AEM 101 PDF - Introduction to Agricultural Extension Management

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) Course code: AEM 101 Course Title: Introduction to Agricu...

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) Course code: AEM 101 Course Title: Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (An autonomous organization of the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmer’s Welfare, Govt. of India) Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500030. India. www.manage.gov.in  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ Published by National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE) Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500030. Telangana, India. First published: 2007 Revised: 2013 Reprint: 2015 Revised: 2021 MANAGE, 2007 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means without permission in writing from MANAGE. Dr. P. Chandra Shekara, Director General, National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE) Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500030. India. Principal Coordinator Dr. Veenita Kumari, Deputy Director (Gender Studies), MANAGE Contributors (2007) Dr. R. K. Samantha, Former VC, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Nadia, West Bengal Contributors (2013) Dr. S. Senthil Vinayagam, Director (Agril. Extn.) & Principal Coordinator (PGDAEM), MANAGE Dr. P. Chandra Shekara, Director (Agril. Extn.) & Director (CAD), MANAGE Dr.Kareem, Deputy Director (Agril. Extn.), MANAGE Dr.Uma Rani, Deputy Director, MANAGE Dr. N. Balasubramani, Deputy Director (OSPM) & P.C (DAESI), MANAGE Dr. B. Renuka Rani, Assistant Director (HRD), MANAGE Shri. P. Venkat Reddy, consultant (DAESI), MANAGE Dr. Vijayabhinandan, Professor (Dept. of Agril. Extn.), ANGRAU Dr. V.K. Jayaraghavendra Rao, Professor & Principal S, NAARM Dr. Bharat S. Sontakki, Professor & P.S., NAARM Dr. R. Venkatakumar, Professor & P.S.NAARM Dr. R. M. Prasad, Retd. Professor & Associate Director of Research, K.A.U. Contributors (2021) Dr. M.A Kareem, Ex-Deputy Director (Agril. Extn.), MANAGE. Dr. M. Surya Mani, Professor (Retd.), Ex- Director, EEI, Hyderabad. 2  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ Support Team Dr.P.L.Manohari, Assistant Director, MANAGE Ms.S.L.Kameswari, Consultant, PGDAEM, MANAGE Dr. V.Shreedevi, Research Associate, PGADEM–MOOCs, MANAGE Mr. Phanindra Verma, Data Entry operator, PGDAEM, MANAGE Ms. T.Lakshmi Thirupathamma, Technical Assistant, PGDAEM, MANAGE 3  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ 4  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ AEM 101: Introduction to Agricultural Extension Management (3 Credits) Number of the Unit Name of the Unit Page Block I: Present Scenario of Agricultural Extension Unit 1 Concept, Objectives, Principles, philosophy and 7 - 18 Process of Extension Unit 2 Evolution of Agricultural Extension, Change Agent/ 19 - 72 Extension agent Unit 3 Extension methods – Individual, group and Mass 73 - 85 contact methods Unit 4 Alternative Extension Approaches 86 - 106 Block II: New and emerging dimensions in Agricultural Extension Unit 1 Revitalization of Agricultural Extension system 108 - 141 Unit 2 Strategic Research and Extension plan (SREP) 142 - 167 Unit 3 Farm to Farmer Extension System 168 - 176 Unit 4 Farmer Field Schools – Concepts and their 177 - 203 Operationalisation Block III: Institutional Framework for Agricultural Development Unit 1 Institutional Support for Agricultural Extension 205 - 221 programmes Unit 2 Case studies and success stories in Agricultural 222 - 237 Extension Management 5  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ BLOCK I: PRESENT SCENARIO OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION 6  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ UNIT-1 CONCEPT, OBJECTIVES, PRINCIPLES, PHILOSOPHY, AND PROCESS OF EXTENSION Highlights of the Unit  Objectives  Introduction  Concept of Agricultural Extension  Extension Objectives and Function to Support  Achieving Agricultural Development  Principles of Agricultural Extension  Philosophy, Needs and Levels of Agricultural Extension  Process and Steps involved in Agricultural Extension  Let’s sum Up  Check your progress  Suggested readings/ references 1.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, the learners will be able to: understand the meaning and concept of agricultural extension; Discuss the objectives, principles and philosophy in reaching farmers and other clients effectively; Describe the process and steps involved in agricultural extension in the transfer of technology; 1.1 INTRODUCTION The focus of Agriculture in India and in developing countries is shifting from subsistence Agriculture to Agriculture for quality of life through improvement livelihood scrutiny. India has the second largest extension system in the world in terms of professional and technical staff. India is in the process of transforming its 7  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ agricultural extension systems to become more demand driven and responsive to farmer’s needs. In agriculture, knowledge and decision-making capacity determine how production factors – soil, water and capital – are utilized. Agricultural extension is central in formulating and disseminating knowledge, and in teaching farmers to be competent decision makers. Therefore, extension plays an important role in most of agricultural development projects. The primary goal of agricultural extension is to assist farming families in adapting their production and marketing strategies to rapidly changing social, political and economic conditions so that they can, in the long term, shape their lives according to their personal preferences and those of the community. Agriculture Extension is generally described as a process and a system in which information, knowledge and skills relating to farming practices are transmitted through various channels and methods to its clients. Agricultural extension is generally perceived as central in formulating and disseminating knowledge and in teaching farmers to be competent decision makers. 1.2 CONCEPT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION The Concept of Extension The use of the term `extension’ originated in England in 1866 with a system of university extension which was taken up first by Cambridge and Oxford Universities, and later by other educational institutions in England and in other countries. Term `extension education’ used first in 1873 by Cambridge University, to carry the educational advantages of universities to ordinary people. There are many experts and practitioners who have defined and opined extension in various ways encompassing many facets of extension’s functions. Historically, extension has meant education in 8  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ agriculture and in home economics for rural people. This education is practical, aimed at improving farm and home. Extension or Agricultural extension, the common terminology, is an applied social science, relatively away from the basic. This has to be understood and acted upon for the good of the working environment; we learn from the basic to the applied. According to Ensminger (1957), extension is education and that its purpose is to change attitudes and practices of the people with whom the work is done. Leagans (1961) conceptualized extension education as an applied science consisting of content derived from research, accumulated field experiences and relevant principles drawn from the behavioural sciences synthesized with useful technology into a body of philosophy, principles, content and methods focused on the problems of out-of-school education for adults and youth. In addition to practicing in the field, extension is formally taught in colleges and universities leading to the award of degrees. Research is also carried out in extension. What is unique for extension is the application of the knowledge of this discipline in socio-economic transformation of the rural communities. In this context, Extension may be defined as the science of developing capability of the people for sustainable improvement in their quality of life. The main aim of extension is human resource development. The concept of extension is based on the following basic premises: 1. People have unlimited potential for personal growth and development. 