Agron 2.2 Fundamentals of Agronomy PDF

Agron 2.2: Fundamentals of Agronomy (3 + 1 = 4) Second Semester B.Sc. (Hons.) Agri. Course syllabus as per 5th Dean committee Sr. Lec. Name of the topic Name of the sub topic Reference book Page No No....

Agron 2.2: Fundamentals of Agronomy (3 + 1 = 4) Second Semester B.Sc. (Hons.) Agri. Course syllabus as per 5th Dean committee Sr. Lec. Name of the topic Name of the sub topic Reference book Page No No. No. 1. 1. Agriculture : Definition SR Reddy 1-3 definition, meaning Spheres of agriculture (Introduction to Revolutions in agriculture Agronomy & 2. 2. Agronomy : Definition Principles of Crop definition, meaning Scope of Agronomy Production) and its scope Year : 2014 3. 3. Seeds and sowing Definition and character of SR Reddy good seeds 52-61 Classes of seed Methods of sowing 4. 4. Tillage, land Definition and Objectives of SR Reddy 30-49 configuration and tillage sub soiling Classification of tillage Modern concepts in tillage Land configuration techniques Sub soiling: Meaning and T. Y. Reddy and 145- equipment G.H.S. Reddy 148 (Principles of Agronomy) Kalyani Publishers 5. 5. Crop density and Types of crop geometry SR Reddy 65-71 geometry Factors affecting plant density 6. 6. Crop nutrition,Macro and Micro nutrients SR Reddy manures and Criteria for essentiality of 74- fertilizers, nutrient nutrient 113 use efficiency Manure / Compost and Fertilizer, Brown manuring, GM, Biofertilizer 7. 7. Growth and Define growth and Types T. Y. Reddy and 71-93 development of Factor affecting growth G.H.S. Reddy crops Measurement of growth Growth Indices Define development 8. 8. Agro-climatic zones Agro-climatic zones of India T. Y. Reddy and 38-43 of India and Gujarat Agro-climatic zones of Gujarat G.H.S. Reddy Page 1 of 136 9. 9. Classification of Classification of field crops SR Reddy 6-14 field crops and according to Agronomical, factors affecting on season, water requirement and crop production cultural practices Factors affecting crop T. Y. Reddy and 45-68 production G.H.S. Reddy 10. 10. Drought Define and its Types Dr. K. L. Nandeha 369- Effect of drought on crop (Agronomy) 372 production Management of drought 11. 11. Cropping system Definitions S.C. Panda 8-25, Types of cropping system (Cropping and 41-42 Farming System) Year : 2016 12. 12. Soil fertility and soil Define and diff. soil fertility and J. P. Chaudhary productivity productivity (Fertilizers and Factors affecting soil fertility Manures) 3-9 Hans jenny formula 13. 13. Fertility losses and Causes of soil fertility loss T. Y. Reddy and maintenance of soil Maintenance of soil fertility and G.H.S. Reddy fertility, soil organic application of fertilizer on basis 96- matter of soil health card / STV 134 Define OM and its role 14 14 Irrigation Define irrigation and Role of SR Reddy 1-3 water in plants (Irrigation Objective of irrigation Agronomy) Year : 2012 15 15 Physical and Physical classification : SR Reddy 78-83 Biological Gravitational, Capillary and (Irrigation classification of Hygroscopic water Agronomy) water Biological classification : Year : 2012 Superfluous, Available and Unavailable water Soil moisture constant 16 16 Irrigation efficiency Different types of efficiency SR Reddy 189- and water use Factors affecting water use (Irrigation 194 efficiency, efficiency of crops and Agronomy) consumptive use of Conjunctive use of water Year : 2012 water 17 17 Methods of Importance of irrigation SR Reddy 182- irrigation including scheduling (Irrigation 189 micro irrigation Approaches of irrigation Agronomy) system, Irrigation scheduling Year : 2012 scheduling Page 2 of 136 18 18 Methods of Factors affecting the adoption SR Reddy 205- irrigation including of irrigation methods (Irrigation 240 micro irrigation Methods of irrigation : Surface Agronomy) system irrigation, Sub-surface and Year : 2012 Micro irrigation system 19 19 Quality of water, Classification of irrigation water SR Reddy 310- water logging Management and use of poor (Irrigation 331 quality water and Leaching Agronomy) requirement (LR) 20 20 Weeds Definition T. Y. Reddy and 384- Classification of weed G.H.S. Reddy 388 Characteristics of weed Page 3 of 136 Agron. 2.2 “Fundamentals of Agronomy” Credits: 4 (3 + 1) Theory Topic 1 : Agriculture: definition, meaning Topic 2 : Agronomy: definition, meaning and its scope Topic 3: Tillage, land configuration and sub soiling Topic 4: Seeds and sowing Topic 5: Crop density and geometry Topic 6: Crop nutrition, manures and fertilizers, nutrient use efficiency Topic 7: Growth and development of crops Topic 8: Agro-climatic zones of India and Gujarat Topic 9: Classification of field crops and factors affecting on crop production Topic 10: Drought: definition and types of drought Topic 11: Cropping systems: Definition and types of cropping systems Topic 12: Soil fertility and soil productivity Topic 13: Fertility losses and maintenance of soil fertility, soil organic matter Topic 14: Irrigation: Introduction, Importance, definition and objectives Topic 15: Physical and biological classification of water Topic 16: Irrigation efficiency and water use efficiency, consumptive use of water Topic 17: Approaches for irrigation scheduling Topic 18: Methods of irrigation including micro irrigation system Topic 19: Quality of water, water logging Topic 20: Weeds: definition, classification and characteristics Page 4 of 136 Practicals 1. Identification of crops, seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and tillage implements 2. Lay out and types of seed bed preparation 3. Practice of different methods of sowing 4. Study of yield contributing characters and yield estimation of major crops 5. Seed germination and viability test 6. Numerical exercises on plant population and seed rate 7. Use of tillage implements: reversible plough, one way plough, harrow and leveler 8. Study of sowing implements/equipment 9. Measurement of field capacity, bulk density and infiltration rate 10. Field layout of various irrigation methods 11. To work out the labour unit and unit of work for various field operations Reference books Sr. Name of Books Author No. 1 Introduction to Agronomy and S. R. Reddy Principles of Crop Production 2 Principles of Agronomy T. Y. Reddy and G. H. S. Reddy 3 Agronomy Dr. K. L. Nandeha 4 Cropping and Farming Systems S. C. Panda 5 Fertilizers and Manures J. P. Chaudhary 6 Irrigation Agronomy S. R. Reddy Page 5 of 136 Topic 1 : Agriculture: Definition, meaning and its branches Meaning of Agriculture : The term Agriculture is derived from two Latin words ager or agri and cultura. Ager or agri means soil or Land or Field and Cultura means cultivation. Agriculture is very broad term covering all aspects of crop production, livestock farming, fisheries, forestry etc. Agriculture may be defined as the art and science of cultivating land, raising crops and feeding, breeding, and raising livestock. Agriculture is the cultivation of lands for production of crops for a regular supply of food and other needs for progress of the nation. There are three main spheres of agriculture as under; Geoponic : Meaning cultivation in earth, Hydroponic : Meaning cultivation in water and Aeroponic : Meaning cultivation in air. Agriculture is productive unit where the natural inputs i.e. light; air, water etc are converted in to usable product by the green plants. The livestock, birds and insect feed on the green plants and provide concentrated products such as milk, meat, eggs, wool, honey, silk and lack. Agriculture provides us with the materials needed for our feeding, housing and clothing. Agriculture consists of growing plants and rearing animals which help to maintain a biological equilibrium in nature. Agriculture is considered as mother of all agro based industries as it supplying the raw material to different industries as listed here under: Sr. Agricultural produce/ Industries maintained No. crop plant 1. Cotton Textile mills, Cottage industry, for spinning, weaving and rope making. 2. Sugarcane Sugar mills, Paper industry. 3. Oil seeds Oil mills, manufacturing of varnishes, paints, soap, perfumes, vegetable ghee and cakes. 4. Maize Starch industry and cattle feed industry. 5. Grape Vine and canning industry. 6. Fruits and vegetables Canning industry, Juices, Eential oils as by product. Page 6 of 136 Animals and their bye products: 1. Milk Milk industry, processing and bottling of milk, manufacture of butter, cheese, ghee, milk powder, ice cream etc. 2. Beef Mutton industry, processing and packing of mutton. By products Hides Leather industry. Bones Fertilizer industry, manufacture of buttons. Insects : 1. Silk worm Sericulture: Rearing of silkworm for silk production. 2. Honeybee Apiculture: Rearing of bees for production of honey. Revolution in Agriculture No. Revolution Concerned with Achievements 1. Green revolution Food grain production Food grain production increased from 51 million tones at independence to 223 million tones in (2006 - 07), 4.5 times increase. 2. White revolution Milk production Milk production increased from 17 million tones at independence to 69 million tones, four times (1997-98). 3. Yellow revolution Oilseeds production Oil seed production increased from 5 million tones to 25 million tones since independence, 5 times increase 4. Blue revolution Fish production Fish production increased from 0.75 million tones to nearly 5.0 million tones during the last five decades. 