agtechfocus_12_Sheep (1).pdf

Shutterstock.com/mastersky CHAPTER 12 Sheep CHAPTER SUMMARY Australia is known worldwide for the quality of its wool. Sheep production is based around prime lamb production, wool production, speciality carpet wool production and sheep milk production. In this chapter you will learn about the physiol...

Shutterstock.com/mastersky CHAPTER 12 Sheep CHAPTER SUMMARY Australia is known worldwide for the quality of its wool. Sheep production is based around prime lamb production, wool production, speciality carpet wool production and sheep milk production. In this chapter you will learn about the physiology of sheep and what nutrition is needed at different stages of their lifecycle. You will also investigate the power of consumer demands and see how sheep farmers react and adapt to animal welfare issues, such as mulesing. What makes Australian sheep production unique and successful? How does Australian sheep production address consumer concerns? 322 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS 12.1 Introduction WS Homework Create a sheep production glossary to help you remember all the terms as you study this chapter. Currently Australia has 72 million sheep, with a total gross value of Australian sheep meat to the economy of $4.7 billion in 2018-19. The sheep industry is comprised of approximately 31 100 farms accounting for 8% of the world’s sheep meat production. The Australian sheep industry is dominated by wool production, with sheep feedlots and prime lamb production growing in importance. Sheep milk production is small-scale but plays a relevant role in niche markets. Sheep farming is another animal enterprise that, like dairy and beef farming, contributes heavily to Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions. Sheep farmers are therefore becoming more sustainable in their practices, monitoring and reducing use of chemicals, reducing stock numbers, planting and protecting trees, encouraging biodiversity and ensuring the resources and the land will sustain future generations. 12.2 Functions and anatomy Functions Wool production staple a cluster of wool fibres shearing/shorn the process of removing the wool from the sheep greasy wool wool shorn straight from the sheep micron the measurement used to describe the fibre diameter of wool Wool is a natural fibre grown by sheep, the same way as human hair. Wool contains wavy clusters, or staples, of fibres. Sheep are shorn annually to harvest and process the wool. Wool is a versatile product, able to be made into items such as woollen blankets, fire fighter uniforms, insulation, suits, thermal underwear, carpets and much more. Australia produces 25% of the world’s greasy wool and is one of the leading general wool producers. Wool is produced in all states except the Northern Territory. The wool is shorn once or sometimes twice a year and then sold to be processed. Wool is categorised as extrafine, ultrafine, Wool fibre is measured in superfine, fine, medium and broad according DID micrometres: 1 micron = YOU to its micron measurement.The fibre 1 millionth of a metre. diameter is the characteristic that determines KNOW the quality and value of wool. The smaller the number, the finer the wool. Table 12.1 Merino wool micron grades cashmere the quality wool fibre produced by goats Microns Grading 14.5 and less Extrafine 14.6–15.5 Ultrafine 15.6–18.5 Superfine 18.5–22.5 Medium Greater than 22.5 Broad Extrafine and ultrafine is the finest wool in the world and is used to make fabric of very high value, targeting the high-end fashion market. This wool is also blended with silk and cashmere to produce a high-quality fabric. 9780170443111 CHAPTER 12 – SHEEP CHAPTER 12 Carpet wool 323 Carpet wool can be classified as pure wool or wool blend (mixed with other natural or synthetic fibres). Wool for carpet production includes: specialty carpet wool (only four breeds in Australia can produce this wool) basic and filler wools: course fibres from crossbred sheep such as Romney sheep. Australia imports 90% of its carpet wool, mainly from NZ. Meat production Australia is the second-largest sheep producer in the world and the world’s largest exporter of sheep meat, both lamb and mutton. Prime lamb producers use either pure breeds or crossbred sheep in their breeding programs. With the increased demand for lamb and unpredictable wool prices in recent decades, there has been a trend towards dual purpose merino sheep, grown for both wool and meat production. mutton meat from sheep that are over 12 months old and have incisors in wear (it takes about a month for them to show wear) Sheep milk crossbreed the product of crossing two different breeds Sheep milk in Australia and New Zealand is a niche market with only a very small number of farms milking sheep, predominantly to produce cheese. Sheep milk contains more protein and fat than traditional cow’s milk. Antara Ag, New Zealand, milk 20 000 sheep with the cheese produced sold locally and milk powder exported to China. Breeds of sheep There are more than 20 different breeds of sheep in Australia. While merinos are the most common breed, predominately used for wool production, there are numerous other breeds used for meat, carpet wool and milk. Some of these breeds are dual-purpose. A sheep may also be purebred or crossbred. Crossbreeding is conducted to improve the quality of the lambs, gaining the best characteristics from the two breeds used. Crossbreeds are important in prime lamb production (you can find out more about prime lamb production in Chapter 12.3 Production). dual-purpose sheep used for two different purposes, such as meat and wool production purebreed an animal with parents of the same breed Table 12.2 Breeds of sheep in Australia Shutterstock.com/grahamspics Romney Shutterstock.com/John Carnemolla Merino Figure 12.1 Merino sheep Figure 12.2 Romney sheep Purpose: Wool production Traits: Most common breed, wool fibre of less than 24 microns Purpose: Carpet wool, breeding to produce other carpet wool breeds and prime lambs Traits: Wool fibre of 30–40 microns > 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS > Poll Dorset Alamy Stock Photo/GFC Collection Alamy Stock Photo/ Nigel Cattlin terminal sire used over different breeds of crossbred ewes with the aim to improve carcase traits Figure 12.3 Poll Dorset sheep Figure 12.4 Texel sheep Purpose: Dual-purpose, short wool, meatproducing sheep. Used as a terminal sire for prime lamb production. Traits: Bred in Australia to eliminate horns from the Dorset Horn. Purpose: Meat Traits: Heavily muscled (produces a lean carcase), lambs finish early (ready for market before other breeds) Suffolk Dorper Shutterstock.com/Plotitsyna NiNa poll an animal born naturally with no horns Texel Shutterstock.com/Andre Klopper 324 Figure 12.6 Dorper sheep Purpose: Dual-purpose: meat and short wool. Rams used as terminal sire for crossbreeding. Traits: Rams have high sex drives and ewes have high fertility. Purpose: Meat Origin: South Africa Traits: Suited to dry regions. No shearing required, produces lean carcases. Border Leicester Friesian/East Friesland Alamy Stock Photo/Nigel Cattlin Shutterstock.com/Bildagentur Zoonar GmbH Figure 12.5 Suffolk sheep Find out about Australia’s newest breed of sheep, the ‘Lamb Master’, with this video. Figure 12.7 Border Leicester sheep Figure 12.8 Friesian sheep Purpose: Dual-purpose, wool and meat. Rams used for cross-breeding with merinos. Origin: British Purpose: Multi-purpose, meat, carpet wool and milk Traits: Ewes produce 500–600 litres of milk per lactation cycle (210–230 days) 9780170443111 CHAPTER 12 – SHEEP Many terms can be used to refer to sheep of different ages and at different stages of the production cycle (Table 12.3). Table 12.3 Sheep terminology Term Definition Lamb A young sheep under 12 months of age or that does not have any permanent incisor teeth in wear Ewe A mature female sheep Maiden ewe A female that hasn’t yet lambed Ram A mature male sheep with intact testes Weaner A lamb that has recently been weaned (removed from its mother) Wether A castrated male sheep Hogget A sheep of either sex with no more than two permanent (adult) teeth Terminal sire A ram that is joined to crossbred ewes to produce prime lambs for meat production Parts of a sheep Farmers need to be aware of the Top of shoulder anatomy of sheep, to visually assess Ear Forehead Loin Ribs Rump them when purchasing, judging, or Hip Back when choosing the best animals for breeding. Farmers also need to be able to correctly age sheep because Neck the age of a sheep influences market prices. Sheep are aged by Thigh examination of their teeth. Their Shoulder milk teeth are gradually replaced Hock Breast by adult teeth or permanent incisors. Sheep have lower incisors Belly Fore Hind leg flank Fore leg but no upper incisors and instead Hind flank have a hard, smooth dental pad. Foot Dew claw Figure 12.10 can be used to assist Figure 12.9 Parts of a ewe when aging the sheep. A simple guide to age is to divide the number of adult teeth by two. For example, a sheep with two teeth is one year old. However, remember that different breeds of sheep can vary and therefore aging is approximate only. LET’S DISCUSS 1 In general, lamb is a more expensive meat than mutton. Why do you think consumers prefer lamb over mutton? 