposphere (0 - 12 km) Less turbulence  Aircraft types & structure 08.10.24 Learning objectives Aircraft engine classification To introduce commercial Aircraft categories. Piston engine to look at the usage of different aircraft types to introduce the struck of typical transport airplanes. use internal combustion engines similar to those in cars Common in general aviation for training, personal use and small cargo. Categories of Aircraft Turboprop An aircraft is any machine that has the ability to fly, there use a turbine engine to drive a propeller are 2 types of classifications of aircraft. used for regional flights, short haul routes and cargo transport. Lighter-than-air aircraft: achieve lift by capturing lighter than air gas molecules to allow lift in the Turbofan aircraft such as hot air balloons. Heavier-than-air aircraft: rely on aerodynamic forces Jet engine with a large for at the front to produce in order to achieve lift. additional thrust most common modern commercial aviation due to efficiency and noise reduction. Airships Turbojet airships are aircraft than is lighter than air this uses lights molecules that provides lift. However, it created Jet engine produces thrush by expelling exhaust gases at safety issues for hydrogen to react to oxygen this high speed. causes the disaster in Hindenburg. not in much use in commercial aircraft (except for modern era of hot - air balloon started in 1960, with historical /exprimental flight) the development of new naturals and technologies. gains popularity in the 1970s Turboshaft Used for tourism t similar to turboprops bur designed to drive a shaft not a propeller. primarily used in helicopters and some specialised applications. Heavier-than-air aircraft Electric/Hybrid Aeroplanes - Engine driven, fixed-wing aircraft. Can use electric motors powered by bargains or other have heels to land on the ground or floats to land or electrical devices. floats to land on water or both. emerging technologyin general aviation and short regional rotor craft - Aircraft that use rotating blades to flights. generate lift, such as helicopters and gyroplanes. gliders - Aircraft that du not have on engine and rely on natural air currents for lift. powered lift - Aircraft capable of vertical takeoff, Helicopters landing, and low-speed flight. A rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by horizontal stabilisers. ability to take off and land vertically (VTOL) ideal for use in Commercial Aircraft confined spaces where runways are not available. can hover in place and can stay afloat stationary. Commercial aircraft are categorised based on their design can fly in most directions. capacity and intended use. can be powered by piston or turbine engines. Commuter aircraft regional aircraft narrow body aircraft Airplane Structure wide body aircraft freighter aircraft Business jets Types of Commercial Aircraft Commuter Aircraft Smallest commercial aircraft designed for very short routes point-to-point and typically less than 20 seats. Regional Aircraft Aircraft designed for short to medium-haul flights (up to 1500km) typically connecting smaller airports with larger hubs essential for remote areas. It is suitable for 100 seats. Narrow body aircraft Single aisle running the length of the passenger cabin, typically used for short to medium-haul flights, although modern models can handle longer routes I mainly used worldwide due to their efficiency and versatility. Conventional tail T-tail V-tail wide body Aircraft Has a twin-aisle which creates more versatility for space passengers and cargo. Designed for long haul and international flights. freighter/cargo Aircraft Designed for transporting goods typically feature large doors for easy loading / unloading of cargo and interior optimised for cargo. Can be built or modified from passenger aircraft. Business Aircraft Aircraft used to transport people or goods for business purposes And is part of the "general aviation" that only includes only for all civil aviation activities not commercial/military Combines the vertical The horizontal stabiliser and horizontal Features a vertical is mounted on top of the stabiliser into two stabiliser and a vertical stabiliser diagonal surfaces horizontal stabilise forming, a t-shape former a "V" shape. forming a L-shape (737)  Aircraft types & structure 08.10.24 (Continued) Design choices - Engine position Materials First aircraft were made of wood and fabric Today they are made of various morals and increasingly) of composite natural such as carbon fiber. composite materials are materials made from two or more constituent materials with slightly different physical or chemical properties. The structures of Boeing 787 and Airbus A350 are made by 50% more with composites. Over-the-wing (HondaJet) Tail-mounted (Embraer ERJ 175) Design choices - wings Undercarriage Known as the landing gear it's the part of on aircraft that supports it while on the ground and takeoff and landing. it typically supports wheels, tires, shock absorber, and structural components. can be fixed (in small aircraft) or retractable, with the latter folding away during flight to reduce drag. can have from 3 to up to 22 wheels. Swept wings are angled backward XO Straight wings are perpendicular to the fuselage and provide excellent lift and reduce drag and improve performance Airworthiness stability at lower speeds. at higher speeds. Airworthy refers to an aircraft that is considered safe to fly meeting sager and operational standards. Key aspects: maintenance - regular inspections and maintenance of the structure, engine and avionics are crucial to maintain airworthiness. regulations - airworthiness is governed by aviation authorities like the FAA in the U.S. and EASA in Europe. certification - an aircraft must have a valid airworthiness certificate. MRO (maintenance, repair, overhaul) is essential function of an airline. Read from (37 -73 pg)  Principles of flight 15.10.24 Learning Objectives Camber of airfoils Understand now an aircraft flies. While The upper surface of the wind will always have a recognise the four forces that affect flying. positive chamber, the lower service may have a understand the effect of wing design in aerodynamics. positive, zero or negative concave camber. understand renter of gravity and the importance of negative camber office maximum left but sacrifice balancing weight. the speed Modern jets maximise speed and lift using movable parts called flaps and slats. Newton's laws of motion Winglets I) Law of inertia: an object will remain at rest, a state of constant motion unless acted upon by an external force. Winglets are vertical extensions at the tips of the aircraft wings designed to improve aerodynamic 2) Law of acceleration: the acceleration of an object is efficiency. directly proportional to the force and inversely can reduce drag by up to 30%, leading to better fuel proportional to mass efficiency, increased range, and lower carbon emissions. widely used in the 1970s, sharklets or a similar device is used in Airbus. 3) Action and reaction: for every action there is an equal Factors in achieving lift and opposite reaction. Wing area and shape (airfoil): the design and coverage of the wink affect how air flows over and under it, creating a pressure difference that Four forces of flight generates lift. angle of attack: increasing this angle increases lift but too much can cause a stall. Air speed: faster air flow over the wing increases lift. This is why aircraft need to reach a certain speed to take off. Air density: higher density increase this left. This is why aircraft perform better at sea level compared to high attitudes. Weight The weight of an aircraft is the force generated by the gravitational attraction of the Earth on an aeroplane. it includes the weight of the aeroplane itself, plus the weight of the fuel and a traffic load. Bernoulli's effect Fuel + Traffic Load = Useful Load Wings designed with a coverture on top and flatten the bottom, forcing air over the wings to travel further and faster producing low pressure Bernoulli effect: before so fluid moves, the lower flowed its pressure. Pressure difference, which must equal or exceed the eye across weight for it to fly. Coanda effect The Coanda effect is a phenomenon fluid dynamics where a fluid tend to see attached to a curve service more than following a straight path. Wing design Center of gravity and lift The chord a straight line distance between the front tip (leading edge) and the back tip (trailing edge) The camber is the line with the equal distance from the The center of gravity (CG) of an aircraft is the point where the top and the bottom of the wing and refers to the aircraft would balance if it was suspended by a rope in midair curvature of the wing. this is typically closer to the engines. it is the average location of the weight of the aircraft, and changes continually depending upon the distribution of weight. Crucial for stability and control it must fall within the specified limit by the manufacturer to ensure safe flight. The centre of lift (CL) is the point of an aircraft by the total lift force is considered to act. Is the average location of all upward forces generated by the wings. Angle of attack The center of lift is typically located aft (behind the enter of gravity). This positioning creates a stabilising moment, helping to keep the aircraft balanced and stable in flight. the angle of attack is the angle at which the airflow needs towing, between the cord line and the relative wind. Did determine the quantity of left receive but also drag. if the ankle of attack is increased too much, the airflow across the upper wing surface detaches from the air, resulting in a sudden loss of flight cold called stall  Thrust & drag 22.10.24 Learning objective Induced drag Understand what drag is, what causes it, and now it Drag caused by generation of lift. charges with weight, speed, and altitude. The distribution of left is not uniform on the ring, but understand the differences between piston, turbo-props varies from root to tip. When lift is generated, water and turbofan engines and their usages. see form at the wingtips, creating a swirling flow of identify factors that influence engine thrust. air that increases drag. Long, thin, wings have low induced drag short wings with a large cord half high in induced drag. Minimising induced drag: long, thin Drag wings have low induced drag compared with short, wide wings. elliptical wings. Drag is the aerodynamic force that opposes on aircraft's winglets reduce vortices. motion through the air. it is a mechanical force generated by the interaction and contact between a solid body and a fluid as it moves through. it is generated by the difference in velocity between a solid object and the fluid. Form drag Thrust Form drag is that aerodynamic resistance to the motion of Thrust is a force that move an aircraft through the the objects through the air. air, overcoming drag and, in this case of rockets also it depends on the shape of the aircraft. As air flows weight. around the alters, it creates a pressure difference It's a mechanical force generator by the engines between the front and the back, leading to resistance. Explained by Newton third law of motion: when an a more streamline shape will have less form drag vice engine spells gasp backwards, there are crawfish versa. pushed forward. the magnitude of trust depends on the amount of gas accelerated and a velocity change of the gas through the engine. Skin friction The drag the results from friction between the molecules of the air and the surface of the aircraft. a smooth, wax