5. Brown revolution Food processing/ Total fertilizer production = 178.10 Lakh Fertilizer tone (2015-16) 6. Golden revolution Horticulture All India total horticulture (Fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops and spices) production = 300642.95 (000 MT) (2016-17) 7. Round revolution Potato All India total potato production = 48.60 Million tone (2016-17) Page 7 of 136 8. Rainbow Overall development of Integrated development programme of revolution agriculture sector Agriculture, Horticulture, Forestry, Sugarcane, Fishery, Poultry and Animal Husbandry 9. Black revolution Petroleum products India produced 231.92 MTs of petroleum products in 2015-16, recording a growth of 4.88% over the previous year 10. Silver revolution Eggs Production All India total egg production = 82.9 Billion Nos. (2016-17) 11. Grey revolution Fertilizer Total fertilizer production = 178.10 Lakh tone (2015-16) 12. Pink revolution Onion production/ All India total onion production = 22.42 Prawn production Million tone (2016-17) 13. Red revolution Meat/Poultry/Piggery All India total meat production = 70.20 Million tone (2015-16) Page 8 of 136 Branches of Agriculture Agriculture is a synthesis of several disciplines like Agricultural chemistry and soil Science, Agronomy, Plant breeding and genetics, Horticulture, Entomology, Plant pathology, Crop Physiology, Extension education, Plant Ecology, Biochemistry and Economics etc. 1) Agronomy: It deals with the production of various crops which includes food crops, fodder crops, fibre crops, sugar, oil seeds, etc. 2) Horticulture: Branch of agriculture deals with the production of flowers, fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, spices, condiments (includes narcotic crops – opium etc. which has medicinal value) and beverages. 3) Forestry: It deals with production or large scale cultivation of perennial trees for supplying wood, timber, rubber, etc. and also raw materials for industries. 4) Animal Husbandry: Maintenance of various types of livestock for direct energy (work energy) purpose. Husbandry is common for both crop and animals. The objective is to get maximum output by feeding, rearing etc. 5) Fishery Science: It is for marine fish and inland fishes including shrimps and prawns. 6) Agricultural Engineering: It is an important component for crop production and horticulture particularly to provide tools and implements. It is aiming to produce modified tools to facilitate proper animal husbandry and crop production tools, implements and machinery in animal production. 7) Home Science: Application and utilization of agricultural produces in a better manner. When utilization is enhanced production is also enhanced. Page 9 of 136 Topic 2 : Agronomy: Definition, meaning and its scope Agronomy is a Greek word derived from agros meaning field and nomos meaning management. It is a field management. Agronomy is a specialized branch in agriculture dealing with crop production and soil management. It is defined as an agricultural science deals with principles and practices of crop production and field management. Agronomist is a scientist who is dealing with the study of problems of crop production and adopting/recommending practices of better field crop production and soil management to get high yield and income. In recent times, agronomy has assumed newer dimensions and can be defined as a branch of agricultural science that deals with methods which provides favourable environment to the crop for higher productivity. Norman (1980) has defined agronomy as the science of manipulating the crop environment complex with dual aims of improving agricultural productivity and gaining a degree of understanding of the process involved. Scope of Agronomy Agronomy is a dynamic discipline. With the advancement of knowledge and better understanding of plant and environment, agricultural practices are modified or new practices developed for higher productivity. For example;  Availability of chemical fertilizers and herbicides for control of weeds has led to development of a vast knowledge about time, method and quantity of fertilizer and herbicide application.  Big irrigation projects are constructed to provide irrigation facilities. However, these projects created side effects like water logging and salinity. To overcome these problems, appropriate water management practices are developed.  Population pressure is increasing but the area under cultivation is static. Therefore, to feed the increasing population, more number of crops has to be grown on the same piece of land in a year. As a result, intensive cropping has come into vogue.  Similarly, no tillage practices have come in place of clean cultivation as a result of increase in cost of energy. (Fuel prices of oil).  Likewise, new technology has to be developed to overcome the effect of moisture stress under dry land conditions.  As new varieties of crops with high yield potential become available, package of practices has to be developed to exploit their full yielding potential. Page 10 of 136 Topic 3: Tillage, land configuration and sub soiling Tillage is as old as agriculture. Primitive man used to disturb the soil for placing seeds. The word tillage is derived from the Anglo- Saxon words tilian and teolian, meaning to plough and prepare soil for seed to sow, to cultivate and raise crops. Jethro Tull, who is considered as father of tillage suggested that thorough ploughing is necessary so as to make the soil into fine particles. After harvest of the crop, soil becomes hard and compact may be due to : (a) Beating action of rain drops, (b) irrigation and subsequent drying and (c) movement of intercultivation implements and labour cause soil compaction. Definition of tillage "Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of soil with tools and implements for obtaining conditions ideal for seed germination, seedling establishment and growth of crops is called tillage" or Any operation carried out on the soil surface by agricultural implements for the purpose of softening the soil surface for better advantage to germination and plant growth. Tilth: It is the physical condition of soil obtained out by tillage (or) it is the resultant effect of tillage in which soil air, soil water and soil aggregates are in perfect harmony or in balance condition. Purpose of Tillage: The purpose of tillage is to prepare a seedbed, break weed, insect and disease cycles, bury plant residues, incorporate fertilizers and amendments, break surface crust etc. Objectives of tillage: There are several objectives of tillage of which the most important are suitable seedbed preparation, weed control and soil and water conservation. 1. To produce a satisfactory seed bed for good germination and good crop growth. 2. To make the soil loose and porous. 3. To provide aeration to the soil 4. To control weeds 5. To remove the stubbles (that may harbour pests) of previous crops 6. To expose the soil inhabiting pathogens and insect pests to sun and kill them. 7. To break hard pans in the soil 8. For deep tillage and inversion of soil 9. For incorporating bulky organic manures 10. To increase infiltration rate. Page 11 of 136  Classification of Tillage Tillage Preparatory tillage After tillage Primary tillage Secondary tillage Harrowing Deep Sub- Year round Harrowing Planking Hoeing tillage soiling tillage Earthing up Interculturing Weeding Types of tillage:- Tillage operations are grouped in to two types based on the time (with reference to crop) at which they are carried out. They are (1) Preparatory tillage:- Which is carried out before sowing the crop and (2) After tillage:- That is practiced after sowing of crop. (1) Preparatory tillage Tillage operation that are carried out to prepare the field for raising crops-from the time of harvest of a crop to the sowing of the next crop are known as preparatory tillage. It is divided in to primary and secondary tillage operations. (A) Primary tillage or ploughing:- "The Tillage operation that is done after the harvest of crop to bring the land under cultivation is known as primary tillage". Ploughing is the opening of the compact soil with the help of different ploughs. Primary tillage is done mainly (i) to open the hard soil, (ii) to separate the top soil from lower layers and (iii) to uprooting the weeds and stubbles of previous crop. Page 12 of 136 e.g. Country plough, Disc plough, Mould board plough etc. are used for primary tillage. Type of Primary tillage:- 1. Deep tillage 2. Sub soiling 3. Year round tillage (1) Deep Tillage: - Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA), Hyderabad classified ploughing of - 5-6 cm depth as shallow ploughing - 15- 20 cm depth as medium deep ploughing and - 25- 30 cm depth as deep ploughing The rhizomes and tubers of perennial weeds and pupae of insects are die due to exposure to hot sun. Deep tillage also improves soil moisture. (2) Sub soiling: - Hard pans may present in the soil which restrict root growth of crops. These may be silt pans, iron or aluminum, clay or manmade pans. Sub soiling is breaking the hard pan without inversion and with less disturbance of top soil. A narrow cut is made in the top soil while share of the sub soiler shatters hard pans. Chisel ploughs is also used to break hard pans present even at 60 - 70 cm. (3) Year round tillage: - Tillage operations carried out throughout the year are known as year round tillage. (B) Secondary tillage: - Lighter or finer operations performed on the soil after primary tillage are known as secondary tillage. Disc harrows, cultivators, blade harrows, planking are used for this purpose. Generally sowing operation is also included in secondary tillage. Harrowing: An agricultural implement with spikelike teeth or upright discs, drawn chiefly over ploughed land to level it, break up clods, up root the weeds, etc. Planking : It is secondary tillage equipment for clod crushing, levelling and smoothening of land surface before seeding. (2) After tillage The tillage operations that are carried out in the standing crop are called after tillage. It includes harrowing, hoeing, intercultivation, earthing up and weeding. Page 13 of 136 Harrowing: An agricultural implement with spikelike teeth or upright disks, drawn chiefly over ploughed land to level it, break up clods, up root the weeds etc. Hoeing: Any of several kinds of long-handled hand implement equipped with a light blade and used to till the soil, eradicate weeds etc. Inter-cultivation: Inter-cultivation also known as interculturing, is the cultivation of soil between crop rows. In other words, the soil between the two row of crops are ploughed using dedicated agricultural equipment (such as blade harrow, tined harrow, and even by hand hoe) for weeding, improving soil aeration, and loosening the soil compaction. Earthing up: To raise the soil at base of the plant for the purpose of providing support against lodging, root penetration etc. Weeding: The process of eliminating the weeds from cropped area is called "weeding". Weeding can be done by hand or with a gardening tool.  