2 How might inaccurate ageing of sheep affect sheep farmers? CHAPTER 12 Anatomy 325 326 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS WS Lamb’s teeth (0–12 months) 8 milk teeth 12 months or 2 teeth 2 adult teeth, 6 milk teeth 24 months or 4 teeth 4 adult teeth, 4 milk teeth 36 months or 6 teeth 6 adult teeth, 2 milk teeth 40 months or 8 teeth Full mouth – 8 adult teeth Homework Assess your school’s sheep flock with the practical NelsonNet worksheet. WS Homework Review your knowledge about sheep anatomy. Figure 12.10 How to age a sheep by its teeth LET’S REVIEW LOOKING BACK 1 2 3 4 Describe four different breeds of sheep. What is the current sheep population in Australia? Identify four main products of sheep production. Outline one key feature that is important when assessing sheep. FOR YOU TO DO Australian White sheep Cormo sheep 1 Research two breeds that have been developed in Australia, such as the Australian White sheep or Cormo. a Why were these breeds developed? b What are their main features? c What other countries would you recommend these breeds for, considering the facts you’ve learned in parts a and b? 2 Investigate the new breeds of sheep that have been brought into Australia and create a website detailing your findings. You can use free software such as Wordpress, Wix or Weebly to create your website. 3 Discuss the main desirable features in: a a high-quality wool-producing sheep b a prime lamb-producing sheep c a carpet wool-producing sheep d a milking sheep. TAKING IT FURTHER 1 Compare sheep milk production in Australia and New Zealand with cow milk production. Create a report highlighting the differences you found. 2 Research the Carpetmaster and Elliotdale and the role these breeds play in the carpet wool industry in Australia and New Zealand. 9780170443111 CHAPTER 12 – SHEEP Production cycle Wool and meat have different Lambing 152-day gestation production cycles. For wool, ewes and rams are bred and the resulting 14 weeks lambs are either kept for wool or sold. Joining with rams Weaning Shearing occurs at least once for approximately per year, but the timing of shearing 5 weeks is dependent on individual enterprise factors. Shearing should Ram lambs: Ewe lambs: not occur within two weeks of castrated to kept as produce wethers replacement joining or in late pregnancy. Other for wool and/or ewes or sold husbandry practices carried out meat production. Or kept intact as during the production cycle are replacement discussed in the 12.4 Management rams or sold. section. Figure 12.11 Simple production cycle of a merino ewe Prime lamb production involves careful crossbreeding systems. Border Leicester and Suffolk rams are used to produce two generations of meat sheep, with the second generation being referred to as prime lambs. In Figure 12.13, Suffolk rams are referred to as terminal sires because they represent the final step in the breeding system, with both ewe and ram lambs being used for meat production. Merino and first-cross ewes are also shorn, providing an additional source of income to prime lamb enterprises. Merino Ewe Excellent maternal qualities 1st cross males Weaned and sold for slaughter (can get wool clip first) X Border Leicester Ram Long woolled meat breed 1st cross ewe Large frame, fertile, good milker X Poll Dorset or Suffolk Short woolled Terminal sires Grow quickly, meaty carcase Prime lamb Large, lean carcase Weaned at 12–20 weeks Slaughtered at 2–15 months depending on market Figure 12.12 Example of a prime lamb production cycle CHAPTER 12 12.3 Production 327 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS Systems There are different farming systems associated with wool, lamb, carpet and milk production. Commercial sheep production systems Sheep systems can be focused on wool or lamb production, a combination of the two, or in conjunction with other farming enterprises such as wheat. Commercial enterprise, wool production and prime lamb production are examples of extensive farming. Wool systems In commercial wool systems, the main product is wool. Wool growing tends to occur in the sheep-wheat belt of the eastern states. The merino sheep is the main breed used to produce the wool. Wool production tends to be extensively run, with sheep grazing on native and improved pastures. Prime lamb systems In prime lamb production systems, the focus is on producing quality sheep meat using purebred sheep or crossbreeding with terminal sires to meet market specifications. Prime lamb production can be combined with other enterprises such as wool production, wheat production or beef cattle. Prime lamb production is a mix of extensive production, such as breeding sheep being grazed on a mix of improved pastures or native pastures, and lamb feedlots, which are intensive operations with the lambs being fed on high-grain rations in small paddock enclosures. Lamb feedlots The lambs are fed in intensive systems to maximise their growth and finish them quicker than in pasture. When weaned, lambs are placed into a feedlot where they are fed a strict ration. Feedlotting lambs is a management strategy to ensure farmers can achieve a consistent supply of quality lambs that have the ideal fat score and weight. Feedlotting gives farmers the flexibility Figure 12.13 In commercial lamb feedlots, lambs are fattened and confidence to ensure quickly in high stocking densities. lambs are ready to be sold despite the pasture quality and the climatic conditions. Stud sheep systems Stud systems aim to breed superior sheep that can be purchased by commercial producers to improve the quality of their breeding stock. The stud system prepares rams that can be purchased at regional stud sales, privately, or through on-property ram sales. Sheep dairies Sheep milk is an emerging industry, with 13 commercial farms milking 5500 sheep in Australia. The main breeds used are the Awassi, Friesian and breeds crossed with prime lamb or carpet wool producers. The milk is mainly used to produce yoghurt and cheese. New Zealand has Alamy Stock Photo/Richard Ellis 328 9780170443111 CHAPTER 12 – SHEEP stocking density in a given area; for example, per m2, per hectare, per km2 AG IN FOCUS ANTARA AG SHEEP DAIRY Identify Antara Ag is a sheep dairy located in Southland, New Zealand, which currently milks 10 000 sheep over three properties. Antara milks Poll Dorset/Friesian crosses that produce better quality milk than purebred Friesians. Understand Despite having a small sheep dairy industry, New Zealand is home to the largest sheep dairy in the world: Antara Ag Farms. The dairies currently have 14 000 ewes and are milking 10 000 of these. Compared with cow milk production, sheep milk production has had less development and research, meaning it is difficult to find and develop breeding programs that can improve milk production or quality. As with cow dairies, highly nutritious pastures are required to produce high-quality milk, and therefore, sheep milk producers find themselves competing for both land and customers with cattle farmers. The owner of Antara Ag is looking at using similar production techniques to dairy farmers, such as pasture management, to ensure high production levels. However, with the similar benefits from following dairy production models also come the problems: male lambs are an unwanted waste product of production and sold to any market that is found. Discussion 1 2 3 4 What problems do sheep dairies face? What breed(s) do Antara Ag use, and why? Discuss the similarities and differences between sheep and cow dairies. Discuss how genetics will affect future sheep dairy production. Antara Ag Farms LET’S REVIEW LOOKING BACK 1 What is the difference between intensive and extensive farming? Use examples of sheep production systems to show your understanding. 2 Outline the differences between the types of sheep production systems. 3 What is feedlotting? 4 Outline the benefits of a feedlot system. FOR YOU TO DO 1 Draw a production cycle for: a a wool-producing merino b a prime lamb. 2 Research how carpet wool production occurs. 3 Discuss the effect on farmers from producing both meat and wool on their farm. Consider the following factors in your answer: finances, ethics and management. > CHAPTER 12 only a small number of sheep dairies, but also has the largest sheep dairy in the world, milking approximately 10 000 East Friesian and Poll Dorset cross ewes. Sheep dairies are examples of intensive farming enterprises, with high stocking densities in small areas. 