2. The development may take place at any stage of their lives, if provided with adequate and appropriate learning opportunities. 3. Adults are not interested in learning only for the sake of learning. They are motivated when new learning provides opportunity for application, for increased productivity and improved standards of living. 9  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ 4. Such learning is a continuous level of rural populations and should be provided on a continuing basis, because the problems as well as the technologies of production and living are continuously changing. 5. Given the required knowledge and skills, people are capable of making optimal choices for their individual and social benefits. 1.3 EXTENSION OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS TO SUPPORT ACHIEVING AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT 1.3.1 Extension objectives The general objectives of extension are – 1. To assist people to discover and analyze their problems and identify their felt needs. 2. To develop leadership among people and help them in organizing groups to solve their problems. 3. To disseminate research information of economic and practical importance in a way people would be able to understand and use. 4. To assist people in mobilizing and utilizing the resources which they have and which they need from outside. 5. To collect and transmit feedback information for solving farm management problems. 1.3.2 Functions of Extension Change in knowledge - means change in what people know. For example, farmers who did not know of a recent HYV crop came to know of it through participation in extension programmes. The Extension Agents (EAs) who did not know of Information Technology (IT) came to know of them after attending a training course. 10  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ Change in skill - is change in the technique of doing things. The farmers learnt the technique of growing the HYV crop which they did not know earlier. The EAs learnt the skill of using IT. Change in attitude - involves change in the feeling or reaction towards certain things. The farmers developed a favourable attitude towards the HYV crop. The EAs developed a favourable feeling about the use of IT in extension programme. Change in understanding - means change in comprehension. The farmers realized the importance of the HYV crop in their farming system and the extent to which it was economically profitable and desirable, in comparison to the existing crop variety. The EAs understood the use of IT and the extent to which these would make extension work more effective. Change in goal - is the distance in any given direction one is expected to go during a given period of time. The what extent farmers raised their goal in crop production, say, increasing crop yield in a particular season by five quintals per hectare by cultivating the HYV crop. The EAs set their goal of getting an improved practice adopted by the farmers within a certain period of time by using IT. Change in action - means change in performance or doing things. The farmers who did not cultivate the HYV crop earlier cultivated it. The EAs who earlier did not use IT in their extension programmes started using them. Change in confidence - involves change in self-reliance. Farmers felt sure that they have the ability of raising crop yield. The EAs developed faith on their ability to do better extension work. The development of confidence or self-reliance is the solid foundation for making progress. To bring desirable change in behaviour is the crucial function of extension - For this purpose, the extension personnel shall continuously seek new information to make extension work more effectively. The farmers and home makers also on their own initiative shall continuously seek means of improving their farm and home. 11  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ The task is difficult because millions of farm families with little education, scattered in large areas with their own beliefs, values, attitudes, resources and constraints are pursuing diverse enterprises. 1.4 PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION Principles of Extension Principles are generalized guidelines, which form the basis for decision and action in a consistent way. The universal truth in extension, which have been observed and found to hold good under varying conditions and circumstances are presented. 1. Principles of cultural difference: Culture simply means social heritage. There is cultural difference between the extension agents and the farmers. The differences may be in their habits, customs, values, attitudes and way of life. Extension work, to be successful, must be carried out in harmony with the cultural pattern of the people. 2. Grass roots principle: Extension programmes should start with local groups, local situations and local problems. It must fit to the local conditions. Extension work should start with where people are and what they have. Change should start from the existing situation. 3. Principle of indigenous knowledge: Indigenous knowledge systems have developed through generations of work experiences and problem solving in their own specific situations. The indigenous knowledge systems encompass all aspects of life and people consider it essential for their survival. Therefore, the extension agent should try to understand them and their ramifications in the life of the people, before proceeding to recommend something new to them. 4. Principle of interest and needs: People’s interests and needs are the starting points of extension work. Identifying the real needs and interests of the people are 12  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ challenging tasks of Extension Agents. The extension agents should not pass on their own needs and interests as those of the people. Extension work shall be successful only when it is based on the interests and needs of the people as they see them. 5. Principle of learning by doing: Learning remains far from perfect, unless people get involved in actually doing the work. Learning by doing is most effective in changing people’s behaviour. This develops confidence as it involves maximum number of sensory organs. People should learn what to do, whey to do, how to do and with what result. 6. Principle of participation: Most people of the village community should willingly co-operate and participate in identifying the problems, planning of projects for solving the problems and implementing the projects in getting the desired results. The participation of the people is of fundamental importance for the success of an extension programme. People must share in developing and implementing the programme and feel that it is their own programme. 1. Family principle: Family is the primary unit of society. The target for extension work should, therefore, developing the family as a whole, economically and socially. Hence, the farmers, the farm women and farm youth are also to be involved in extension programmes. 2. Principle of leadership: Identifying different types of leaders and working through them is essential in extension. Leadership traits are to be developed in the people so that they of their own shall seek change from less desirable to more desirable situation. The leaders may be trained and developed to act as carriers of change in the villages. The involvement of local leaders and legitimization by them are essential for the success of a programme. 