Modern concepts in tillage Conventional tillage involves primary tillage to break open and turn the soil followed by secondary tillage to obtain seed bed for sowing or planting. With the introduction of herbicides in intensive farming systems, the concept of tillage has been changed. Continuous use of heavy ploughs create hard pan in the subsoil. This results in poor infiltration. It is more susceptible to run off and erosion. It is capital intensive and increase soil degradation. The concept of minimum tillage was started in U.S.A. The immediate cause for introducing minimum tillage was high cost of tillage due to steep rise in oil prices in 1974. Dr. G.B. Triplett is considered as father of modern tillage. 1. Minimum Tillage: Minimum tillage is aimed at reducing tillage to the minimum necessary for ensuring a good seedbed, rapid germination, a satisfactory plant stand and favorable growing conditions. Tillage can be reduced in two ways: (1) By omitting operations which do not give much benefit when compared to the cost. (2) By combining agricultural operations like seeding and fertilizer application. Advantages of minimum tillage: (1) Improve soil conditions due to decomposition of plant residues in-situ. (2) Higher infiltration caused by the vegetation present on the soil and channels formed by the decomposition of dead roots. Page 14 of 136  (3) Less resistance to root growth due to improved structure. (4) Less soil compaction by the reduced movement of heavy tillage vehicles and less soil erosion compared to conventional tillage. Disadvantages of minimum tillage: (1) Seed germination is lower. (2) More nitrogen has to be added as rate of decomposition of organic matter is slow. (3) Sowing operations are difficult with ordinary equipment. (4) Continuous use of herbicides causes pollution problems and dominance of perennial problematic weeds. 2. Zero Tillage Zero tillage is an extreme form of minimum tillage. Primary tillage is completely avoided and secondary tillage is restricted to seedbed preparation in the row zone only. It is known as no-till and is resorted to where soils are subjected to wind and water erosion. In zero tillage: (1) The organic matter content increases due to less mineralization. (2) Surface runoff is reduced due to presence of mulch. (3) Clean a narrow strip over the crop row. (4) Open the soil for seed insertion, place the seed and cover the seed properly. (5) Before sowing, the vegetation present has to be destroyed for which broad spectrum, nonselective herbicides with relatively short residual effect (Paraquat, Glyphosate etc.) are used. (6) During subsequent stages, selective and persistent herbicides are needed. (7) The seedling establishment is 20 per cent less than conventional methods. (8) Higher dose of nitrogen to be applied as mineralization of organic matter is slow.  Land configuration techniques The productivity of any crop is the complex phenomenon governed by number of factors viz., use of improved varieties, appropriate sowing method, timely sowing, spacing, judicious use of water as well as nutrients and weeds, pests and disease management. Among all these, appropriate sowing method or proper land configuration is the most critical factor for realizing desired yield potential. The genotypes can express their full potential only when grown under optimum conditions and at optimum plant base. Page 15 of 136  Land management system plays a major important role in minimizing soil erosion and improving water use efficiency of field crops. Easy and uniform germination as well as growth and development of plant are provided by manipulation of sowing method. Land configuration increases water use efficiency and also increases availability of nutrients to crops. It is particularly useful in areas having saline irrigation water because it helps to avoid direct contact of young plants with saline irrigation water. Various land configuration techniques helps in increasing growth and development of plants and thereby yield. 1. Flat beds Flat beds are prepared easily in sandy loam type of soil because sandy soil is better workable. The length of the beds should be kept according to the slop of nursery. For easy working the beds should be prepared about 3.60 meter in length and 1.20 meter in width for easy and convenient operations. 2. Raised beds Raised beds are mostly preferred in heavy black soil having maximum water holding capacity and poor drainage capacity. The basal measurement of raised beds should be 10.0 meter x 1.0 meter. Dig the soil near to the boundary of the beds and raised the soil on top. 3. Ridges and furrows The field must be formed into ridges and furrows. Furrows of 30-45 cm width and 15-20 cm height are formed across the slope. The furrows guide runoff water safely when rainfall intensity is high and avoid water stagnation. They collect and store water when rainfall intensity is less. It is suitable for medium deep to deep black soils and deep red soils. It can be practiced in wide row spaced crops like cotton, maize, chillies, tomato etc. It is not suitable for broadcast sown crops and for crops sown at closer row spacing less than 30 cm. Page 16 of 136 Tied ridging It is a modification of the above system of ridges and furrows wherein the ridges are connected or tied by a small bund at 2-3 m interval along the furrows to allow the rain water collection in the furrows which slowly percolated in to the soil profile. 4. Broad bed furrows (BBF) This practice has been recommended by ICRISAT for vertisols or black soils in high rainfall areas (> 750 mm). Here beds of 90-120cm width, 15 cm height and convenient length are formed, separated by furrows of 60 cm width and 15 cm depth. When runoff occurs, its velocity will be reduced by beds and infiltration opportunity time is increased. The furrows have a gradient of 0.6%. Crops are sown on the broad beds and excess water is drained through number of small furrows which may be connected to farm ponds. It can be formed by bullock drawn or tractor drawn implements. Bed former cum seed drill enables BBF formation and sowing simultaneously, thus reducing the delay between receipt rainfall and sowing. Page 17 of 136 Broad bed furrow has many advantages over other methods.  It helps in moisture storage  Safely dispose of surplus surface runoff without causing erosion  Provide better drainage facilities  Facilitate dry seeding  It can accommodate a wide range of crop geometry i.e. close as well as wide row spacing.  It is suitable for both sole cropping and intercropping systems.  Sowing can be done with seed drills. 5. Dead furrows At the time of sowing or immediately after sowing, deep furrows of 20 cm depth are formed at intervals of 6 to 8 rows of crops. No crop is raised in the furrow. The dead furrows can also be formed between two rows of the crop, before the start of heavy rains (Sep – Oct). It can be done with wooden plough mostly in red soils. The dead furrows increase the infiltration opportunity time. 6. Scooping Scooping the soil surface to form small depressions or basins help in retaining rain water on the surface for longer periods. They also reduce erosion by trapping eroding sediment. Studies have shown that runoff under this practice can be reduced by 50 % and soil loss by 3 to 8 t /ha. Page 18 of 136  Fig. : Scoops for insitu moisture conservation  Sub soiling "To gain maximum benefit from sub soiling, this operation needs to be done when the lower levels of the soil are relatively dry" Sub soil meaning: The layer or bed of earth beneath the topsoil. Also called under soil the layer of soil beneath the surface soil and overlying the bed rock. What is a Sub soiler? A sub soiler is a type of tillage implement that’s used to break up compacted soil in an effort to improve the setting for growing crops. The subsoiler is so named because it cuts and loosens soil below the normal tillage depth of 100– 200 mm. Its shape is similar to the chisel plow except that it is made with a stronger shank or leg in order to resist the higher force required to till soil at greater depth. Subsoiling is a practice that breaks up soil, usually 12-18" deep, to allow increased water movement, better aeration of the roots and access to additional minerals and nutrients for plant growth. Chisel ploughs are also used to break hard pans presents even at 60-70 cm.  