329 330 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS > TAKING IT FURTHER 1 Research the sheep–wheat belt. Create a poster that shows: a where the sheep–wheat belt is located b what the sheep–wheat belt is c reasons why sheep production is concentrated in this area. 2 Would you recommend a feedlot system for wool production? Discuss why or why not. 12.4 Management Environmental management Distribution of enterprises Australian broadacre zones and regions, http://apps.daff.gov.au/agsurf/ regions.html.Department of Agriculture and Water Resources. CC-BY-3.0-AU licence. DID YOU KNOW Australia has a ratio of three sheep per person while New Zealand has a ratio of six sheep per person. In the 1980s, the ratio was 20 sheep per person. Darwin WESTERN AUSTRALIA NORTHERN TERRITORY QUEENSLAND Brisbane SOUTH AUSTRALIA NEW SOUTH WALES Perth Sydney Sheep numbers per square kilometre 250 or more 100 to 250 10 to 100 Less than 10 Adelaide VICTORIA Canberra Melbourne TASMANIA Hobart Pastoral zone Sheep-wheat zone High rainfall zone Figure 12.14 The location of sheep in Australia There are 72 million sheep in Australia across all sheep production systems. Sheep are largely farmed in the sheep-wheat belt, which mainly lies across the eastern states of NSW and Victoria, and in southern WA. More intensive production occurs within the sheep-wheat belt, where higher rainfall allows higher stocking densities. In the pastoral zone, there are more extensive grazing sheep enterprises, where sheep can graze across large areas of less productive land. Climate Wool production occurs in both the high and low rainfall zones. Prime lamb production is restricted to areas of good rainfall or irrigation and improved pasture. Merino wool production extends into the pastoral zone, because merinos are not suited to the coast due to the humidity. LET’S DISCUSS 1 Queensland is 27 times the size of Tasmania and yet both states have the same number of sheep. Why do you think this is? 9780170443111 CHAPTER 12 – SHEEP 331 CHAPTER 12 Enterprise management Breeding Choosing stock Australian Sheep Breeding Values (ASBV) are a collection of production data that is recorded and used in the selection process for breeding stock. The ASBVs estimate the breeding value of an animal based on pedigree and performance and are a projection of how the offspring will perform. The type of data collected includes birth weight, weaning weight, post-weaning weight, fat depth, eye muscle depth, wool weight, fibre diameter and worm egg counts. Farmers can use this information to decide on the type of rams or ewes to purchase to improve their flocks. For example, for prime lamb production a farmer may be interested in improved weaning weights to be able to produce offspring that grow faster and on average heavier, reaching target weights in a shorter time. This can be a financial gain because the farmer will earn more money per lamb. In wool production, selecting a ram that has a high greasy wool figure can produce lambs that will cut more wool, leading to an increase in the total amount of wool produced, resulting in possible higher financial return. Watch a video about how merino farmers are using DNA profiling to assist with breeding. Australian Sheep Breeding Values The breeding cycle Sheep are pregnant for five months, or approximately 150 days. A ewe will come onto oestrous every 17 days (although this can vary depending on individual animals and breeds.) A ewe will be on heat for 12–36 hours, and during this time she will stand for the ram to join her. Some sheep are seasonal breeders, which means they are affected by a change in day length. British long wool and meat breed sheep (for example, the Border Leicester) are seasonal breeders, coming into heat when the daylength decreases. Other breeds (such as Dorsets and merinos) are not affected by season and can be joined all year round. Joining Ewes are mated with rams during joining season. Before this occurs, the ewes are often fed extra feed to increase the chance of them having twins and triplets. This management technique of extra feeding is called ‘flushing’ and causes the ewes to ovulate more eggs. Ewes are joined with the rams for approximately five weeks, or two oestrus cycles. This gives the ewes two chances to fall pregnant. On average, two rams are needed for every 100 ewes in a flock. This ratio is known as the ram percentage. More rams (up to 3%) might be needed for maiden ewes, but too many rams can lead to aggression and fighting. Pregnancy management Ultrasound scanning is a management tool that enables the farmer to identify pregnant ewes. The farmer can then separate their ewes into different mobs. For example, a farmer will manage the ewes carrying twins differently to ensure these ewes are fed a higher plane of nutrition compared with the ewes carrying singletons. The dry ewes can also be separated and sold or given less feed and run as a wool-only mob. Ongoing ewe management is important to ensure high lambing percentages. Ewes need to avoid stressful situations such as sudden changes in diet or large paddock movements and maintain condition score of 3 throughout the pregnancy. Lambing Lambs can be classified as autumn or spring lambs. This is dependent on the timing of joining and lambing. Ewes can be moved into lambing paddocks close to the homestead for ease of monitoring. oestrus another term for heat; when a sheep can get pregnant WS Homework Learn about how farmers are using new technology to assist with breeding with the JIVET worksheet. joining the process of placing the males (rams) in with the females (ewes) DS Data scenario Homework Explore how rams and ewes grow differently with the data scenario. dry not pregnant or lactating Visit the Meat and Livestock Australia website to investigate how timing of lambing affects the target market for the product. 332 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS Lambing percentage is a calculation of how many lambs are born to the number of ewes that were joined. The higher the lambing percentage, the more lambs have been born and survived. The weaning rate is a calculation of the number of lambs that have been weaned compared with the number of lambs born. LET’S DISCUSS 1 Why might we have a high lambing percentage, but low weaning rate? 2 How could farmers increase both of these? Code of Practice for lamb marking Tail is docked at Lamb marking should occur when lambs one of three are between 2–12 weeks of age. At lamb palpable joints marking time, the farmer will conduct several activities, such as: mulesing (only if necessary): lambs have wool-bearing skin from the crotch area removed for prevention of flystrike tail docking: the removal of the tail. This process can be carried out using three methods: rubber rings, knife or a gas knife. The code of practice guidelines can be referred to for the age of the lambs and location for conducting tail docking. Figure 12.15 Tail docking procedure Tail docking is only required in certain breeds of sheep that are prone to flystrike (tail docking is used to prevent flystrike). ear tagging: a form of identification of the sheep. Ear tagging is part of the National Livestock Identification System (NLIS) and all sheep must be tagged with an NLIS tag. This tag will have the Property Identification Code for the farm along with a number to individually identify each sheep. ear marking: ear marking, or notching, is mandatory in some states. This is where a notch is placed in the animal’s ear. Each farm has their own notch that will Figure 12.16 Sheep with distinctive ‘notches’ identify the farm. taken out of its ear castration: the process of removing the testicles from ram lambs. This can be carried out using two methods: cutting using a suitable sharp knife or placing rubber rings according to the code of practice guidelines. vaccination: lambs are given an injection to protect against certain diseases. The lambs are given an initial vaccination, then a booster follow-up four weeks later. Shutterstock.com/Margo Harrison Marking activities 9780170443111 CHAPTER 12 – SHEEP 333 CHAPTER 12 There is a code of practice that farmers can use that sets out guidelines to ensure the wellbeing of the livestock. Weaning Weaning is the permanent removal of the lamb from their mother’s milk. Weaning occurs between three and five months of age. This will vary depending on the season and the individual farm. Management of lambs at weaning is important for the survival of the weaners and to ensure continued growth and weight gain. Weaner management includes introducing lambs to supplement feed before weaning. They are given the second vaccination booster at weaning and farmers ensure they have a minimum condition score of 2. MONITOR WEIGHT GAIN OF LAMBS PURPOSE LET’S ENGAGE To monitor the weight gain of lambs from birth to weaning RISK ASSESSMENT Conduct a risk assessment using the template on NelsonNet. MATERIALS Scales Lambs Record sheet Condition score sheet App (optional) – see Method step 1 METHOD 1 Before beginning the process of weighing, research which apps are available to assist in recording weight gains. Download the one you think will work best. 2 Weigh each lamb when born and record their weights in the app, and on paper. Feed and nutrition 3 Weigh each lamb every week until weaning. 