3. Principle of adaptability: Extension work and extension teaching methods must be flexible and adapted to suit the local conditions. This is necessary because the 13  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ people, their situation, their resources and constraints vary from place to place and time to time. 4. Principle of satisfaction: The end product of extension work should produce satisfying results for the people. Satisfying results reinforce learning and motivate people to seek further improvement. 5. Principle of evaluation: Evaluation prevents stagnation. There should be a continuous built-in method of finding out the extent to which the results obtained are in agreement with the objectives fixed earlier. Evaluation should indicate the gaps and steps to be taken for further improvement. 1.5 PHILOSOPHY, NEEDS AND LEVELS OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION The Philosophy of Extension According to Kelsey and Hearne (1967), the basic philosophy of extension education is to teach people how to think, not what to think. Extension’s specific job is inspiring, supplying specific advice and technical help, and counselling to see that the people as individuals, families, groups and communities work together as a unit in `blueprinting’ their own problems, charting their own courses, and that they achieve their objectives. Sound extension philosophy is always forward looking. This philosophy becomes the foundation of needs and levels of extension. Need for Extension The need for extension arises out of the fact that the condition of the rural people in general, and the farm people in particular, needs be improved. There is a gap between what is – the actual situation and what ought to be – the desirable situation. This gap has to be narrowed down by the application of science and technology in their enterprises and bringing appropriate changes in their behaviour. According to Supe (1987), the researchers neither have the time nor are they equipped for the job of persuading the villagers to adopt scientific methods, and to 14  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ ascertain from them the rural problems. Similarly, it is difficult for all the farmers to visit the research stations and obtain first-hand information. Thus, there is need for an agency to interpret the findings of research to the farmers and to carry the problems of the farmers to research for solution. This gap is filled by the extension agency. Levels of Extension Extension is generally thought of at two levels, extension education and extension service. Extension at these two levels is interrelated, but at the same time maintains their separate identity. Extension Education – The extension education role is generally performed by the higher learning institutions like the Agricultural and other Universities and Colleges, ICAR Institutes, Home Science Colleges and apex level Training and Extension Organizations. At the university level, extension is integrated with teaching and research, while at the research institutes, extension is integrated with research. At the other apex level organizations, extension is generally integrated with training in extension. Extension service – It is mainly to provide educational service to the people according to their need, for improving their life through better working. The main responsibility of extension service is with the State Government. The departments of Agriculture, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry, Veterinary, Forestry, Fishery, Sericulture, etc. of the State Government carry out extension work with the farmers and rural people over the entire State. The departments maintain close contact with the relevant Universities and Research Institutes for obtaining appropriate technology and methodology for extension work, and for providing them with feedback information from the field for research. 15  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ 1.6 PROCESS AND STEPS INVOLVED IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION The Extension Educational Process Extension education is a participatory process and involves five essential and interrelated steps. The sequence of steps is discussed on the basis of concept developed by Leagans (1967). First Step: The first step consists of collection of facts and analysis of the situation. Facts about the people and their enterprises: the economic, social, cultural, physical and technological environment in which they live and work. These may be obtained by appropriate survey and establishing rapport with the people. Second Step: The next step is deciding on realistic objectives which may be accomplished by the community. A limited number of objectives should be selected by involving the local people. The objectives should be specific and clearly stated, and on completion, should bring satisfaction to the community. Objectives should state the behavioural changes in people as well as desired economic and social outcomes. Third Step: The third step is teaching, which involves choosing what should be taught (the content) and how the people should be taught (the methods and aids to be used). It requires selecting research findings of economic and practical importance relevant to the community, and selection and combination of appropriate teaching methods and aids. 16  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ Fourth Step: The fourth step is evaluating the teaching, i.e. determining the extent to which the objectives have been reached. To evaluate the results of an educational programme objectively, it is desirable to conduct a re-survey. The evidence of changed behaviour should be collected, which shall not only provide a measure of success, but shall also indicate the deficiencies, if any. Fifth Step: The fifth step is re-consideration of the entire extension educational programme on the light of the results of evaluation. The problems identified in the process of evaluation may become the starting point for the next phase of the extension educational programme, unless new problems have developed or new situations have arisen. Thus, the continuous process of extension education shall go on, resulting in progress of the people from a less desirable to a more desirable situation. 1.7 LET’S SUM UP The chapter on Concept, Objectives, Principles, Philosophy, and Process of Extension explains the meaning and concept of agricultural extension, principles and philosophy in reaching farmers and other clients effectively and describes the process and steps involved in agricultural extension in the transfer of technology to an extension personnel. 1.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. What do you understand by the term extension education? 2. What are the basic premises that led to the development of extension concept? 3. List out briefly the objectives of extension? 4. Describe the functions of extension? 5. Explain in detail about the principles of extension? 6. Justify that extension is a process? 17  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ 1.9. SUGGESTED READINGS/ REFERENCES: 1. Extension Education / Reddy, Adivi A. Bapatla, Guntur : Sree Lakshmi Press , 1993 2. Management of Agricultural Extension in Global Perspectives / Samantha, R K. Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation , 1997 3. Gallagher K. 1999. Farmers Field School (FFS) – A Group Extension Process based on Non-Formal Education Methods. Global EPM Facility, FAO. 4. PM. 2002. Textbook of Extension Education. Himalaya Publ. 5. Ganesan R, Iqbal IM & Anandaraja N. 2003. Reaching the Unreached: Basics of Extension Education. Associated Publishing Co. 6. Chandrakandan KM, Senthil Kumar & Swatilaxmi. PS. 2005. Extension Education What? And What not ? RBSA Publishers. 7. Ray GL. 2006. Extension Communication and Management. Kalyani Publ. 8. Changing roles of Agricultural Extension in Asian Nations / Ban, A W Vanden. Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation , 2006 9. Jalihal KA & Veerabhadraiah V. 2007. Fundamentals of Extension Education and Management in Extension. Concept Publ. Khan 18  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ UNIT-2: EVOLUTION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION, CHANGE AGENT/ EXTENSION AGENT Highlights of the Unit  Objectives  Introduction  Community Development programmes  Community development programme (CDP) – Foundation for extension programmes in agriculture  Extension Strategy for Agricultural Development  Agricultural Development and Extension programmes  Various Client focussed programmes and Projects in Agricultural Development  Extension Programs in Other Countries  Change Agent / Extension Agent  Let’s sum Up  Check your progress  Suggested readings/references 2.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, the learners will be able to: Know the genesis of agricultural extension and its programme activities. Familiarize themselves with the various development programmes in agriculture and allied areas to help farmers. Get acquainted with different facets of Community Development Programmes. Know specific agriculture extension programs in India and other countries. 19  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ 2.1 INTRODUCTION Agricultural extension is a general term meaning the application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education. The field of extension now encompasses a wider range of communication and learning activities organized for rural people by professionals from different disciplines, including agriculture, agricultural marketing, health, and business studies. The term extension was first used to describe adult education programmes in England in the second half of the 19th century; these programmes helped to expand - or extend - the work of universities beyond the campus and into the neighbouring community. The term was later adopted in the United States of America, while in Britain it was replaced with "advisory service" in the 20th century. A number of other terms are used in different parts of the world to describe the same or a similar concept. The objectives of Extension Education are: "Life-Long Learning“ Provide programs for off-campus adults from various walks of life to continue learning and obtaining further knowledge and skills Providing an excellent channel and opportunity for people to meet the needs of self-growth and for society. 2.1.1 Definition The term extension was first used in the United States of America in the first decade of this century to connate the extension of knowledge from land grant colleges to the farmers through the process of informal education. In India, extension work was primarily started by F.L. Brayne (1920) in Punjab. The term community development and extension education became more popular with the launching of community development projects in 1952 and with the establishment of the national extension service in 1953, Since then, community Development has been regarded as a 20  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ programme for all-round development of the rural people and extension education as the means to achieve this objective. Definition and Concepts 1. Extension Education deals with practical items of information which is useful for rural people which solve their daily problems, especially those related to agricultural production. (Thorat) 2. Extension Education is an integral behavioural science which contributes towards the understanding and formulation of methods and procedures for bringing planned change in human behaviour. 3. Extension education is education for the betterment of people and for changing their behaviour i.e. knowledge, skill and attitude. 4. Extension education is the dissemination of useful research findings and ideas among rural people to bring out desirable changes in their social and cultural behaviour. 5. Extension education is an applied science consisting of contents derived from researches, accumulated field experiences and relevant principles drawn from the behavioural sciences synthesized with useful technology, in a body of philosophy, principles, contents, and methods focused on the problems of out at school education for adults and youths. (Leagans. J.P.) 6. Extension education in an applied behavioural science, the knowledge of which is to be applied for desirable changes in the behavioural complex of the people. 7. Extension is education and its purpose is to change the attitude and its purpose is to change the attitude and practices of the people with whom the work is done. 8. Extension education is a science which deals with various strategies of change in the behavioural patterns of human beings through technological and scientific innovation for the improvement of their standard of living. 21  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ 9. Extension is to teach a person how to think, not what to think, and to teach people, to determine accurately their own needs to find solution to their own problems and to help them acquire knowledge and develop convictions in that direction. 10. Extension is an out-of school system of education in which adults and young people learn by doing. It is a partnership between government, the land grant colleges and the people, which provider services and education designed to meet the needs of the people 2.1.2 Importance, scope & objectives of Extension Education Importance 1. Extension uses democratic methods in educating the farmers. 2. Extension helps in adoption of innovations. 3. Extension helps in studying and solving the rural problems. 4. Extension increases farm yields and improve the standard of living of farmers 5. Extension makes good communities better and progressive. 6. Extension contributes to national development programmes Scope of Extension It includes all activities of rural development. So extension programmes should be dynamic and flexible. The areas indicating scope of Extension are listed below Increasing efficiency in agricultural production: 1. Increasing efficiency in marketing, distribution and utilization of agricultural inputs and outputs 2. Conservation, development and use of natural resources. 3. Proper farm and home management 4. Better family living. 5. Youth development. 6. Leadership development. 7. Community and rural development. 22  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ 8. Improving public affairs for all round development. 9. To raise the standard of living of the rural people by helping them in right use of their resources. 10. To help in planning and implementing the family and village plans for increasing production in various occupations. 11. To provide facilities for better family living. 12. To provide knowledge and help for better management of farms and increase incomes. 13. To encourage the farmers to grow his own food, eat well and live well. 14. To promote better social, natural recreational intellectual and spiritual file among the people. 15. To help rural families in better appreciation of SWOT in the village. 16. To open new opportunities for developing talents and leadership of rural people. 17. To build rural citizens who are: 18. Proud of their occupation 19. Independent in thinking. 20. Constructive in outlook. 21. Capable, efficient and self-reliant in character 22. Having love of home and country m their heart Seven reasons why Extension is needed today 1. We are sustainers: of green revolutions 2. We are catalysts: of change – NAIP 3. We are an agency of empowerment: SHG/WIG/CIG 4. We are human infrastructure: Multiplier effect 5. We are contextualizers: more than GOOGLE-how to use it 6. We are synergists: ICAR-SAU-DEPT-FARMERS 7. We are collaborators: PPP mode ICT etc. 23  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ The central task of extension is to help rural families help themselves by applying science, whether physical or social, to the daily routines of farming, homemaking, and family and community living. 1965: Agricultural extension has been described as a system of out-of-school education for rural people. 1966: Extension personnel have the task of bringing scientific knowledge to farm families in the farms and homes. The object of the task is to improve the efficiency of agriculture. 