surface produces less skin friction than a rough surface. Boundary layer is a layer of the directly in contact with the Types of engines aircraft surface. Skin friction drag can significantly affect an aircraft performance, especially at low speed. Uses internal combustion to convert To reduce skin friction: polishing pressure into a and coating, suction systems, rotating motion flush rivets, riblets, advanced materials. Interference drag Interference drag because at points are a different components of the aircraft meet, such as the wing and fuselage. When airflow from one aircraft component mixes with one another, increase turbulence and increases Uses a large fan and splits air into 2 the energy required for the past or restricted area, streams to the core where it's resulting in higher drag. compressed and combusted and the The shopper more acute the angle, the greater the other bypasses the core for additional Uses a turbine engine where interference drag generated. thrust. power is produced with a propeller attached, efficient. External factors affecting thrust Temperature: higher temperatures lead to a reduce air density, which can decrease thrust. Lower temperatures increase at density and can enhance thrust. Air density: higher identity allows for more air to be compressed and combusted, increasing thrust. as altitude increases, thrust generally decreases and vice versa.  Aircraft performance Learning objectives 3. Required obstacle clearance Understand the concept of commercial aircraft The fundamental concept in aviation, it specifies the performance minimum vertical distance that must be maintained evaluate the factors that affect an aircraft performance between aircraft and obstacle below to avoid risk of Review at high level the regulations for performance collision. recognise the solutions XO performance below that is Crucial for both instrument and visual flight operations, required providing a safety buffer to prevent collision with terrain, buildings, and other obstacles. Commercial Aircraft performance 4. Obstacle clearance Commercial aircraft performance refers to the evaluation and measurement of how an aircraft behaves and operates under various conditions during flight. After takeoff, the aircraft must achieve a minimum this includes different phases of a flight such as takeoff, claim gradient to ensure it clears obstacles near the climb, cruise, descent and landing. airport. while en-route, an hour must respect as minimum obstacle clearance altitude (MOCA) , the lowest altitude which can fly while ensuring obstacle Aircraft Flight Manual clearance. The require obstacle clearance ensures the aircraft maintains a safe altitude above obstacles throughout The aircraft performance is documented by the the approach and final. manufacturer in a detailed document called the Aircraft Flight Manual AFM based on extensive testing and certification processes to ensure information is accurate and complies with regulatory standards. essential for safely, regulatory compliance and operational efficiency. Regulation for Aircraft performance 5. Maximum altitude safely achievable ICAO: The highest altitude at which an aircraft can maintain flat level on a specific conditions. annex 6: operation of aircraft, includes performance requirements for take-off, landing, and en-route Operating within this limit insurance, the aircraft remains operations. controllable and efficient. annex 8: airworthiness of aircraft, sets our standards for aircraft performance and airworthiness certification. 6. Runway needed for landing EASA/CAA: The length of runway required on aircraft to safely land regulation 965/2012 - annex 4, details the requirement and come to a complete stop. for aircraft operations, including necessity of on AFM. CS-25: outlines the detailed performance and operational Aborted landing/go around: requirements that must be included in the AFM. A go around also known as balked landing, rejected landing or Mr approach, it's a man manoeuvre were deployed award the landing attempt and take off again, often at a very low altitude or even after the aircraft has touchdown onto the runway. 1. Runway requirement Refers to the length of the runway required to takeoff for Factors affecting performance an aircraft to safely takeoff or abort take-off if necessary. ensuring the runway is long enough is crucial for safety, especially in case of an emergency where the take off needs Aircraft mass to be aborted. Aircraft mass can perform worse in every flight it's Rejected take-off (RTO) heavier, consuming more fuel and decreasing endurance so more thrust would be needed and vice versa. also known as aborted take Off, it occurs when a pilot decides to stop the aircraft during the take-off roll before Wind it leaves the ground. RTO decision is closely tied to the take-off decision speed, wind significantly affects aircraft performance in various known as V1. This speed is calculated before each flight and ways, depending on his direction and speed relative to the represents the point beyond which the aircraft is aircraft flight path. committed to takeoff. 2. Climb gradient It is the rate of climb expressed as the ratio between altitude gained and distance travelled over the ground during its ascent. A higher climb gradient is essential for clearing obstacles and ensuring a safe ascent, particularly after takeoff.  