4 If possible, weigh the lambs for an extra four weeks after weaning. DISCUSSION 1 Draw a graph of the weight gain for each lamb (or if you don’t have too many lambs, you could draw a stacked line graph, recording all their weights on the one graph). 2 Was there a difference in weight gain between the lambs? If so, can you discern any patterns (for example, related to the sex of the lambs)? 3 Did the lambs suffer a setback in weight gain at weaning? If so, can you explain why this might have happened. 4 Compare the difference in using the app to record the weights on paper. Which was easiest? 5 What management strategies could a farmer implement to ensure lambs did not suffer a setback at weaning? Sheep are ruminant animals, meaning they have four stomachs: the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum (you can find out about the function of these four stomachs and other facts about rumination in Chapter 10 Dairy cattle). Ruminants use microbes to digest tough plant materials that other animals with a single stomach cannot use. Sheep require a balanced diet that contains energy, protein, vitamins and minerals. They get these nutrients through pasture or supplemental feed.You can read more about the advantages and disadvantages of improved and native pastures in Chapters 10 and 11. Is it important that sheep drink between 2.5 and 12 litres of water per day. Risk assessment template Sheep management apps 334 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS The DPI feed cost calculator aids in helping design a suitable feed ration that is affordable The feed ration will depend on the size Sheep drink up to six times DID and type of animal, and the level and type of as much water as a human YOU production. For example: should drink each day. KNOW larger sheep require more feed than smaller sheep pregnant sheep and ewes producing milk require more energy than dry animals young lambs and growing sheep require more protein than fully grown sheep wethers producing wool require a maintenance ration with suitable energy levels to maintain their body condition If sheep are on a poor plane of nutrition or a poor quality feed ration, it can cause weight loss, low fertility, high mortality, increased risk of disease and poor wool growth. Supplementary feeding is supporting the sheep with additional feed when pastures are dry and lacking suitable nutrients. Supplementary feeding aims to meet an increase in nutritional needs due to changes in the lifecycle of the sheep (such as pregnancy), increase the growth of lambs and weaners, and increase fertility. Table 12.4 A simple ration formula Nutrient ad lib available to feed all the time Percentage Examples Energy 70% Cereal: wheat, barley, oats Protein 25% Pulses: legumes, lupins, chickpeas Vitamins and minerals 5% Iron, calcium Ad lib Hay or silage Roughage Lamb feedlotting In feedlots, lambs are fed a high-quality feed ration to optimise the growth of the lambs and meet target markets in a short time. The amount of feed will depend on the starting weight of the lamb, the type of ration, the growth rate of the lamb and the target market. Lambs should be gradually introduced to the feed ration: starting with 100% hay, and over a 14-day period gradually changing to the grain feed. If lambs are moved to grain too quickly, they can suffer from grain poisoning (you can find out more about grain poisoning in Chapter 11 Beef cattle). Table 12.5 Guide to introducing grain concentrates Days DS Data scenario Homework Explore the effect of feed rationing and pasture on weight gain with the data scenario on NelsonNet. Concentrate % Hay % All lambs on feed 0 100 2–4 20 80 5–7 40 60 8–10 50 50 11–13 60 40 14 plus 70–85 15–30 Table 12.6 Examples of introducing grain quantities Days Until all lambs on feed Quantity per lamb Only hay 2–4 100 g 5–7 250 g 8–10 400 g 10–13 550 g 14 plus 700 g 9780170443111 CHAPTER 12 – SHEEP 335 PURPOSE LET’S ENGAGE To understand the costs involved in developing feed rations MATERIALS Access the DPI website using the NelsonNet weblink METHOD 1 Use the link above to design a feed ration for sheep at your school farm. If your farm doesn’t house sheep, design a feed ration for one of the following: a a pregnant ewe b a prime lamb in a feedlot c a stud ram. Remember, first identify the needs of your sheep. CHAPTER 12 CALCULATE THE COST OF A FEED RATION 2 Visit the local produce stores or research prices on line to ascertain the different costs of feeds. 3 Outline the costs of a feed ration for the school sheep or your case study sheep. DISCUSSION 1 How much did the feed ration cost? 2 Can you identify the proteins and energy feeds in the feed ration? 3 How can the feed ration be modified to reduce the cost? 4 Now try designing a feed ration for different type of sheep (such as one of the other examples in Question 1). Discuss how and why the rations differ. DPI feed cost calculator General husbandry Drenching Drenching is where animals are given a substance, orally or through injection, to control internal parasites such as Barber’s pole worm or brown stomach worm. Alternatively, pouron drench can be used to control both internal and external parasites, including lice. The entire mob of sheep is drenched based on the dose for the heaviest sheep. This avoids underdosing any sheep, which could lead to worms becoming resistant to the drench more quickly. Overdosing is not a problem because drenches are very safe. LET’S ENGAGE CALIBRATE A DRENCH GUN AND DRENCH PURPOSE METHOD To calibrate and check a drench gun and then drench the school sheep flock 1 Identify the heaviest animal in the flock. If the flock has a big variation, split the flock so that similar animals are penned together. 2 Read the label and identify how much drench to administer. 3 Set the drench gun to the required amount, according to the heaviest animal. 4 Using water, draw water up into the drench gun and squirt into a measuring cylinder 10 times. 5 Check the volume of water. For example, if 10 mL is required, there should be 100 mL in the measuring cylinder. Adjust the drench gun accordingly. RISK ASSESSMENT Gloves should always be worn when handling chemicals. Sheep should be approached carefully. MATERIALS School sheep Management equipment Sheep race Pens Drench Drench gun Measuring cylinder Risk assessment template > 336 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS > Alamy Stock Photo/Tim Scrivener 6 Move the sheep into the race. 7 Draw up the appropriate dose of drench. Figure 12.17 Drenching a sheep 8 Open the mouth, place the drench gun nozzle into the mouth and gently squeeze the gun to deliver the entire dose. 9 Move on to the next sheep, and continue until all the flock is drenched. 10 Return the flock to the paddock. 11 Rinse and clean the equipment and allow to dry. DISCUSSION 1 Why should you drench according to the amount for the heaviest sheep? 2 What is the impact of not drenching correctly? LET’S EXPERIMENT TESTING THE EFFECT OF MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS ON SHEEP PRODUCTION PURPOSE In this experiment you will test the effect of a mineral drench on the weight gain of sheep. A variety of liquid mineral drenches are available for sheep. Many are designed to modify the rumen environment and provide trace elements, improving the efficiency with which the sheep convert feed into weight gain. Investigate the availability of these supplements at the local produce store, or contact local farms to see what they are using. Most mineral drenches are long-acting, requiring only one dose for the duration of this experiment. HYPOTHESIS Now that you have investigated and learned about the drench you will use, what effect do you think it will have on weight gain? RISK ASSESSMENT Use the template on NelsonNet to write a risk assessment for this activity. Ensure you address the safe and humane handling of livestock (see the NSW Animals In Schools website for details) Risk assessment template MATERIALS NSW Animals in Schools Four or more dry (not pregnant or lactating) sheep, preferably of the same breed, age, sex and production status. Weaners would be ideal. Mineral drench Drenching gun Live weight scales METHOD 1 Sheep should be in good health before conducting this experiment and should be kept as a mob on the same pasture or rations. 