1973: Extension is a service or system which assists farm people, through educational procedures, in improving farming methods and techniques, increasing production efficiency and income, bettering their levels of living and lifting social and educational standards. 1974: Extension involves the conscious use of communication of information to help people form sound opinions and make good decisions. 1982: Agricultural Extension: Assistance to farmers to help them identify and analyse their production problems and become aware of the opportunities for improvement. 1988: Extension is a professional communication intervention deployed by an institution to induce change in voluntary behaviours with a presumed public or collective utility. 1997: Extension [is] the organized exchange of information and the purposive transfer of skills. 1999: The essence of agricultural extension is to facilitate interplay and nurture synergies within a total information system involving agricultural research, agricultural education and a vast complex of information-providing businesses. 24  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ 2004: Extension [is] a series of embedded communicative interventions that are meant, among others, to develop and/or induce innovations which supposedly help to resolve (usually multi-actor) problematic situations. The term "university extension" was first used by the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford in 1867 to describe teaching activities that extended the work of the institution beyond the campus. Most of these early activities were not, however, related to agriculture. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century, when colleges in the United States started conducting demonstrations at agricultural shows and giving lectures to farmer’s clubs, that the term "extension service" was applied to the type of work that we now recognize by that name. In the United States, the Hatch Act of 1887 established a system of agricultural experiment stations in conjunction with each state's land-grant university, and the Smith-Lever Act of 1914 created a system of cooperative extension to be operated by those universities in order to inform people about current developments in agriculture, home economics, and related subjects. Three acts passed by the US has paved way for the present Agricultural Extension system in India: 1. The Hatch act established the Agricultural experiment stations; 2. The Morrill act has paved way for the creation of Agricultural Universities on the Land grant college pattern; 3. The Smith Lever act of 1914 which has paved a way for the establishment of Cooperative extension service, similar to our Departments of Agriculture and other line departments HATCH ACT The Hatch Act of 1887 (ch. 314, 24 Stat. 440, enacted 1887-03-02, 7 U.S.C. § 361a et seq.) gave federal funds, initially of $15,000 each, to state land-grant colleges in order to create a series of agricultural experiment stations, as well as pass along new information, especially in the areas of soil minerals and plant growth. The bill was 25  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ named for Congressman William Hatch, who chaired the House Committee of Agriculture at the time the bill was introduced. State agricultural stations created under this act were usually connected with those land-grant state colleges and universities founded under the Morrill Act of 1862, with few exceptions. Many stations founded under the Hatch Act later became the foundations for state cooperative extension services under the Smith-Lever Act of 1914. Congress amended the act in 1955 to add a formula that uses rural and farm population factors to allocate the annual appropriation for agricultural experiment stations among the states. Under the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 7212), states will continue to be required to provide at least 100% matching funds (traditionally, most states have provided more). On average, Hatch Act formula funds constitute 10% of total funding for each experiment station. (7 U.S.C. 361a et seq.). MORRILL ACT The Morrill Land-Grant Acts are United States Statutes that allowed for the creation of land-grant colleges, including the Morrill Act of 1862 (7 U.S.C.§ 301 et seq.) and the Morrill Act of 1890 (the Agricultural College Act of 1890, (26 Stat.417, 7 U.S.C. § 321 et seq.) Land-grant colleges The purpose of the land-grant colleges was: Without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactic, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life. Under the act, each eligible state received a total of 30,000 acres (120 km2) of federal land, either within or contiguous to its boundaries, for each member of congress the state had as of the census of 1860. This land, or the proceeds from its sale, was to be 26  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ used toward establishing and funding the educational institutions described above. The 1862 Act was extended to the former Confederate states; it was eventually extended to every state and territory, including those created after 1862. If the federal land within a state was insufficient to meet that state's land grant, the state was issued "scrip" which authorized the state to select federal lands in other states to fund its institution. For example, New York carefully selected valuable timber land in Wisconsin to fund Cornell University. The resulting management of this scrip by the university yielded one third of the total grant revenues generated by all the states, even though New York received only one-tenth of the 1862 land grant. Overall, the 1862 Morrill Act allocated 17,400,000 acres (70,000 km2) of land, which when sold yielded a collective endowment of $7.55 million. The state of Iowa was the first to accept the terms of the Morrill Act which provided the funding boost needed for the fledgling Ames College (now Iowa State University.) With a few exceptions (including Cornell University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology), nearly all of the Land-Grant Colleges are public. (Cornell University, while private, administers several state-supported contract colleges that fulfill its public land-grant mission to the state of New York.) Smith–Lever Act of 1914 The Smith–Lever Act of 1914 is a United States federal law that established a system of cooperative extension services, connected to the land-grant universities, in order to inform people about current developments in agriculture, home economics, public policy/government, leadership, 4-H, economic development, coastal issues (National Sea Grant College Program), and many other related subjects. It helped farmers learn new agricultural techniques by the introduction of home instruction. The appropriation for cooperative extension is shared between the states based on the following formula. Once the historic amount that has been allocated for "special needs" programs is set aside and an additional 4% is reserved for USDA administrative costs, the remaining funds are allocated: 27  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________  20% shared by all States in equal proportions;  40% shared in the proportion that the rural population of each bears to the total rural population of the several States as determined by the census;  40% shared in the proportion that the farm population of each bears to the total farm population of the several States as determined by the census. Except for the "1994 Land-grant colleges" for Native Americans, each state must match its Federal cooperative extension funds. In addition, an amount no less than 6% of the total Smith-Lever Act appropriation is appropriated for the extension programs of the "1890 Land-grant colleges" (historically black colleges). These funds are also shared between the 1890 colleges by the 20%-40%40% formula, with Alabama A & M and Tuskegee University treated as though they were in different states. 