Flight operations management 05.11.24 Learning objectives Components of operations Manual Demand the basic management structure required by an air operator. identify the main regulations applicable XO commercial aviation in the UK and EU. introduce the concept of AOC and operations manual. understand the purpose of compliance and safety departments in flight operations. describe the basic role of an operations control center. Commercial air transport - definition An air operator is any entire entity that engages in the commercial transport of passengers or goods by aircraft, domestically and internationally. This aligns with the broader understanding of commercial aviation as Compliance system operations conducted by airlines for profit involving the transportation of passengers and goods. A compliance system is a structured framework that organisations used to ensure ad here to applicable regulation, industry standards, and internal policies. it includes systems, business processes and internal controls (audit) Organisational structure designed to manage compliance risk and responsibilities. Compliance system - auditing Auditing is the systematically evaluation of the airline operation, management and control systems with the objected to compare actual practices documented standards and procedure. Any deviation from the standards identified as findings Find this can be categories as level one and a non-compliance that can significantly safety or level two or I can go minor which is less Accountable manager impact but still need correction. The accountable manager is un air operators individual who holds the overall responsibility for safe and compliant operation of the airline's aircraft. Safety system management they ensure regulation and industry standards are met while overseeing departments like flight operations, maintenance, quality control I and Safety. A safety system management system (SMS) is a proactive without an accountable manager, an airline cannot obtain or approach to safety that goes beyond mere regulatory compliance. maintain an Air operator certificate. Operational planning and control Operational planning and control is the organisational function responsible for coordinating and managing all aspects of flight Air operator certificate operations. approval granted by a national aviation authority to an air operator, allowing it to use aircraft for commercial air transport purposes. to obtain the AOC, an operator must demonstrate it has necessary assets, people and Systems in place to ensure the Flight operations Management (FOM) Operations control center (occ) safety of its operations. it specifies the types of aircraft, areas of operation, type The operations control centre is the hub of Responsible for overseeing and managing all commercial airline responsible for real time of services that operator is authorised to provide and in aspects related to safe, efficient and which operations. management and flight operations. compliant operations of flights. it defines the nationality of an airline, allowing it to Staffed by team experts who monitor and exercise the international "freedom of air" manage flights in real time. Place a critical role in managing disruptions. Operations Manual Airlines/Integrated operational control center A comprehensive document that outlines the procedures, While the OCC focuses on media flight operations, and airline operations instructions, and guidance necessary for the safe and control centre includes a wider range of operational functions, such as efficient operation of aircraft. screwing, maintenance, an overall operational planning. issued and maintained by the air operator. it provides great efficiency, better coordination, and enhanced approved and complied by the aviation body. communication and decision-making. must be kept up to date, and all personnel must be With all operational roles or housing one physical place it will be called an informed of any changes relevant to their duties. integrated operations control Centre cover safety protocols, operational procedures, crew responsibilities and emergency controls.  Network planning to flight scheduling 12.11.24 Learning objectives Network planning Understand the strategic process of Network and fleet Strategic process of designing and optimising an airline's planning. route network. familiarise with the importance of slots and the challenges Include destination selection, service frequency, aircraft related to secure and manage them. type, and slot assignments understand the key components of Flight scheduling must align with network structure and high-level analyse how activities are transitions by commercial to availability of resources operations Routes are chosen based on the market analysis, demand forecasting and competitive analysis the goal is to maximise overall profitability and major decisions are made typically twice a year but our review continuously for opportunities Airline network structure Airlines select a flight network structure as part of their Flight scheduling structure as part of their strategic plan. Flight scheduling is a detailed analysis process of creating specific Hub-and-spoke timetable with exact departure /arrival times and other key parameters. point-to-point it's involve balancing factors such as passenger demand, aircraft availability, crew availability and airport slots to create a schedule that hybrid network maximise revenue and minimise cost. One network planning set a strategic direction and overall structure of Hub and spoke Point to point the airlines network, flight scheduling focuses on the day to day scheduling of individual flights within that network. Minimum Connect time MCT refers to the shortest allowable time required for a passenger and a baggage to transfer from one flight to connecting flight at a specific airport. it's insurance passengers have sufficient time to make the connections reducing the risk of miss flights and insurance operations. This is done by airport and it is set by airports and IATA. However, there is also actual connecting times which is the amount of time included in the schedule to allow passengers to transfer between one Time Bank flight to another airport and it must be equal or