2 Randomly allocate half of the sheep to a control group and half to a treatment group. Record NLIS tag numbers for each group. > 9780170443111 337 3 Weigh sheep and record weights. 4 Calibrate the drenching gun according to the previous Let’s Engage activity in this chapter. 5 Follow the instructions on the mineral drench to administer a single dose to each sheep in the treatment group. 6 Weigh sheep weekly for six weeks. CHAPTER 12 > CHAPTER 12 – SHEEP RESULTS 1 Construct a table and record your results. 2 Draw a stacked line graph of live weight over time for the two groups. 3 Draw a column graph of total weight gain for each group during the experiment. DISCUSSION 1 Interpret your results. 2 Apart from weight gain, what other data could you collect to determine the effectiveness of this product? 3 Was the experiment valid? What factors were difficult to control? 4 How could you improve the design of this experiment? 5 Would you recommend this supplement to sheep producers? Justify your answer. Jetting Jetting is the application of chemicals to the skin and wool of sheep either by hand with a jetting wand or in an automatic jetting race. Sheep are soaked in the chemical to treat lice in long wool sheep. Jetting is also a useful tool in the protection of sheep during high-risk periods for fly strike. Foot paring Foot paring is trimming the hoof and monitoring the health of the feet. Foot paring enables a close inspection of the hoof as well as ensuring the animal is walking correctly. Hoof inspection is vital to ensure there are no signs of infection, wounds or abscesses. Faecal egg counts Farmers regularly collect faecal samples from sheep and then send them away to have worm egg counts conducted. Conducting regular worm counts allows farmers to monitor the worm burden of the flock. The worm count identifies the type of worm present and the extent of the worm burden. This helps to identify highly susceptible sheep (which can then be culled from the flock), identify when drenching is necessary and monitor the effectiveness of the drenches being used. Shearing Shearing is the process of removing wool from a sheep. Shearing times will vary depending on the region, type of enterprise and breed of sheep. Some wool production enterprises shear every eight months. The main reason for the shorter time between shearing is so the staple length is better able to meet market specifications. The longer a farmer waits until shearing, the more the wool grows and therefore the longer the length of the staples. Crutching is the removal of wool from around the tail and between the rear legs. This process occurs during times when flystrike is a high risk and usually halfway between the shearing times. Find out more about technology being used in wool production with the Landline episode. Explore the process of milking a sheep. 338 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS Records and financial management WS AG IN FOCUS Homework Create a calendar of operations for a sheep farm with this NelsonNet worksheet. NATTAI VALLEY POLL DORSETS Identify A farmer operates a small Poll Dorset flock in the Sydney Basin region of Sydney, producing 190 lambs per year from a flock of 100 ewes on 20 hectares of land. Understand The farmer processes the lambs locally, packages the meat and then sells the meat at the local produce market, held every second Saturday. The farmer lambs in both autumn and winter. The lambs are weaned at three months of age and then placed in a feedlot for two to three months to finish them. Drenching and vaccination occurs regularly throughout the year. Shearing occurs at the start of November, along with footparing. Processing of the lambs occurs every two months, with the lambs being processed at a local abattoir. The farmer spends the following variable costs during production: Variable costs Pasture maintenance and improvement $38/hectare Supplementary feed for lambs 5 kg/sheep per week for 12 weeks $0.15/kg Adult sheep health (including lice treatment and scanning of ewes) $5.30/ewe Lamb health (including marking and vaccination) $5.00/lamb Shearing costs $7.00/ewe Livestock selling costs $2.00/lamb The farmer then sells the lambs for $130 per lamb, at six months of age. Discussion 1 Develop a calendar of operations for the farm. (Use Chapter 4 Agricultural business to assist you.) 2 Calculate the lambing percentage rate. 3 Calculate the stocking rate. 4 Calculate the gross margin per hectare for the Nattai Valley Poll Dorsets. 5 The farmer cannot decide whether they should move to a wool production business. You need to determine the profitability of a wool production enterprise and compare this with the farmer’s current lamb production, to determine which is the most economically viable business. The farmer will keep 100 ewes, which produce 190 lambs. The farmer plans to keep 90 lambs for future wool production and sell the other 100. The lambs sell for $70 at four months of age. Meanwhile 5 kg of wool is produced from each sheep. This sells at $13 per kg. > 9780170443111 CHAPTER 12 – SHEEP CHAPTER 12 > You discover the variable costs for a wool production enterprise are: Pasture $38/hectare Supplementary feed for lambs 2.5 kg/sheep/week for 12 weeks $0.15/kg Adult sheep health (including lice treatment, and scanning of ewes) $5.30/ewe Lamb sheep health (including marking and vaccination) $5.00/lamb Crutching of all sheep $1.50/sheep Shearing costs $7.00/ewe Wool selling costs $9.00/sheep Livestock selling costs $2.00/lamb a Calculate the gross margin per hectare of the wool production enterprise. b Which enterprise would you recommend to the farmer? 6 Would you make any recommendations to the farmer, regarding when they are conducting their activities? LET’S REVIEW LOOKING BACK 1 2 3 4 5 6 What type of digestive system does a sheep have? What does the term 'flushing' mean? How does pregnancy scanning aid the management of pregnant ewes? Outline the management activities that can be carried out on a farm. What activities are carried out at lamb marking? What is an Australian Sheep Breeding Value and how does it help farmers? FOR YOU TO DO 1 Consider the animal welfare concerns around lamb marking activities. a Research the pain relief that is available to farmers when conducting lamb marking activities. b Prepare an article for the school newspaper or website outlining the issue and solutions available to reduce pain for the lambs. 2 Create a calendar of operations for a wool production system and sheep milk dairy. Compare the differences between the two systems. 3 Discuss the differences in nutrients required for different types of sheep. TAKING IT FURTHER 1 Research other breeds that increase in oestrous activity as day length shortens. 2 Download the Lambing Planner app. Investigate what the app can do, and then prepare a business case outlining whether the school should use it or not. 3 Evaluate the suitability of eastern Queensland as a location for a new wool production sheep farm. 339 Lambing Planner 340 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS 12.5 Pests and diseases Pests INDUSTRY IN FOCUS PARASITOLOGIST Identify As the name suggests, a parasitologist studies parasites such as gastrointestinal worms (Barber’s pole worm), flies, lice, ticks and many more. They study the life cycle, genetics, reproduction, infestation and biology of a wide variety of parasites. Parasitologists have many different roles. Some of these roles include conducting faecal worm egg counts, maintaining parasite colonies for trials, conducting drug trials on differing scales, conducting larval differentiation tests, authoring scientific reports and many other fascinating things. There are many opportunities in the field of parasitology. You can work for the government in the Department of Primary Industries, for a multinational pharmaceutical company such as Novartis, or you could become a researcher at a university. Because there is a wide variety of jobs available to a parasitologist, there are many different settings that they could be working in such as a laboratory or out in the field. To become a parasitologist you need to study an animal science degree. To help you get into this degree, in senior school it is best to study biology, chemistry, mathematics and agriculture. Discussion 1 What does a parasitologist study? 2 List some activities that a parasitologist might undertake. 3 Research two parasites that affect sheep and discuss the signs of the parasitic infestation. 