Chisel Plough : It is mainly used for breaking hard pans and for deep ploughing (60-70 cm) with less disturbance to the top layers. Its body is thin with replaceable cutting edge so as to have minimum disturbance to the top layers. It contains a replaceable share to shatter the lower layers. Page 19 of 136  Subsoil Plough : The subsoil plough is designed to break up hard layers or pans without bringing them to the surface. The body of the subsoil plough is wedge shaped and narrow while the share is wide so as to shatter the hard pan and making only a slot on the top layers. (Chisel Plough) Page 20 of 136 Topic 4: Seeds and sowing Seeds are the vital part of agriculture. Selection of good quality seeds is a challenge for farmers. Only good quality seeds which are sown properly can give an expected result or yield. Seeds of a variety of types and strains are available; cultivators have to choose from these and these have to be sown in the field. Definition: Seed is a fertilized ovule consisting of intact embryo, store food and seed coat which is viable and has got the capacity to germinate under favourable condition. or A seed is the small, hard part of a plant from which a new plant grows. Characters of good seeds (1) Seed should be of recommended crop and their varieties. (2) It must be true to its type. (3) The seed must be healthy, pure and free from all the inert materials and weed seeds. (4) The seed must be viable. The germination capacity is upto the standard and it has been tested recently. (5) The seed must be uniform in its texture, structure and outlook. (6) The seed should be free from insects, insect eggs, disease spores etc. in or on the seeds (7) The seed should be collected from fully matured crop, well developed, bold and plump in size. Quality of seed Viability and vigour are the two important characters of seed quality. Viability can be expressed by the germination percentage, which indicates the number of seedlings produced by a given number of seeds. Vigour of seed and seedlings is difficult to measure. Low germination percentage, low germination rate and low vigour are often associated. Seeds with low vigour may not be able to withstand unfavourable conditions in the seedbed. The seedlings may lack the strength to emerge if the seeds are planted too deep or if the soil surface is crusted. Germination percentage It is the number of seeds germinated to number of seeds planted and it is expressed as percentage. Page 21 of 136 Germination rate is expressed in two ways as under  The number of days required to produce a given germination percentage.  The average number of days required for radical or plumule to emerge. Vigour is indicated by the higher germination percentage, high germination rate and quicker seedling growth. Classes of seed With respect to genetic purity and stages of development, seeds are classified into four different categories as under 1. Breeder seed It is also known as Nucleus seed. It is very important class of seed. It is produced at breeder’s institute with the responsibilities of the concern breeder who developed a particular variety. Breeder seed is the main source for the increase of foundation seed. It is 100 % genetically pure. 2. Foundation seed This seed is directly produced from the breeder seed. Production of foundation seed is done carefully under the strict supervision of the highly qualified seed experts because genetic purity and identity of the variety should be maintained, as this seed is the source of all certified seed classes, either directly or through the registered seed. Foundation seed is produced at state Government farms and Agricultural Universities farms. 3. Registered seed This class of seed is increased from foundation seed or other registered seed produced by the private seed growers or seed companies. 4. Certified seed Certified seed means the production of commercial seed sold to the farmers for raising the crop. This type of seed is produced from foundation seed. The registered seed. The National Seed Corporation, Agricultural Universities, State Government, Private seed companies, Private seed producers and some Co-operative society produce this type of seed. The seed produced by various agencies is certified by State Seed Certification Agency. Page 22 of 136  Sowing :- Sowing is an operation for putting the seeds in the soil at particular distance and depth for raising the crop after proper preparation of a land. Seeds are sown either directly on the field (seed bed) or in nursery where seedlings are raised and transplanted later in to the main field. Time of sowing Sowing very early in the season may not be advantageous. For example, sowing rainfed groundnut in June may result in failure of the crop if there is prolonged dry spell from the second week of June to second week of July. But sometimes, sowing early in certain situations increases the yield of crop. Advancing sowing of rabi sorghum from November to September- October, increases the yields considerably as more moisture would be available for early sown crop. 1. Delayed sowing Delayed sowing invariably reduces the yield. Rainfed sorghum yields are reduced due to delay in sowing beyond June. In rainfed groundnut, sowing beyond July reduced the yields of all varieties at Tirupati. Similarly, the yield of pigeonpea and soybean are reduced due to delay in sowing. The reduction in yields is attributed to early induction of flowering, unfavourable temperature and rainfall. Most of the tropical crops are short- day plants. Day length starts falling from July onwards, but the reduction in day length is steep from October onwards. Flowering is induced in short-day crops earlier due to absolute short days or relative reduction in day length. If sowings are delayed, there is very little time for vegetative growth and thus, there is reduction in yield. In addition, late sown crops are exposed to increased population of pests and diseases. Sorghum sown late is subjected to severe attack of shoot borer. 2. Optimum time of sowing Sowing the crop at optimum time increases yields due to suitable environment at all the growth stages of the crop. Flowering is induced after sufficient vegetative growth. Moisture stress or dry spells may be avoided during critical stages. The optimum time of sowing for most of tropical crops is immediately after the onset of monsoon i.e. June or July. The optimum time of sowing for temperate crops like wheat and barley are from last week of October to first week of November. The optimum time of sowing for most of the summer crops is first fortnight of January. Page 23 of 136  Types of Sowing 1. Dry sowing Dry sowing is adopted in black soils where sowing operations are difficult to carry out once rains commence. Field is prepared with summer and seeds are sown in dry soil around seven to ten days before the anticipated receipts of sowing rains. The seeds germinate after the receipts of rains. By this method, rainfall is effectively utilized. 2. Wet sowing Wet sowing is the most common method of sowing crops. The minimum amount of rainfall necessary for taking up sowing is 20 mm. Certain amount of moisture is wasted during the period between receipt of rainfall and sowing.  Methods of sowing 1. Broadcasting: This is an oldest method. This method is suitable for close planted crop which do not require (i) a specific geographic area (ii) special type of cultural practices e.g. earthing up or interculturing etc. may be sown by broadcasting. This method is followed in the crop having short life period. Seeds are spread or scatter by hands over the field and covered with the help of wooden rake or light plank. e.g. Cumin, Isabgul, Lucerne, Coriander, Rajgira, Berseem etc. and in mix cropping situation. Advantages:  This method is cheap.  It is easy and quick. Disadvantages:  Require more seed rate.  Uneven distribution of seed is possible.  Uneven depth of sowing.  Interculturing is not possible.  Weeding becomes difficult.  Selections of seeds are not possible.  Covering seeds with the help of rake is necessary. Page 24 of 136 2. Drilling: Drilling is a practice of dropping the seeds in furrows by a mechanical device at a distance between rows. Seed are drilled in parallel line. Distribution of seeds is regulated by releasing seeds in to the bowl by the hand. For covering the seeds light planking is done by plank. e.g. Upland rice, Wheat, Bajra, Barley, Mustard, Greengram, Cowpea, etc. and in intercropping situation. Advantages:  Uniform distance between two rows can be maintained.  Less seed rate as compared to broadcasting.  Interculturing is possible between two rows.  Seeds are placed at uniform depth and covered and compacted uniformly. Disadvantages:  Distance between two plants within the row is not maintained.  Thinning and gap filling operations are necessary  Selection of seed is not possible. 3. Dibbling: Putting the seed or few seeds in a hole or pit or pocket, made at predetermine spacing and depth with a dibbler or very often by hand. This method is suitable for wide space crops requiring a specific geometric area for their canopy development or cultural practices. First all lines are marked vertically and horizontally with the help of marker at a particular distance. At each cross seeds are dibbled with the help of dibbler by manual labour. Then seeds are covered with soil. e.g. Cotton, Castor, Pigeon pea etc. Advantages:  Spacing is maintained between two rows and between two plants within the row.  Requirement of seed rate is less as compared to broadcasting and drilling.  Depth of sowing is maintained.  Selection of good seed is possible.  Give rapid and uniform germination with good seedling vigour. Disadvantages:  More laborious and time consuming method.  It is costly. Page 25 of 136 4. Planting: Placing of plant part (vegetative propagules) in soil is called planting. The vegetative propagules are planted directly on the field should be good in health, vigour, age, stage of growth and desirable number of readily sprouting buds. e.g. Tuber : Potato, Rhizomes : Ginger and Turmeric, Bulb : Onion, Cloves : Garlic, Vine set : Sweet potato, Setts : Sugarcane, Root cutting : Pointed gourd, Rooted slips : Napier grass, Blue panic grass. Advantages:  Proper distance can be maintained between two rows and between two plants within the row.  Providing opportunity for selection of planting material.  Depth of sowing can be maintained. Disadvantages:  It requires more labour.  It is costly and time consuming method. 5. Transplanting: Transplanting is the removal of an actively growing plant from one place and planting it in another for further growth and production. In this method seeds are not directly sown in the field but seeds are sown first in nursery with proper care. After proper growth (generally four weeks), seedlings are uprooted and transplanted in well prepared main field. This method is useful for raising the crops which have small size seeds and require more care in the initial stage. e.g. Seedlings- Rice, Tobacco, Tomato, Brinjal, Chilly, Onion, Cabbage, Cauliflower etc. Saplings - Subabool, Sag, Eucalyptus. Advantages:  Economy of costly seeds.  