2.1.3 Four paradigms of agricultural extension Any particular extension system can be described both in terms of both how communication takes place and why it takes place. It is not the case that paternalistic systems are always persuasive, nor is it the case that participatory projects are necessarily educational. Instead there are four possible combinations, each of which represents a different extension paradigm, as follows:  Technology Transfer (persuasive + paternalistic). This paradigm was prevalent in colonial times, and reappeared in the 1970s and 1980s when the Training and Visit system was established across Asia. Technology transfer involves a top-down approach that delivers specific recommendations to farmers about the practices they should adopt.  Advisory work (persuasive + participatory). This paradigm can be seen today where government organisations or private consulting companies respond to farmers enquiries with technical prescriptions. It also takes the form of projects 28  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ managed by donor agencies and NGOs that use participatory approaches to promote pre-determined packages of technology.  Human Resource Development (educational + paternalistic). This paradigm dominated the earliest days of extension in Europe and North America, when universities gave training to rural people who were too poor to attend full-time courses. It continues today in the outreach activities of colleges around the world. Top-down teaching methods are employed, but students are expected to make their own decisions about how to use the knowledge they acquire.  Facilitation for Empowerment (educational + participatory). This paradigm involves methods such as experiential learning and farmer-to-farmer exchanges. Knowledge is gained through interactive processes and the participants are encouraged to make their own decisions. The best known examples in Asia are projects that use Farmer Field Schools (FFS) or Participatory Technology Development (PTD). There is some disagreement about whether or not the concept and name of extension really encompasses all four paradigms. Some experts believe that the term should be restricted to persuasive approaches, while others believe it should only be used for educational activities. Paulo Freire has argued that the terms ‘extension’ and ‘participation’ are contradictory. There are philosophical reasons behind these disagreements. From a practical point of view, however, communication processes that conform to each of these four paradigms are currently being organized under the name of extension in one part of the world or another. Pragmatically, if not ideologically, all of these activities are agricultural extension. 2.2 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT (NOW RURAL DEVELOPMENT) AND EXTENSION SERVICE IN INDIA The community development programme in India aiming at the all-round development of the rural people and the Extension Service as a nation-wide 29  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ organization to achieve these aims are of relatively recent origin in India. This new programme and administrative set-up of Extension Service is the outcome of several years’ efforts and reforms made over the years. The evolution of this programme and the new set-up are described in four stages: Stage I -Pre-Independence Era (1866-1947) Stage II - Post-Independence Era (1947-1953) Stage III - Community Development and National Extension Service Era (1953- 1960) Stage IV - Intensive Agricultural Development Era (1960-onwards) 2.2.1 Stage I - Pre-Independence Era (1866-1947) In India extension work has its beginning with a few outstanding individuals of a philosophic and philanthropic bent of mind. But they worked in most part in isolation with one another and without Government assistance whose interest had been roused through their official contact with the villagers. In others their imagination and sympathy enabled them to visualize a better way of life for the villagers. But the work of most of them was confined to relatively small areas. A study of the more prominent of these endeavours by Government officials, private individuals and institutions during the first half of the present century will give and insight which should be helpful in understanding the back ground of the community development. The attempts made by the individual persons and private agencies include: 1. Etawah Project 2. Nilokheri Project 3. Gurgaon Experiment 4. Shriniketan Attempt 5. Sewagram Attempt 6. Marathandam Attempt 7. Servants’ of India Society, Pune, in Tamilnadu, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh; 30  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ 8. Sir Daniel Hamilton’s Scheme of Rural Reconstruction at Sundarban in Bengal; 9. Rural Reconstruction Work by Christian Missions through Allahabad Agricultural Institute: The Christian College, Nagpur; 10. Adarsh Seva Sangh, Pohri, Gwalior, 11. Sarvodaya Programme in Bombay Province. A few attempts of extension pre-independence era are explained below: Gurgaon Experiment Rural uplift movement on a mass scale was first started by Mr. F.I. Brayne, Dy. Commissioner in the Gurgaon district of Punjab in 1920. The work gathered momentum after 1933 when Mr. Brayne was appointed as Commissioner of Rural Reconstruction in the Punjab. In 1935-36, the Government of India granted Rs. One crore for the work which acted as a stimulus. After that the work was transferred to the Cooperative Department and Better Living Societies were organized to take up this work in the villages. Objectives: 1. To increase agricultural production. 2. To stop wastage of money on social and religious functions. 3. To improve healthy standard of the people. 4. To organize welfare programmes. Shriniketan Attempt: In 1908, Shri Rabindranath Tagore, under his Scheme of Rural Development work, started Youth Organizations in the villages in the Kaligram Pargana of his Zamindari (West Bengal). He tried to create the field workers who could identify themselves with the people. In 1921, he established a Rural Reconstruction Institute at Shantiniketan, in collaboration with Mr. L.K. Elmhirst. A group of eight villages was the centre of the programme. 31  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ Objectives: 1. To create a real interest in people for rural welfare work. 2. To study rural problems and to translate conclusions into action. 3. To help villagers develop their resources. 4. To improve village sanitation. Sewagram Attempt: It was started under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi as All India Spinners Association in 1920 and later as All India Village Industries Association at Wardha in 1933. Gandhi believed that the ‘Salvation of India lies in Cottages’. The focus in on 1. Decentralize production and equal distribution of wealth and 2. Self-sufficiency of Indian Villages. Objectives: 1. To provide service to the under privileged. 2. To achieve self-dependency. 3. To provide basic education to people. Marathandam Attempt: This project was started by Mr. Spencer Hatch, an American Agricultural Expert in Travancore State under the auspices of Y.M.C.A. in 1921. Objectives: 1. To bring about completed upward development towards a more abundant life for rural people spiritually, mentally, physically, socially and economically. 