4 Research three organisations that a parasitologist could work for and outline what the organisation does (for example, a government department, pharmaceutical company and private research group). WS Homework Learn about Barber’s pole worm with the NelsonNet worksheet. Blowfly strike Sheep blowfly strike is caused by Lucilia cuprina, the Australian blowfly, which lays flesh-eating maggots predominantly in the breech areas of sheep. They can also lay eggs in the pizzle areas of rams and wethers, along with any wounded area. All wool sheep can be affected. There are a number of risk factors for flystrike, including the presence of fleece rot, dags and skin wrinkles. These conditions are ideal for maggots to grow and develop, meaning wool sheep have an increased risk of flystrike. Blowfly strike can be easily spotted: wool may become matted and smelly and sheep become agitated. In severe cases, sheep become weak, anaemic and suffer from toxaemia (toxins in blood), resulting in death or culling. Flystrike treatment focuses on prevention methods such as mulesing young lambs, breeding resistant sheep, tail docking to the industry recommended length, shearing or crutching at high risk times for flystrike, reducing scours through monitoring and controlling worm burdens and culling sheep that are highly susceptible to flystrike. 9780170443111 CHAPTER 12 – SHEEP CHAPTER 12 Integrated pest management Integrated pest management (IPM) programs can be developed to manage sheep pests such as blowfly strike. Table 12.7 IPM strategies for managing blowfly strike Strategy Examples Cultural 341 Scheduling the time of lambing to avoid blowfly strike season (flies don’t like cold weather) Crutching before fly season to reduce dags and faecal or urine staining Physical Conducting regular worm counts Conduct health checks on the sheep Fly traps (to encourage blowflies to enter a specific area) Biological Live bacteria released on sheep fleece to attack fly larvae Genetic Breeding plain-bodied (non-wrinkled) sheep with bare breeches and resistance to fleece rot Chemical Treating sheep with chemicals via jetting Chemicals should be considered carefully to limit pests developing chemical resistance Diseases Pregnancy toxaemia Pregnancy toxaemia occurs in pregnant ewes, with those carrying multiple lambs more likely to suffer. It is a result of a dramatic reduction in blood glucose levels. The disease usually occurs in the last weeks of pregnancy, when ewes may not be receiving the required nutrition. The affected ewe will display signs of drowsiness, separate from the mob, and will not graze or eat. Treatment requires immediate advice from a veterinarian and should include an intravenous glucose solution every 6–12 hours. Grass tetany Grass tetany a fatal disease associated with low magnesium levels and is caused by poor adsorption of magnesium or when the intake of quality lush feed is limited. The disease can be seen in sheep that are under high physical stress or have had a sudden change in lush feed. Usually the animals are found dead. Sheep will show signs of being agitated, sitting on the brisket with head bent towards the flank. Prevention is the key with grass tetany. Avoid sudden changes in feed or a sudden increase in lush green pastures, reduce stress with improved low stress handling methods, and use suitable magnesium supplements to help prevent the disease. Controlling diseases in sheep Some specific strategies to prevent disease involve: quarantine: ensuring newly arrived sheep are quarantined and allowed to empty out before being placed with other sheep management: providing an appropriate plane of nutrition, careful pasture management and appropriate husbandry procedures vaccinations: injecting sheep with a vaccine to protect against certain diseases. They are given an initial dose, then a follow-up dose four to six weeks after, along with an annual booster. WS Homework Conduct a faecal egg count of your sheep flock with the practical NelsonNet worksheets. 342 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS LET’S REVIEW LOOKING BACK 1 2 3 4 5 What is the difference between a pest and a disease? Outline the signs of Barber’s pole worm in sheep. Describe two diseases sheep can suffer from. Define the term IPM. Outline how an IPM program can assist farmers to control pests. FOR YOU TO DO Wormboss 1 The Nattai Valley case study farm has developed a problem with Barber’s pole worm. As a result, several ewes and lambs have become sick and some lambs have died. a Research IPM programs. b Using the Wormboss website, design an IPM program strategy for the Nattai Valley Farm that could assist in dealing with the problem. 2 Discuss the reasoning behind use of IPM – why are chemicals only used strategically? 3 Design an informative leaflet for farmers to help them control one pest or disease found in sheep production. TAKING IT FURTHER 12.6 Social and ethical issues Mulesing Find out more about the impact of mulesing on Australian farmers with the Landline episode. Research the Australian Wool Innovation group and their approach to flystrike Mulesing is carried out to reduce the incidence of flystrike. It involves cutting skin from a lamb’s breech area to remove the wrinkles and create a bare patch of skin.The breech area is susceptible to flystrike because the area is moist with urine and clumps of faeces forming dags. Flystrike costs the industry over $280 million per year. The increased time and cost devoted to the care and prevention of flystrike affects the overall profitability of the industry. Many consumers view the process as barbaric, with little consideration for the welfare of the lambs. There has been a consumer backlash and lack of understanding of the process, Figure 12.18 Mulesing involves the removal of skin from around the breech. Alamy Stock Photo/Russotwins How does chemical resistance occur? 1 Worm resistance is an increasing problem in sheep flocks. Traditional methods have been to drench the sheep every three to four months. This has led to a chemical resistance in the worms, especially in areas of high rainfall and small farms, predominantly with Barber’s pole worm. a Explain how chemical resistance occurs. (You can use the NelsonNet weblink to help you, or review Chapter 3 Farm resources and technology.) b Discuss how conducting worm counts assists farmers to minimise the resistance issue. 2 Explain the factors that contribute to paddock contamination. 3 Research Johne’s disease and prepare a fact sheet for farmers to help them identify, control, prevent and treat the disease. 9780170443111 CHAPTER 12 – SHEEP 343 Score 1 Score 2 Score 3 Score 4 CHAPTER 12 resulting in the sheep industry spending research and development money to investigate alternative methods to mulesing and pain relief to be used when mulesing. Australian Wool Innovation has been working with farmers to create a new treatment approach for managing flystrike, based on best practice and animal welfare improvements, with the long-term aim to remove the need for mulesing. Score 5 Figure 12.19 Mulesing score chart used to help farmers breed flystrike-resistant sheep In the short term, they aim to change the way mulesing is performed, with a focus on pain relief for the lambs by: using intradermal agents to modify the breech area of the sheep. The agent is injected 1 mm into the skin, causing the skin to contract without an open wound. welfare-approved surgery with trained technicians and using pain relief. However, the painrelief spray, which contains a mix of antiseptic and anaesthetic, is only being used by 60% of farmers. In the long term, they intend to reduce the need for mulesing by: improving non-invasive management strategies such as controlling scours and worms, correct tail length, jetting, timing of shearing and crutching, and improved nutrition. breeding flystrike-resistant sheep. Australian Wool Innovation is working to develop trait score charts to help farmers identify and select sheep with a high resistance to flystrike. Breeders are able to use the chart, which provides a consistent language among the wool producers. LET’S REVIEW LOOKING BACK 1 What is mulesing? 2 Why is mulesing carried out on sheep? 3 Outline some of the alternatives that are suggested instead of mulesing. FOR YOU TO DO 1 Conduct a class debate on the issue of mulesing: one side should be the farmers, the other side the animal welfare activists. 2 Mulesing results in short-term acute pain for the lambs, yet prevents a condition that causes pain, stress and possible death at a later stage. Considering this statement, evaluate whether mulesing is an acceptable practice. Alternatives to mulesing > 344 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS > Scientists search for bare bum sheep gene TAKING IT FURTHER 1 Read the article at the NelsonNet weblink and discuss genetic engineering of bare bum sheep. What effect would the bare bum sheep have on the wool industry? 2 Investigate other issues within the industry such as: a castration of male lambs to increase weight gain and reduce aggression b tail docking of lambs. Prepare an article for the school newspaper debating one of these issues. 