greater than the MCT approved at the airport. A time bank is a reserved block of time at on airline's hub for aircraft turnarounds, passenger connections, or other operational needs. Airport infrastructure core features of the hub-and-spoke airline network, align flights scheduled at a hub to maximise the amount of connecting traffic. To perform take-off and landing, a commercial airline needs to another time bank is needed for the returning flights. be using a specific airport in infrastructure such as a runway, taxiways and terminal gates time-zones are taken into consideration, to ensure departure times are acceptable. airport slot are the allocation of a permitted time of an aircraft to takeoff and land at an airport. Advantages of the hub-and-spoke network Airport slots better network coverage Level I: airports with sufficient capacity to meet demand A minimum number of flights allows to city pairs level 2: airport with potential for congestion during certain periods and they schedule adjustments made through mutual mixed portfolio agreement between the airport and airline to manage the demand Each flight includes passengers going into different cities and avoid delays. level 3: airports where demand significantly exceeds capacity and dominance at the hub they must have a slot allocated by an independent coordinator to Competitive advantage land or takeoff economies of scale at to hub Lower cost Slot coordination Disadvantages of hub-and-spoke model Global regulation defined in the worldwide Airport slot guidelines slots are allocated by independent coordinators officially congestion at the hub which result in higher number of appointed by airports. passengers arriving or departing in a short window time Vulnerability disruption at the hub which can be caused by Airlines also must use 80% of their allocated slots to retain weather conditions at the hub that will affect the huge number them. of flights when airline don't use their slots as required, they would often Extended ground time to ensure network connections operate flights with no passengers "ghost flights" Point-to-point model A model in which flights are operated directly between two Slot management challenges cities without any intermediate stops. Focuses on serving specific markets, reducing transit times, offering more non-stop flights Airlines I need matching take off and landing Avoid the complexities of smoke model delays or whether slots, which can be difficult to secure disruption or less impactful Slot availability can depend on the aircraft type simple to manage from commercial and operational point of view and size; larger aircraft needs specific infrastructure a slot can be sold or rented out in a secondary Hybrid network model market A hybrid network model compounds elements from hub and spoke and point to point.  Fleet planning & tail assignment 19.11.24 Learning objectives Tail assignment Understand now long-term decisions on fleet are taken. A tail number is a unique alphanumeric code assigned to an analyse how airlines choose which type of aircraft to fly on each aircraft, similar to a license plate or car. route. assigned by the national aviation regulator evaluate the elements used to determine the rotation of essential for regulatory, safety and operational purposes. aircraft to cover the schedule. displayed on the tail and fuselage. understand the process of assigning each flight to specific aircraft. Fleet planning The process of choosing the types and number of aircraft (and engine) for the airline's operation. strategic decision, done at pivotal moments in the airline, but constantly reviewed. Tail number strategic connected with network design/planning and flight scheduling and the routes chosen determine the type of fleet needed. Factors of fleet planning Tail assignment Passenger demand Tail assignment refers to the process of assigning a specific other marketing considerations aircraft (identifying by its tail number) to a particular fight. types of network A graph of aircraft range and capacity it ensures that the right aircraft is used for each flight taking existing resources into account practice suggest the size of the aircraft, their distance of the flight, number of passengers, and maintenance airport constraints needs. political considerations Typically only a few days before departure by the operation team, regulatory requirements responsible for managing the day-to-day be operations of an existing relations with manufacturers airline. Factors in aircraft evaluation Passenger capacity range fuel efficiency design characteristics MTOW maintenance needs emissions engine availability financials considering cost and benefit analysis Flight planning considerations Common fleet types (LCC) US mixed fleet (FSNC) fleet purchases by years before operations Decline interest for very large jets making and of A380 production The A321XLR is redefining the market Transfer towards fleet motorisation which includes efficiency pet products and reduce emissions supply chain issues or delivery delays Fleet Management Closely related to Flight scheduling, airlines assign the most suitable type of aircraft from the airline fleet to each flight search based on expected demand complex process that requires continuous adjustments based on demand fluctuations and operational constraints The amount of specific days can be influenced by trade fair, sports events, vacations, public holidays. Aircraft rotations Aircraft rotation refers to the sequence of flights that a plane operates over a specific period, typically a day or a few days. The goal is to maximise aircraft uitilization while satisfying she flies scheduling a meeting maintenance requirements and operational constraints. Start and finish at the same location and stops at operational bases (maintenance)