Maintaining of desire plant density with healthy and pure seedlings.  Available sufficient time for preparing seedbed.  Provide more chances for better care in small area during seedling stage. Disadvantages:  Total duration of crop may be more.  It increases the labour and power requirement in a peak period.  It increases the cost of land preparation, uprooting and transplanting of seedling. Page 26 of 136 Topic 5: Crop density and geometry Plant population or Plant density Number of plants per unit area in the cropped field is the plant population or plant density. Optimum plant population 1. Optimum plant population – It is the number of plants required to produce maximum output or biomass per unit area. Any increase beyond this stage results in either no increase or reduction in biomass. Importance of plant population / crop geometry 1. Yield of any crop depends on final plant population 2. The plant population depends on germination percentage and survival rate in the field 3. Under rainfed conditions, high plant population will deplete the soil moisture before maturity, where as low plant population will leave the soil moisture unutilized 4. Under low plant population individual plant yield will be more due to wide spacing. 5. Under high plant population individual plant yield will be low due to narrow spacing leading to competition between plants. 6. Yield per plant decreases gradually as plant population per unit area is increased, but yield per unit area increases up to certain level of population, that level of plant population is called as optimum population So optimum plant population is necessary to get maximum yield per unit area. Therefore, optimum plant population for each crop should be identified. Plant geometry Plant geometry refers the shape of the plant / plant canopy. Like Vertical growth in sorghum, maize, paddy etc. Horizontal growth in cotton, tobacco, pulses etc. Crop geometry Crop geometry refers the shape of the land available to individual plant to grow. e.g. random, square, rectangular etc. The arrangement of the plants in different rows and columns in an area to efficiently utilize the natural resources is called crop geometry. It is otherwise area occupied by a single plant e.g. rice – 20 cm x 15 cm. This is very essential to utilize the resources like light, water, nutrient and space. Page 27 of 136  Crop geometries Different crop geometries available for crop production are as under 1. Random geometry This type of geometry is observed under broadcasting method of sowing, where no equal space is maintained, resources are either under exploited or over exploited. 2. Square method or Square geometry The plants are sown at equal distances on either side. Mostly perennial crops, tree crops follow square method of cultivation. Advantages 1. Light is uniformly available, 2. Movement of wind is not blocked and 3. Mechanization can be possible. 3. Rectangular method or Rectangular geometry There are rows and columns, the row spacing is wider than the spacing between plants. The different types exist in rectangular method a. Solid row Each row will have no equal spacing between the plants. This is followed only for annual crops which have tillering pattern. There is definite row arrangement but no column arrangement, e.g. wheat. b. Paired row arrangement It is also a rectangular arrangement. If a crop requires 90 cm spacing and if paired row is to be adopted the spacing is altered to 60 -120 -60 instead of 90 cm, i.e. distance between two pair is 120 cm, whereas the distance between two rows within pair is 60 cm. The intercrop can be grown in between two pairs. The base population is kept constant. c. Skip row A row of planting is skipped and hence there is a reduction in population. This reduction is compensated by planting an intercrop; practiced in rain fed or dry land agriculture. d. Triangular method of planting It is recommended for wide spaced crops like coconut, mango, etc. The number of plants per unit area is more in this system. Page 28 of 136   Factors affecting plant population / Plant density Many factors influence the optimum plant population for a crop, there are 1. Size of the plant 1. The volume occupied by the plant at the time of flowering decides the spacing of crop 2. Plants of red gram, cotton, castor, sugarcane etc. occupy larger volume of space in the field compared to rice, wheat, ragi 3. Even the varieties of the same crop differ in size of the plant 2. Foraging area or soil cover 1. Plant should cover the soil as early as possible so as to intercept maximum sunlight 2. Higher the intercepted radiation more will be the dry matter produced 3. Close spaced crops intercept more solar radiation than wide spaced crops 3. Dry matter partitioning 1. Dry matter production is related to amount of solar radiation intercepted by the canopy which depends on plant density 2. As the plant density increases the canopy expands more rapidly, more radiation is intercepted and more dry matter is produced. 4. Crop and variety 1. Growth habit of variety e.g. Types of Groundnut varieties like erect, semi spreading and spreading 2. Duration of crop e.g. Rice variety of short, medium and long duration Crop Duration Distance Plant population Rice Short duration 15 cm x 10 cm 6,66,666 plants/ha Medium duration 20 cm x 10 cm 5,00,000 plants/ha Long duration 20 cm x 15 cm 3,33,333 plants/ha Cotton Medium duration 60 cm x 30 cm 55,555 plants/ha Long duration 75 cm x 30 cm 44,444 plants/ha Hybrids 120 cm x 45 cm 18,518 plants/ha Maize Varieties 60 cm x 20 cm 83,333 plants/ha Hybrids 60 cm x 35 cm 47,619 plants/ha Groundnut Erect 30-45 cm x 10 cm 2,22,222 plants/ha Semi-spreading 45-60 cm x 10 cm 1,66,666 plants/ha Spreading 60-90 cm x 10 cm 1,11,111 plants/ha Page 29 of 136 5. Time of sowing 1. The crop is subjected to various weather conditions when sown at different periods. 2. Among weather factors, day length and temperature influence the plant population. As low temperature retards growth, high plant population is required to cover the soil 6. Rainfall / irrigation 1. Plant population has to be less under rainfed than irrigated condition 2. Under more plant densities, more water is lost through transpiration 3. Under adequate rainfall / irrigation, high plant population is recommended. 7. Seed rate Quantity of seed sown/unit area, viability and establishment rate decides the plant population Under broadcasting the seed rate is higher when compared with line sowing / transplanting e.g. for rice Direct sowing : 100 kg/ha Line sowing : 60 kg/ha Transplanting : 40 kg/ha 8. Depth of sowing Depth of sowing is governed by size of seed and soil moisture content. Uneven depth of sowing results in uneven crop stand. Plants will be of different sizes and ages and finally harvesting is a problem as there is no uniformity in maturity. Shallow or deep sowing results in low plant population because all seeds do not germinate. Therefore, it is essential to sow the crop at optimum depth for obtaining good stand of the crop. Crops with bigger sized seeds like groundnut, castor, sunflower, etc. can be sown even up to the depth of 6 cm. Whereas, small sized seeds like amaranth, tobacco, sesame, bajra, mustard have to be sown as shallow as possible. If the seeds are sown too shallow, the surface soil dries up quickly and germination may not occur due to lack of moisture. Therefore, small sized seeds which are sown shallow should be watered frequently to ensure good emergence of the crop. If the small seeds are sown deep in the soil, the seed reserve food may be inadequate to put forth long coleoptiles for emergence. Even if the seedling emerges, it is too weak to survive as an autotrophic. Page 30 of 136  For better germination, the soil should have sufficient moisture in the surface layer. Crop grown in rabi are sown deeper than kharif crop, because in rabi surface soil have insufficient moisture for germination. The thumb rule is to sow seeds to a depth approximately 3 to 4 times their diameter. The optimum depth of sowing for most of the field crops ranges between 3 cm to 5 cm. Shallow depth of planting of 2 cm to 3 cm is follow for small seeds like bajra, sesamum, mustard. Very small seeds like tobacco and amaranth are placed at a depth of 1 cm. This is generally done by broadcasting on the soil surface and mixing them by raking. Page 31 of 136  Topic 6: Crop nutrition, manures and fertilizers, nutrient use efficiency Yield and the quality of products from crops are strongly linked to the supply of nutrients. In the absence of fertilizer application, most nutrients are supplied from the soil. Over 95 percent of the dry weight of a flowering plant is made up of three elements viz; carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are taken from the air and water. The remaining 5 percent of the dry weight comes from chemicals absorbed from the soil. Roots absorb the chemicals present in their surroundings, but only 14 of the elements absorbed are necessary for plant growth. These 14 elements, along with carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are called the 17 essential inorganic nutrients or elements. Macronutrients: Some of the essentials nutrients are needed in larger amounts than others are called macronutrient. Micronutrients: those nutrients are needed in lesser amounts called micronutrients. All elements are needed in specific amounts.  Macronutrients absorbed from the air: oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen.  Macronutrients absorbed from the soil: nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, calcium, and sulphur.  Micronutrients from the soil: iron, boron, chlorine, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum, and nickel. Criteria for essentiality of nutrient Arnon and Stout (1939) proposed criteria of essentiality which was refined by Arnon (1954) as: 1. The plant must be unable to grow normally or complete its life cycle in the absence of the element. 