12.7 Sustainability Sustainable practices and methods Historical unsustainable practices have included activities such as overstocking, continuous grazing of pastures, clearing of trees and the use of arsenic-based sheep dips. Sheep dips Riparian zones Riparian zones are areas alongside waterways, rivers, creeks and wetlands that can occur within a farm. These areas are sensitive and easily damaged by the livestock. The livestock can destroy the diverse vegetation, cause erosion of banks and upset the balance of the ecology in the water. Managing riparian zones has several short-term impacts on a farmer. Management of these zones is costly. Farmers may need to construct fencing and install water troughs to stop livestock Figure 12.20 Riparian zones can become damaged by damaging the wetland area. Revegetating livestock grazing and compaction. riparian zones requires an investment in labour and time, as well as the cost of purchasing plant stock. Revegetating means that the farmer gives up land to do so. In the long term, this means they have less farmland to graze livestock on. iStock.com/prill bioaccumulation the increase in concentration of a chemical in organisms as we move up the food chain Chemicals such as organophosphates, and organochlorides like DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and dieldrin used to be used to control external parasites, through a plunge or spray dip. DDT has now been banned due to the impact it had on the environment and the wildlife living within it. Traces of the chemical have been found in marine life (such as whales and dolphins) and birds, and even resulted in eggshell thinning of the peregrine falcon. Although effective in the control and elimination of agricultural pests, it caused bioaccumulation within ecosystems in many environments. Arsenic-based sheep dips have been one cause of bioaccumulation. Toxic levels of arsenic have been found around old sheep dip sites, meaning these locations must be fenced off and not used for agricultural production. Arsenic and other chemicals, such as DDT, can leach into waterways, contaminating water sources and resulting in this bioaccumulation. In areas where these old dips and jetting systems are located, traces of the chemical are still present in the ground 30 years later. 9780170443111 CHAPTER 12 – SHEEP return on investment the income received after paying for something Shelter belts Shelter belts form a line of protection for the sheep, particularly lambs, and ensure greater lamb survival. Trees block birds such as eagles, that will swoop in and kill the lambs. Shelter belts provide protection from extreme weather and reduce the likelihood of lambs dying from exposure. Shelter belts also invite other animals to the area, increasing biodiversity in a time where biodiversity is rapidly declining. Sustainable technology Genetics research to reduce methane emissions Alongside dairy and beef cattle, sheep are a ruminant animal contributing to greenhouse gas emissions. DID YOU KNOW In Australia, all sheep emit the same amount of methane as all beef cattle (about 30% of all livestock emissions each). When ruminant animals digest their food, gases such as methane are created that need release by burping or through manure. Genetic research can help reduce the amount of methane released by sheep. Researchers in New Zealand are breeding low-emitting sheep that are able to release 10% less methane than their counterparts. The low-emitting sheep also have greater feed conversion efficiency: they have In New Zealand, livestock DID smaller stomachs, requiring less feed yet emissions are their biggest YOU still put on the same amount of weight, an contributor to greenhouse KNOW added bonus to the farmer. gas emissions. Sustainable decision-making AG IN FOCUS FLINDERS RANGES, SOUTH AUSTRALIA Identify The Flinders Ranges is an example of the impact of unsustainable farming practices. Understand When Europeans settled in the region, farmers were given allotments of land and then stocked their farms, without a clear understanding of the region, the plant species or the impact of grazing stock on these areas. After a combination of overstocking, lack of knowledge and drought times, the area has been significantly affected. The high stocking rates were suitable in the short term, with high wool prices allowing farmers to earn > Read more about the research to genetically reduce methane emissions in sheep CHAPTER 12 On the other hand, managing riparian zones can increase return on investment in the long term. By managing riparian zones, a farmer ensures that their farmland is productive for years to come, providing them long-term economic security. Riparian zones also improve water quality, because there is less chemical contamination, less faecal run off and decreased erosion from compaction along the water ways. 345 346 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS > high profits. However, the long-term damage resulted in massive soil degradation of the entire region. In addition, the high stocking densities caused compaction of the soil. Water and nutrients struggle to flow through the soil, and plant roots can’t get through. Native species were replaced with annual shallow-rooted pasture species that were not suited to the harsh conditions. Shallow roots and loss of groundcover led to soil erosion. Other erosion issues have developed, such as gully erosion, when water runs along the surface instead of into the soil and creates a gully. Stocking rates are now being controlled, with farmers working together with local environmental groups to develop and implement strategies that allow the native species to regenerate, stock numbers to be limited and fencing off and replanting sensitive areas. For example, farmers are reintroducing native grasses to the area, as native plants are able to handle the climate and soil better. Discussion 1 Discuss the short- and long-term impacts of the European settlers’ farming practices in the Flinders Ranges. 2 How do changes in stocking rates affect the environment? 3 Discuss grazing management recommendations, considering what you learned in this case study. 4 You are researching new, sustainable opportunities for sheep farmers. You hear about native weeping grass, a high-protein grass. Research this grass and consider whether it could be used by Australian sheep farmers. Prepare a report discussing the question: Is native weeping grass a sustainable and economically viable alternative pasture species for sheep farmer? Your report should include: a a description of weeping grass b how sheep farmers could use it c the short-term impacts of using native weeping grass d the long-term impacts of using native weeping grass e an answer to the question. 12.8 Marketing Wool production The market WS Homework Explore the market specifications for wool with the NelsonNet worksheet. Australia is the world leader in wool production, producing approximately 380 million kg of wool in 2018-19. Australia exports much of its wool, with the export wool industry valued at $4.251 billion in 2018-19. The biggest customer for Australian wool is China with wool also exported to countries such as India and Italy. Market specifications Wool undergoes both subjective and objective measurements to price it. Samples are taken before the sale for measurement of specifications such as: diameter: the sale price depends on the diameter (measured in microns) of the sale lot. The chart below shows the relationship between micron measurement and the price. 9780170443111 Price ($) CHAPTER 12 347 length: the ideal length of the staple is 85–90 1500 mm. Discounts are given if the staple is 1400 outside the required specifications. The staple length determines the end use of the wool, 1300 either knitting or weaving. The longer staples 1200 tend to be used for weaving. strength: the measure of the force required 1100 to break the wool. The measurement is 1000 in Newtons per kilotex. The strength is 900 important in the processing of the wool because staple strength relates to the fibre and 800 breakage wastage during the combing. The 700 price improves as the staple strength increases. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 vegetable matter content: a standard pre-sale test Micron to identify the vegetable matter content in Figure 12.21 As the micron increases, the the wool. The more vegetable matter present price decreases. means that the wool will require additional treatment known as carbonising to remove the vegetable matter. This process is costly and can damage the staples. colour: graded for colour using the score card below. The wool is then graded as being scourable or unscourable. Wool colour Score 1 Score 2 Score 3 Score 4 Score 5 Figure 12.22 Wool colour chart DOES WOOL BURN? PURPOSE To test the flammability of wool in comparison with other fabrics LET’S ENGAGE CHAPTER 12 – SHEEP RISK ASSESSMENT Use the template to conduct a risk assessment before completing this activity. MATERIALS Different samples of fabric Synthetic Cotton Wool Wool blends Heat mat Bunsen burner Tongs Water bottle Goggles METHOD 1 Take a sample of fabric, hold with the tongs. 