2.2.2 Stage II - Post-Independence Era (1947-1953) Grow-More-Food Campaign: The urgent need for stepping up food production was realized even in the pre-Independence era and a Grow-More-Food Campaign was 32  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ started. Under the campaign, targets for increased agricultural production were laid down for the first time on an all-India basis. But the campaign failed to achieve its targets. Soon after Independence (1947), the Central Government re-defined the objectives of the Grow-More-Food Campaign as the attainment of self-sufficiency in food grains by 1952, and simultaneously increased the targets of production of other crops to meet the shortfall as a result of the partition of the country. At the same time, arrangements were made for integration and co- ordination of the entire campaign for increasing agricultural production. Some state governments associated the public with working of the campaign by setting up non- official committees at the village, taluka, district and state levels. The plans were revised from time to time to make the campaign more effective. Grow-More-Food Enquiry Committee Report: Though efforts were made to revitalize the Grow-More-Food Campaign, it was observed that the system was not functioning properly and the cultivator's response to the programme was very poor. As a result, the Government of India in 1952 appointed a committee known as the GMF Enquiry Committee to examine the working of the Grow-More-Food Campaign. The findings of this Committee revealed that the problem of food production was much wider than the mere elimination of food imports and that agricultural improvement was a very important part of a much wider problem of raising the level of rural life in the country. The Committee came to the conclusion that it was only by bringing about an appreciable improvement in the standards of rural life to make it fuller and richer that the rural masses could be awakened to take interest in not only increasing agricultural production but also improving their own conditions and creating a will to live better. The Etawah Pilot Project (1948-52): The idea of intensive all-round development work in a compact area was put into practice as a Pilot Project in Rural Planning and Development in the Etawah District in Uttar Pradesh in 1948, which can be regarded as a forerunner of the Community 33  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ Development Project in India. Albert Meryger, an American Engineer, played the key role in the initiation and implementation of the project. The programme was based on the principle of self-help, democracy, integrated approach, felt needs of the people, rigorous planning and realistic targets, institutional approach, co-operation between governmental and non-governmental organizations, close co-ordination between the extension service and the supply agencies and the collaboration by technical and social scientists. After an initial period of trial and error, a new administrative pattern was evolved. It percolated to the village level; the activities of different nation-building departments were channelled through one common agency and a multipurpose concept of village level worker was introduced. Each village level worker looked after 4-5 villages. The project was supervised by a district planning officer assisted by four specialist officers and other supporting staff. The idea of this pilot project was conceived in 1945 but was put into action in September, 1948 at Mahewa Village about 11 miles away from Etawah in United Province. Lt. Col. Albert Mayer of U.S.A. was the Originator of this project. Initially 64 villages were selected which then increased to 97. The Government of UP and Point-4 programme of U.S.A. provided help for this project. Objectives: 1. To see the extent of improvement possible in an average district. 2. To see how quickly results could be achieved. 3. To ascertain the permanency and applicability of results to other areas. 4. To find out methods of gaining and growing confidence of the villagers. 5. To build up a sense of community living. 6. To build up a spirit of self-help in the villagers. Nilokheri Project: Shri S.K. Dey later Union Minister for community Development and Cooperatives up to 1965 was the central figure of this project. It was originally started to rehabilitate 34  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ 7000 displaced persons from Pakistan. Later it was integrated with 100 surrounding villages making a rural cum urban township. The scheme was called as “Mazdoor Manzil”. Objectives: 1. Rehabilitation of the displaced persons from Pakistan. 2. Self-sufficiency for the township in all the essential requirements of life. 2.2.3 Stage III - Community Development and National Extension Service Era (1953- 1960) In India, organized extension came into being in the year 1952 with the launching of Community Development Programme followed by National Extension Service in 1953 and its education and research studies began in 1955 with the initiation of Post- Graduation Programme in Agricultural Extension Education in Agricultural College, Sabour in Bihar. The Community Development Project (1952): As a result of the Grow-More-Food Enquiry Committee Report and the successful experience of the Etawah Project, 15 Pilot Projects were started in 1952 in selected states with the financial assistance received from the Ford Foundation. Besides helping to increase agriculture production and bettering the overall economic condition of the farmers, these projects were meant to serve as a training ground for the extension personnel. It was soon realized that for the creation of an urge among the rural population to live a better life and to achieve permanent plenitude and economic freedom in the villages, a much bolder and dynamic effort was called for. It was recognized that the success of this new effort depended upon whole hearted co-operation of the beneficiaries, government officials and non-officials at every stage, the education of rural masses in the technique of rural development and the timely provision of adequate supplies of the needed inputs and other requirements. 35  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ For undertaking this new programme, the Government of India entered into an operational agreement with the Government of the U.S.A under the Technical Cooperation Programme Agreement. Under this Agreement, 55 Community Development Projects were started in different parts of the country on 2 October, 1952 for three years. The Projects covered nearly 25,260 villages and a population of 6.4 million. Each project, in turn, consisted of about 300 villages covering 400-500 square miles and having a population of about two lakhs. The project area was divided into three development blocks, each comprising 100 villages and a population of 60,000 to 70,000. The development blocks, in turn, were divided into groups of 5-10 villages, each group being in the charge of a multipurpose village-level worker. The main aims of these projects were: to increase agricultural production by all possible means, to tackle the problems of unemployment, to improve village communications, to foster primary education, public health and recreation, to improve housing, to promote indigenous handicrafts and small-scale industries and to improve the villager's lot through their own primary effort. In short, the programme aimed at achieving all-round socioeconomic transformation of the rural people. 2.3 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (CDP) – FOUNDATION FOR EXTENSION PROGRAMMES IN AGRICULTURE The Community Development Programme is a multipurpose extension programme which includes farm and non-farm sectors of livelihood. It is launched on 2nd October 1952. It achieved tremendous results and benefits in the field of agriculture, rural development, social and economic development. The Community Development Programme (CDP) made a significant impact in the rural people for their own development in all aspects of their day to day life. It was so successful and purposeful that United Nations defined the Community Development Programme as “the process by which the efforts of the people themselves 36  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ are united with those of governmental authorities to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions of communities, to integrate these communities into the life of the nation and to enable them to contribute fully to national programmes”. The CDP which emphasized development in all spheres of people’s life slowly directed towards specific objectives attainment as over the years it was felt necessary. 