2. The element is specific and cannot be replaced by another. 3. The element plays a direct role in plant metabolism. Nutrient use efficiency Nutrient use efficiency may be defined as yield (biomass) per unit input (fertilizer, nutrient content). Agronomic efficiency Agronomic efficiency may be defined as the economic production obtained per unit of nutrient applied. Expressed in kg / kg Page 32 of 136 Calculation:  Manures and fertilizers The word “Manure” is originated from the French word “MANOEUVRER” which refers to “work with soil”. Differences between Manures and Fertilizers Sr. No MANURES FERTILIZERS 1 Organic in nature Inorganic in nature 2 Slow acting Quick acting 3 Having low nutrient value Having high nutrient value 4 Having no definite chemical Having definite chemical composition composition 5 Obtained from plant, animal and human Obtained from Mined or manufactured resources 6 Improves physical properties of soils Don’t improve physical properties of soils 7 Supply almost all major, minor and Supply one or very few plant nutrients. micronutrients 8 Bulky in nature Non-bulky in nature Manure: Manures are the substances which are organic in nature, capable of supplying plant nutrients in available form, bulky in nature having low analytical value and having no definite composition and most of them are obtained from animal and plant waste products. A. Bulky Organic Manure Bulky organic manures contain small percentage of nutrients and they are applied in large quantities. 1. FYM Farmyard manure refers to the decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along with litter and left over material from roughages or fodder fed to the cattle. It contains 0.5 per cent N, 0.2 per cent P2O5 and 0.5 per cent K2O. Page 33 of 136 2. Compost A mass of rotted organic matter made from waste is called compost. It contains 0.5 per cent N, 0.15 per cent P2O5 and 0.5 per cent K2O. 3. Night soil Night soil is human excreta, both solid and liquid. It contains 5.5 per cent N, 4.0 per cent P2O5 and 2.0 per cent K2O. 4. Sewage and Sludge The solid portion in the sewage is called sludge and liquid portion is sewage water. 5. Vermicompost Compost that is prepared with the help of earthworms is called vermicompost. It contains 3.0 per cent N, 1.0 per cent P2O5 and 1.5 per cent K2O. 6. Green Manure Definition : Crops grown for the purpose of restoring or increasing the organic matter content in the soil are called green manure crops while their green undecomposed plant material used as manure is called green manure. Their use in cropping system is generally referred as green manuring. It is obtained in two ways-either by grown in situ or brought from out site. 1. In situ green manuring: Growing of green manure crops in the field and incorporating it in its green stage in the same field (i.e. in situ) is termed as green manuring. 2. Green leaf manuring: is the application of green leaves and twigs of trees, shrubs and herbs collected from nearby location and adding in to the soil. Forest tree leaves are the main source of green leaf manuring. Advantage of green manuring : 1. It has positive influence on the physical and chemical properties of soil. 2. Helps to maintain the organic matter status of arable soil. 3. All green manures supply extra organic matter to feed and breed beneficial soil organisms for soil fertility and soil health. 4. Increases the water holding capacity of light soils. 5. It facilitates the penetration of rain water, thus decreasing run off and soil erosion. 6. The green manure crops hold plant nutrients that would otherwise be lost by leaching e.g. N Page 34 of 136  7. When leguminous plants like sunhemp and dhaincha are used as green manure crops, they add nitrogen to the soil for the succeeding crops. 8. Green manuring crops helps in reclamation of saline and alkaline soils by the release of organic acids. Limitations of green manuring : 1. Under rainfed condition it is feared that proper decomposition of the green manure crop may not take place if sufficient rainfall is not received after burying the green manure crop. 2. Since green manuring for wheat loss of kharif crops, the practice of green manuring may not be always economical. 3. Sometimes the cost of green manure crops may more than the cost of commercial fertilizers. 4. Sometimes it increases termite problem. 5. The green manure crop may be failed if sufficient rainfall is not available. Characteristics of green manure crops : An ideal green manure crops should have the following characteristics. (1) It should be preferably from leguminous family so that atmospheric nitrogen can be fixed. (2) It should have quick initial growth so as to suppress the weed growth. (3) It should have more leafy growth than woody so that its decomposition will be rapid. (4) It should yield a large quantity of green material in short period. (5) It should have a deep rooted system so that it would penetrate deep layers of the soil and thus aid in creating good soil structure. Nutrient content (%) on air dry basis Plants N P2O5 K2O Green manure crops Sunnhemp 2.30 0.50 1.80 Dhaincha 3.50 0.60 1.20 Sesbania 2.71 0.53 2.21 Green leaf manure Gliricidia 2.76 0.28 4.60 Page 35 of 136  Pongania 3.31 0.44 2.39 Neem 2.83 0.28 0.35 Gulmohur 2.76 0.46 0.50 Weeds Parthenium 2.68 0.68 1.45 Water hyacinth 3.01 0.90 0.15 Trianthema 0.64 0.43 1.30 Ipomoea 2.01 0.33 0.40 7. Sheep and Goat Manure, Penning It contains 3.0 per cent N, 1.0 per cent P2O5 and 2.0 per cent K2O. 8. Poultry Manure It contains 3.03 per cent N, 2.63 per cent P2O5 and 1.4 per cent K2O. B. Concentrated Organic Manures Concentrated organic manures have higher nutrient content than bulky organic manure. Nutrient content (%) Oilcakes N P2O5 K2O Nonedible oilcakes Castor cake 4.3 1.8 1.3 Cotton seed cake 3.9 1.8 1.6 Karanj cake 3.9 0.9 1.2 Mahua cake 2.5 0.8 1.2 Safflower cake 4.9 1.4 1.2 Edible oilcakes Coconut cake 3.0 1.9 1.8 Cotton seed cake 6.4 2.9 2.2 Groundnut cake 7.3 1.5 1.3 Linseed cake 4.9 1.4 1.3 Niger cake 4.7 1.8 1.3 Rapeseed cake 5.2 1.8 1.2 Safflower cake 7.9 2.2 1.9 Sesamum cake 6.2 2.0 1.2 Page 36 of 136  Average nutrient content of animal based concentrated organic manure Organic manure Nutrient content (%) N P2O5 K2O Blood meal 10-12 1-2 1.0 Meat meal 10.5 2.5 0.5 Fish meal 4-10 3-9 0.3-1.5 Horn and hoof meal 13 …… …… Raw bone meal 3-4 20-25 …… Steamed bone meal 1-2 25-30 …… Fertilizer: A fertilizer can be defined as a mined or manufactured material containing one or more essential plant nutrients in potentially available forms in commercially valuable amounts. It is most essential to apply fertilizer at proper time and at proper place for its efficient use. Thus, the time and method of fertilizer application will vary in relation to (i) Nature of fertilizer (ii) Soil types (iii) Differential nutrient requirement and (iv) Nature of field crops.  Classification of Fertilizers 1. Nitrogenous fertilizers :  Ammonium fertilizer : e.g. Ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride  Nitrate fertilizer : e.g. Potassium nitrate, sodium nitrate, calcium nitrate  Ammonium – nitrate fertilizers : e.g. Ammonium nitrate, calcium ammonium nitrate  Amide fertilizers : e.g. Urea, calcium cyanamide 2. Phosphatic fertilizers :  Water soluble P fertilizers : e.g. Superphosphate, DAP  Citrate soluble P fertilizers : e.g. Basic slag  Insoluble P fertilizers : e.g. Rock phosphate 3. Potassic fertilizers : e.g. Muriate of potash (KCl), potassium sulphate (K2SO4) Page 37 of 136  Methods of fertilizer application A. Application of fertilizers in solid form 1. Broadcast  Broadcasting : Application of fertilizer uniformly on the soil surface or in the standing crop is known as broadcasting of fertilizers.  Top – dressing : It involves the spreading of fertilizer in the standing crop. 2. Placement  Plough-sole placement : The fertilizer is put in a continuous band or strip at a depth of 5.5 to 7 inches at the bottom of the furrow while ploughing. Each band is covered with the turn of the next furrow.  Deep placement : Nitrogen fertilizers are applied deep in paddy fields. Deep placement of the fertilizer ensures its better distribution in the root zone and prevents any loss of nitrogen by surface drain-off.  Sub-soil placement : It refers to the placement of fertilizers in the subsoil with the help of high power machinery. 3. Localized placement : Application of fertilizers in the soil very close to the seed or the plant.  Contact placement : The seed and small quantity of fertilizer are placed together in the same row by drilling.  Band placement : Application of fertilizers in narrow bands beneath and by the side of the crop rows is known as band placement of fertilizers.  Hill placement  Row placement  Pellet application : The N-fertilizer is applied in the form of pellets at a depth of 1 to 2 inches between the rows of paddy crops.  Side-dressing : The fertilizer is spread between the rows or around the plant. Page 38 of 136 B. Application of fertilizer in liquid form 1. Starter Solution : The solutions of fertilizers that are applied to young vegetable plants at the time of transplanting are called starter solutions. It contain N, P2O5 and K2O in the ratio 1:2:1 or 1:1:2. 2. Foliar Spray : Application of fertilizers to foliage of the crop as spray solution is known as foliar spray of fertilizers. 3. Direct application to the soil : Anhydrous NH3 and solutions of N-fertilizers can be directly applied to the soil with the help of special equipments. Nitrogen from NH3 may be lost if the application is shallow. 4. Fertigation : Application of fertilizers with irrigation water is known as fertigation.  