2 Ignite the sample using the Bunsen burner. Hold over the heat mat. 3 Observe how the fabric burns. 4 Use the water bottle to spray water onto the burning fabric to put the fire out. 5 Repeat with each sample. 6 Record your observations. Risk assessment template > 348 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS > DISCUSSIONS 1 How did wool react to being burned? 2 How did the other fabrics react to being burned? 3 Consider the implications of the flammability of the fabric to the end use. 4 Relate the properties and characteristics of wool to its many uses. Marketing strategies Live auction Most wool is sold through the open auction system. A wool sample is displayed, with presale certificates, for the buyers to inspect. The buyers determine which pots they will bid for. The lots are then sold to the highest bidder. Private sales Woolgrowers can sell direct or combine their wool clip with other growers to sell direct to a processing mill. Electronic Wool can be sold online through a system similar to the live auction, but the buyers do not inspect the wool samples. The pre-sale certificates are available for the buyers on request. Value-adding Explore how to buy and sell wool Value-adding is any process or service that adds or enhances the value of a product and can occur anywhere along the market chain.Value-adding allows the farmers to become price makers not price takers. Some examples of value-added products are wool insulation, meat by-products like gelatine, and sheep manure. AG IN FOCUS WOOL INSULATION Identify Tas Natural Wool Insulation is a Tasmanian company producing wool insulation for all of Australia. Understand Wool insulation is one way of value adding to wool. Wool is a more environmentally friendly alternative to other forms of insulation (such as synthetic insulation) used in building houses. Wool is particularly durable: the fibres can be bent back more than 20 000 times before breaking. This is ten times more than silk and seven times more than cotton. Wool is also able to protect against hot and cold in all climates. In Australia, humidity is often a problem. Wool insulation soaks up moisture in high humidity. This absorption of moisture then emits energy that heats up the wool, hence preventing condensation. This reduces the chance for mould or damp to grow in a house. Discuss 1 Why is wool a good insulator? 2 Why is this a good value-added product idea for Australians in particular? 3 Create a poster advertising wool insulation. On your poster you should include a name, logo, slogan and identify the benefits of choosing wool insulation. 9780170443111 Australian lamb exports 5.1% The market 3.6% 3.6% 4.8% The Australian sheep meat industry was worth $4.8 billion in 2018-19. Australia produced approximately 501 000 tonnes of lamb and 238 000 tonnes of mutton, with around 50% of the production exported. Australia is the world’s largest exporter of sheep meat and is the third largest producer of lamb and mutton. Australian mutton exports 0.4% 3.3% 2.4% 1.5% 6.2% 13.1% 7.7% 24.5% 36.6% 9.7% 22.0% 16.9% 19.3% USA Middle East South-east Asia Other Greater China EU Africa 19.3% Japan Korea Russian Federation 349 CHAPTER 12 Meat production Department of Agriculture and Water Resources. CC-BY-3.0-AU https://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/3.0/au/ CHAPTER 12 – SHEEP Figure 12.23 Export destinations of the Australian sheep meat industry Market specifications Lamb and sheep tend to be sold in lots or consignments. The lambs are assessed for their age, breed, carcase weight, fat score, condition and overall quality. These specifications differ depending on whether the meat is destined for the domestic or export market. Table 12.8 Specifications for lamb Characteristics Domestic supermarket Domestic food service Export to the US Export to Middle East Weight 18–22 kg 20–25 kg 20–30 kg 10–16 kg Fat score 2 and 3 2 and 3 2 to 4 2 Comments Second cross Lean meat preferred Prime lamb cuts NA LET’S DISCUSS 1 Prime lamb production used to be called fat lamb production. Consumers did not like this name. Why do you think this is? Marketing strategies There are various methods of selling sheep, including those listed in Table 12.9. Table 12.9 Methods of selling sheep meat Method Description Saleyard Sheep transported to central saleyard Sold to highest bidder Price will vary depending on quantity of sheep and buyers, and quality of sheep Paddock sale/private sale Sheep inspected on-farm by buyers Farmer negotiates own price Sheep remain on property until transported to abattoir, feedlot or buyers farm Over the hook Delivered to abattoir, ownership changes at abattoir scales Sheep sold when market ready (so better able to meet market specifications) No stress of saleyards Grid payment system > Explore the specifications for other types of sheep meat 350 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS > Method Description Contract Contract between buyer and seller Contract supplies specific amount, price and specifications Can be penalised if sellers do not meet contract Results in buyers influencing management practices on a farm Auction plus Online auction system Sheep assessed before auction Details entered online Buyers peruse details and bid for sheep online Transported direct to abattoir or buyer’s property Value-adding AG IN FOCUS COWRA LAMB Identify Breakout River is a butcher located in Cowra, NSW. The business began in April 2006, and quickly became partners with Cowra Meat Processers. Breakout River uses its prime location and innovative processes to value-add to create quality lamb products. Understand Breakout River is located in Southern NSW, alongside the Lachlan River. It is situated in the Lachlan Valley, an extremely fertile part of Australia. The fertility means that the ideal pastures and fodder crops can be grown, and therefore lambs grown in this region are well-known for their quality across Australia. Chris Cummins heads the buying team at Breakout River. He sources lambs in the Cowra region, claiming to only source the best lambs available to give to customers. At Breakout River, the lambs undergo a special chilling process that results in the company being credited with the longest shelf life of lamb in the industry. This means that although the process itself takes longer and is more complicated than others, the lamb can be sold for a higher price because customers are assured of its quality and longer shelf life. Breakout River sells to both wholesalers and individual customers. Discuss 1 What does Breakout River do to value-add to its lamb? 2 How does the location of Breakout River affect its process? 3 What considerations would need to be made in deciding to value-add the lamb instead of selling through traditional methods such as the saleyards? LET’S REVIEW LOOKING BACK 1 2 3 4 5 How much wool is sold overseas? What is the value of sheep meat to Australia? Outline the market specifications for wool. Identify the four markets for sheep meat. Compare the selling methods for wool and sheep meat. > 9780170443111 FOR YOU TO DO 1 Survey local butchers on: a how they value-add lamb b what customers look for in meat c how they deal with competitors. 2 Using the research gained from local butchers, design your own value-added lamb product. Create a marketing poster for your lamb. Use Chapter 4 Agricultural business to assist you. 3 How do you think increased selling of lamb online will affect local farmers? 4 Research how organic lamb is produced and explain why people would purchase organic meat. TAKING IT FURTHER 1 Research why greasy wool is sold overseas and the finished product returned. 2 Debate the concerns over the live sheep trade. 351 CHAPTER 12 > CHAPTER 12 – SHEEP 352 AG TECH FOCUS 9780170443111 Let’s summarise What makes Australian sheep production unique and successful? Qz Complete the chapter review test on NelsonNet to review what you have learnt about sheep production. Australia is one of the largest sheep producers in the world, and is the world’s largest exporter of sheep and lamb products. Outline the management techniques and production systems used to make Australian sheep production unique and successful. Use the words in the table below to assist you. Breed of sheep Systems Nutrition Breeding Husbandry Technology How does Australian sheep production address consumer concerns? Consumers are becoming more concerned with issues around animal welfare and sustainability. Create a mindmap detailing all the ways Australian sheep farmers have tried to address consumer demands regarding sustainability, animal welfare and market specifications.