Brown manuring Brown manuring is a technique to grow Sesbania in standing rice crop and kill them with the help of herbicide for manuring. After killing the color of the sesbania residue become brown so it called brown manuring. Brown manuring practice introduced where Sesbania seed @ 20 kg/ha is broadcasted three days after rice sowing/TP and allowed to grow for 30-40 days and was dried by spraying 2,4-D ethyle ester which supply up to 35 kg/ha N from biomass, control of broad leaf weeds, higher yield by 4 -5 q/ha in rice crop due to addition of organic matter in low fertile soils.  Biofertilizers Bio-fertilizer is microorganism's culture capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen when suitable crops are inoculated with them. Bio-fertilizer offers an economically attractive and ecologically sound means of reducing external inputs and improving the quality and quantity of products. Microorganisms are capable of mobilizing nutritive elements from non-usable form to usable form through biological process. These are less expensive, eco-friendly and sustainable. The biofertilizers containing biological nitrogen fixing organism are of utmost important in agriculture in view of the following advantages: 1. They help in establishment and growth of crop plants and trees. 2. They enhance biomass production and grain yields by 10-20%. 3. They are useful in sustainable agriculture. 4. They are suitable organic farming. 5. They play an important role in Agroforestry / silvipastoral systems. 6. They are low monetary input. 7. They are eco-friendly. 8. They improve quality of crop produce. Page 39 of 136  Types of biofertilizers: There are two types of bio-fertilizers. 1. Symbiotic N-fixation: These are Rhizobium culture of various strains which multiply in roots of suitable legumes and fix nitrogen symbiotically. Rhizobium: It is the most widely used bio-fertilizers, which colonizes the roots of specific legumes to form tumours like growth called root nodules and these nodules act as factories of ammonia production. 2. Asymbiotic N-fixation: This includes Azotobacter, Azospirillium, BGA, Azolla and Mycorrhizae, which also fixes atmospheric N in suitable soil medium. Mycorrhizae: Mycorrhizae are the symbiotic association of fungi with roots of Vascular plants. The main advantage of Mycorrhizae to the host plants is facilitating an increased phosphorous uptake. In many cases the Mycorrhizae have been shown to markedly improve the growth of plants. In India, the beneficial effects of Vascular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (VAM) have been observed in fruit crops like citrus, papaya and litchi. Rhizobium strains used for the seed treatment to pulses Name of the strain Crop Rhizobium leguminosarum Pea Rhizobium japonicum Soybean Rhizobium phaseolus Bean Rhizobium spp Cowpea PGPR/Bio-Consortium The “Bio NPK consortium” having multiple utility as biofertilizer cum biopesticide. This product contains five strains of agriculturally beneficial microorganism (two Nitrogen fixers, two Phosphate solubilizers and one potash mobilizer) is the one time solution for all the macronutrient (N, P, K) requirement of crops. Moreover, this formulation will also provide an additional benefit of protecting plant from phytopathogenic fungi and nematodes. Page 40 of 136  Field applications Anubhav liquid biofertilizers & Bio NPK consortium:  Applied through seed coating, soil drenching, seedling dip and drip irrigation in cereals, vegetables, fruit crops, horticultural crops, sugarcane, cotton, fodder crops etc. as per method of crop cultivation. Use of Anubhav Bio NPK consortium @ 1 liter/ha can (i) save 25 % N, P and K chemical fertilizers (ii) increase in yield and (iii) reduction in soil, water and air pollution.  Use of Bio NPK consortium along with organic manure can (i) increase population of beneficial microorganisms inside soil, (ii) they work continuously and keep biogeochemical cycles of N, P and K alive (iii) with increase in soil fertility and crop yield. Beneficial in organic farming and precision farming approach of Integrated Farming System.  Integrated Nutrient Management Plant nutrients can be supplied from different sources viz. organic manure, crop residues, biofertilizers and chemical fertilizers. For better utilization of resources and to produce crops with less expenditure, integrated nutrient management is the best approach. Page 41 of 136  Topic 7: Growth and development of crops What is growth? Growth can be defined as an irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ or its parts or even of an individual cell.  Types of growth / Stages of growth Vegetative growth: The earlier growth of plant producing leaves, stem and branches without flowers is called ‘vegetative growth’/ Phase. Reproductive growth: After the vegetative growth, plants produce flowers which is the reproductive part of the plant. This is called reproductive growth/phase. Growth curve: It is an ‘S’ shaped curve obtained when we plot growth against time (Fig. 2). It is also called ‘sigmoid ‘curve. This curve mainly shows four phases of growth- 1. Initial slow growth (Lag phase), 2. The rapid period of growth (log phase/grand period of growth/exponential phase) where maximum growth is seen in a short period, 3. The diminishing phase where growth will be slow and 4. Stationary / steady phase where finally growth stops. The three phases of cell growth are cell division, cell enlargement and cell differentiation. The first two stages increase the size of the plant cell while the 3rd stage brings maturity to the cells. Page 42 of 136   MEASUREMENT OF GROWTH Growth can be measured by a variety of parameters as follows A. Fresh Weight Determination of Fresh weight is an easy and convenient method of measuring growth. For measuring fresh weight, the entire plant is harvested, cleaned for dirt particles if any and then weighed. B. Dry Weight The dry weight of the plant organs is usually obtained by drying the materials for 21 to 48 hours at 70 to 80 0C and then weighing it. The measurements of dry weight may give a more valid and meaningful estimation of growth than fresh weight. However, in measuring the growth of dark grown seedling it is desirable to take fresh weight. C. Length Measurement of length is a suitable indication of growth for those organs which grow in one direction with almost uniform diameter such as roots and shoots. The length can be measured by a scale. The advantage of measuring length is that it can be done on the same organ over a period of time without destroying it. D. Area It is used for measuring growth of plant organs like leaf. The area can be measured by a graph paper or by a suitable mechanical device. Nowadays modern laboratories use a photoelectric device (digital leaf area meter) which reads leaf area directly as the individual leaves is fed into it.  GROWTH ANALYSIS Growth analysis is a mathematical expression of environmental effects on growth and development of crop plants. This is a useful tool in studying the complex interactions between the plant growth and the environment. Growth analysis in crop plants was first studied by British Scientists (Blackman 1919, Briggs, Kidd and west 1920, William 1964, Watson 1952 and Blackman, (1968). This analysis depends mainly on primary values (Dry weights) and they can be easily obtained without great demand on modern laboratory equipment. The basic principle that underlie in growth analysis depends on two values (1) total dry weight of whole plant material per unit area of ground (w) and (2) the total leaf area of the plant per unit area of ground (A). Page 43 of 136  The total dry weight (w) is usually measured as the dry weight of various plant parts viz, leaves, stems and reproductive structures. The measure of leaf area (A) includes the area of other organs viz, stem petioles, flower bracts, awns and pods that contain chlorophyll and contribute substantially to the overall photosynthesis of the plants According to the purpose of the data, leaf area and dry weights of component plant parts have to be collected at weekly, fortnightly or monthly intervals. This data are to be used to calculate various indices and characteristics that describe the growth of plants and of their parts grown in different environments and the relationship between assimilatory apparatus and dry matter production. These indices and characteristics are together called as growth parameters. Some of the parameters that are usually calculated in growth analysis are crop growth rate (CGR), relative growth rate (RGR), net assimilation rate (NAR), Leaf area ratio (LAR), Leaf weight ratio (LWR). Specific Leaf Area (SLA), Leaf area index (LAI) and Leaf area duration (LAD). Accuracy in calculations of these parameters and their correct interpretation are essential aspect in growth analysis. Advantages of growth analysis a) We can study the growth of the population or plant community in a precise way with the availability of raw data on different growth parameters. b) These studies involve an assessment of the primary production of vegetation in the field i.e. at the ecosystem level (at crop level) of organization. c) The primary production plays an important role in the energetic of the whole ecosystem. d) The studies also provide precise information on the nature of the plant and environment interaction in a particular habitat. e) It provides accurate measurements of whole plant growth performance in an integrated manner at different intervals of time. Drawbacks of Growth Analysis In classical growth analysis sampling for primary values consist of harvesting (destructively) representative sets of plants or plots and it is impossible to follow the same plants or plots throughout whole experiment. Page 44 of 136  Growth Characteristics - Definition and Mathematical Formula The following data are required to calculate different growth parameters in order to express the instantaneous values and mean values over a time interval. In the following discussion W, WL, WS and WR are used to represent the dry weight of total plant (W), dry leaves (WL), stem (WS) and roots (WR), respectively. Whereas A is the leaf area and P is the land area. 1. Crop growth rate (CGR): D.J. Watson coined the term Crop growth rate. It is defined as the increase of dry matter in grams per unit area per unit time. The mean CGR over an interval of time T1 and T2 is usually calculated as show in the following formula W2 - W1 CGR = ---------------- P (T2 - T1) Where, CGR is the mean crop growth rate, P= ground area, W1 and W2 are the dry weights at two sampling times T1 and T2, respectively and it is expressed in g/m2/day. 2. Relative growth rate (RGR): The term RGR was coined by Blackman. It is defined as the rate of increase in dry matter per unit of dry matter already present. This is also referred as Efficiency index since the rate of growth is expressed as the rate of interest on the capital. It provides a valuable overall index of plant growth. The mean relative growth rate over a time interval is given below. Log e W2 - Log e W1 RGR = ---------------------- (g/ g/ day) T2 - T1 Where, Log is natural logarithm, T1= time one (days), T2= time two (days), W1= dry weight of plant at time one (days), W2= dry weight of plant at time two (days) and it is expressed as g/g/day. 3. Net assimilation rate (NAR): The NAR is a measure of the amount of photosynthetic product going into plant material i.e. it is the estimate of net photosynthetic carbon assimilated by photosynthesis minus the carbon lost by respiration. The NAR can be determined by measuring plant dry weight and leaf area periodically during growth and is commonly reported as grams of dry weight increase per square centimeter of leaf surface per week. This is also called as Unit leaf rate because the assimilatory area includes only the active leaf area in measuring the rate of dry matter production. Page 45 of 136 The mean NAR over a time interval from T1 to T2 is given by W2 - W1 Log e L2 - Log e L1 NAR = --------- X ------------------------ T2 - T 1 L2 - L1 Where L1 and L2 are total leaf area at time t1 and t2 respectively. W1 and W2 are total dry weight at time t1 and t2, respectively and it is expressed as (g/ cm/ wk). 4. Leaf area ratio (LAR) The LAR is a measure of the proportion of the plant which is engaged in photosynthetic process. It gives the relative size of the assimilatory apparatus. It is also called as capacity factor. It is defined as the ratio between leaf area in square centimeters and total plant dry weight. It represents leafiness character of crop plants on area basis. A LAR = ------- (cm2/g) W Where, A= leaf area in square centimeters, W= total plant dry weight 5. Leaf weight ratio (LWR) It is one of the components of LAR and is defined as the ratio between grams of dry matter in leaves and total dry matter in plants (g). Since the numerator and denominator are on dry weight basis LWR is dimensionless. It is the index of leafiness of the plant on weight basis. WL LWR = ------- W Where, WL= Dry matter in leaves, W= Total dry matter in plants 6. Specific leaf area (SLA) It is another component of LAR and defined as the ratio between leaf area in cm2 and total leaf dry weight in grams. This is used as a measure of leaf density. The mean SLA can be calculated as A SLA = -------- WL Where, A= leaf weight per plant and WL= leaf area per plant and it is expressed as cm2/ g. Page 46 of 136 7. Specific leaf weight (SLW) The reversal of SLA is called as SLW. It is defined as the ratio between total leaf dry weight in g and leaf area in cm2. It indicates the relative thickness of the leaf of different genotypes. WL SLW = ------- A Where, WL= leaf weight plant and A= leaf area plant−1 and it is expressed as g/ cm. -1 8. Leaf area index (LAI): D.J. Watson coined this term. It is defined as the functional leaf area over unit land area. It represents the leafiness in relation to land area. At an instant time (T) the LAI can be calculated as A (Leaf area) LAI = ----------------------- It is expressed as m2/m2 P (Ground area) For maximum production of dry matter of most crops, LAI of 4-6 is usually necessary. The leaf area index at which the maximum CGR is recorded is called as ‘optimum leaf area index’. Growth indices in summary Few key indices are commonly derived as an aid to understanding growth responses. Mathematical and functional definitions of those terms are summarised below. Growth index Functional definition Relative growth rate Rate of mass increase per unit mass present (efficiency of growth (RGR) with respect to biomass) Net assimilation rate Rate of mass increase per unit leaf area (efficiency of leaves in (NAR) generating biomass) Leaf area ratio Ratio of leaf area to total plant mass (a measure of ‘leafiness’ or (LAR) photosynthetic area relative to respiratory mass) Specific leaf area Ratio of leaf area to leaf mass (a measure of density of leaves (SLA) relative to area) Specific leaf weight Ratio of specific leaf weight to leaf area (a measure of thickness of (SLW) leaves) Leaf weight ratio Ratio of leaf mass to total plant mass (a measure of biomass (LWR) allocation to leaves) Page 47 of 136 Development What is development? It is an overall term which refers to the various changes that occur in a plant during its life cycle. Plants produce new tissues and structures throughout their life from meristems located at the tips of organs, or between mature tissues. INITIATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF VEGETATIVE STRUCTURES 1. Root growth: Radicle is the embryonic root. During the seed germination and seedling formation, it grows to form primary root of the seedlings. 2. Stem growth: The life of stem starts as a plumule. It grows to form the shoot of the seedling. The longitudinal growth of stem and formation of various organs like branches, leaves, flowers is the function of stem meristem. 3. Leaf initiation and Growth: Elevations appear on the periphery of the meristem in a regular pattern. Leaf primordia appear as dome shaped on the periphery of the stem. INITATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF REPRODUCTIVE STRUSCTURES 1. Initiation and Development of Flower: Once the biochemical requirements for evocation of flowering are completed and the meristem has reached the point of no return, it develops either into an inflorescence (a cluster of flowers) or solitary flowers. In most plants, the pattern of flower initiation and development is almost similar. 2. Fruit and Seed Development: The first stage in fruit and seed development is rapid cell division without much enlargement due to cytokinin production by the endosperm which is growing at this stage. Various tissues of the parent plant viz, the ovary, receptacle and sometimes parts of the floral tube may be involved in the formation of fruits. Page 48 of 136 Developmental stages 1. Germination and emergence 2. Seedling growth 3. Maximum vegetative growth stage 4. Primordial differentiation 5. Flowering stage 6. Fruit growth 7. Fruit maturity 8. Physiological maturity 9. Harvest maturity Difference between growth and development Sr. No. Growth Development 1. Growth is quantitative. Development is quantitative as well as qualitative. 2. Growth is for limited period. Development takes place till death. Factors affecting Growth and Development 1. Germination  Temperature  Soil moisture  Depth of sowing 2. Seedling growth 3. Leaf growth 4. Tillering and branching Page 49 of 136  Topic 8: Agro-climatic zones of India and Gujarat  Agro-climatic zones of India The Planning Commission has categorized 15 agro-climatic zones in India, taking into account the physical attributes and socio-economic conditions prevailing in the regions. I. Western Himalayan Region: The Western Himalayan Region covers Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the hill region of Uttarakhand. Page 50 of 136  Average temperature in July ranges between 5°C and 30 °C, while in January it ranges between 5 °C and -5 °C. Mean annual rainfall varies between 75 cm to 150 cm. The valley floors grow rice, while the hilly tracts grow maize in the kharif season. Winter crops are barley, oats, and wheat. The region supports horticulture, especially apple orchards and other temperate fruits such as peaches, apricot, pears, cherry, almond, litchis, walnut, etc. Saffron is grown in this region. II. Eastern Himalayan Region: The Eastern Himalayan Region includes Arunachal Pradesh, the hills of Assam, Sikkim, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and the Darjeeling district of West Bengal. Temperature variation is between 25 °C and 30 °C in July and between 10 °C and 20 °C in January. Average rainfall is between 200-400 cm. The red-brown soil is not highly productive. Jhuming (shifting cultivation) prevails in the hilly areas. The main crops are rice, maize, potato, tea. There are orchards of pineapple, litchi, oranges and lime. III. Lower Gangetic Plain Region: West Bengal (except the hilly areas), eastern Bihar and the Brahmaputra valley lie in this region. Average annual rainfall lies between 100 cm-200 cm. Temperature in July varies from 26 °C to 41 °C and for January from 9 °C to 24 °C. The region has adequate storage of ground water with high water table. Rice is the main crop which at times yields three successive crops (Aman, Aus and Boro) in a year. Jute, maize, potato, and pulses are other important crops. IV. Middle Gangetic Plain Region: The Middle Gangetic Plain region includes large parts of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The average temperature in July varies from 26 °C to 41 °C and that of January 9 °C to 24 °C average annual rainfall is between 100 cm and 200 cm. It is a fertile alluvial plain drained by the Ganga and its tributaries. Rice, maize, millets in kharif, wheat, gram, barley, peas, mustard and potato in rabi are important crops. Page 51 of 136 V. Upper Gangetic Plains Region: In the Upper Gangetic Plains region come the central and western parts of Uttar Pradesh and the Hardwar and Udham Nagar districts of Uttarakhand. The climate is sub-humid continental with temperature in July between 26 °C to 41 °C and temperature in January between 7 °C to