2.3.1 National Extension Service Rural development activities under Government sponsorship was started with the introduction of CDP. Within a few months of the launching of these pilot projects, it was prominently experienced that the people were ready even keen, for the programme. The people in all the project areas responded enthusiastically and indeed much beyond the expectations o0f the Government and the sponsors of the programme. This fact emphasized the need for a rapid extension of the programme to other parts of the country. But the country’s resources were not sufficient to sustain a comprehensive plan of the same magnitude as contemplated in the first 355 projects. The Government therefore decided to launch alongside the community development programme another programme which was somewhat less intensive in character, called the National Extension Service programme. The National Extension Service programme was formulated in April 1953 and it was inaugurated one year after the 55 community projects that is, on October 2, 1953. It was a major development in the sphere of rural reconstruction in India. Since the basic idea underlying both the community development and National Extension Service programme was the same, the two were integrated under one agency at the Centre as well as in the states. Both the programmes were complementary and interwoven and ran concurrently. The idea behind the National Extension Service Programme was to cover the entire country within a period of about 10 years, that is to say, by 1960-61. The inter-relation between the community development programme and National Extension Service can be explained as below: 37  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ It is necessary to explain the inter-relation between the community development programme and the National Extension service. The movements have identical aims. The National Extension Service is a permanent organization and will cover the whole country. It provides the basic organization, official, non-official and a minimum financial provision for development. Further funds will be found from the central Government and the State’s own allotments under different heads. National Extension Service blocks in which successful results have been achieved with the maximum popular co-operation are selected for intensive development for a period of three years. This intensive development will depend on the available financial resources and local support and local support and enthusiasm. The National Extension Service and the community development programmes have uniform unit of operation which is called a development block. It represents on an average 100 villages, with a population of 60,000 to 70,000 persons spread over an area of 150 to170 square miles. But the N.E.S. blocks are not developed with the same intensity as areas under the community development blocks. Out of the areas developed as National Extension Service Blocks, selection is made periodically for intensive development work under the community development programme and the blocks which are selected are C.D. blocks. Only those blocks are selected which in their working showed good results and where people’s participation had been in abundance. Organizational Set-up for Community Development Extension Service: The organisational set-up for Community Development Programme runs from the national level through state, district and block levels to the village level and there are three main constituents of this new set-up. (a) The direct-line staff such as State Development Commissioner, B.D.O and Village Level Worker. 38  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ (b) The auxiliary or specialist staff, such as different heads of technical departments at the state and district levels and extension officers at the block level. (c) Panchayati Raj System - The Zila Parishads, Block Samitis and Village Panchayats. (A) National Level: At the National level programme, the policies are formulated by the National Development Council presided over by the Prime Minister of India. Membership of the Council consists of the Central ministers of the concerned ministers, chief ministers of all states, and members of the Planning Commission. The Planning Commission provides guidance for Plan formulation and gives it approval to annual and Five-Year Plans of the states as well as of the Centre. The Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation is responsible for giving national guidance, policy formulation and technical assistance in regard to Agriculture Extension and Community Development (now Rural Development Programmes). In the Agriculture department, the Agricultural Commissioner, Government of India, assisted by a number of assistant commissioners and directors, with the supporting staff, is in charge of all agricultural development programmes at the national level. Within this Department, special mention may be made of the Directorate of Extension Training responsible for the training of Extension officers, VLWs, instructors of Village-Level Workers Training Centres and others and the Directorate of Farm Information which is concerned with the dissemination of new agricultural technology and innovations through various media. (B) State Level: At state level also, there is usually a State Development Committee presided over by the Chief Minister of the state with the other concerned ministers as its members. This Committee is responsible for the state's plan and programmes and for fixing the targets for regions and districts. Besides this committee, there are usually a number of other advisory or technical committees. As regards the actual administrative functioning, the State Development Commissioner is the top-level executive responsible for directing, co-ordinating and providing overall guidance for development programmes and maintaining a two-way 39  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ channel of communication between the State governments and the Central government. He also co-ordinates the activities of different development departments, such as agriculture, animal husbandry, co-operation, panchayati raj, health, education, irrigation, power and electricity. The heads of these technical departments are responsible for planning and implementing the technical programmes and for providing the necessary technical guidance, manpower and support. (C) District Level: At the district level also, there is usually a District Development or District Planning Committee presided over by the District Collector or Deputy Commissioner. The other members of this committee are the heads of the departments in the district, chairman and vice-chairman of the district boards, representatives of voluntary organizations, local bodies and members of parliament and state legislatures. In the states, where the Panchayati Raj is operating, the Zila Parishads are responsible for planning, co-ordinating and consolidating the development programme in the district. The District collector is the key official who co-ordinates the activities of all development departments at the district level. The district-level technical heads of agriculture, animal husbandry, co-operation, panchayats, public health, irrigation, education and rural industries are responsible for planning and implementing the development programmes relating to their departments. Administratively, they are responsible to the district collector on one hand and to their state heads of development departments on the other. (D) Block Level: A district is subdivided into a number of community development programmes. The Block development officer is the head of the block team, and coordinates all the activities of the development departments at the block level. He is assisted by eight extension officers from different fields, namely agriculture, animal 40  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ husbandry, health, co-operation, panchayats, engineering, social education and rural industry. At the non-official level in the States, where the Panchayati Raj has been implemented, the Panchayat Samiti (also called the Block), this Samiti) has the statutory powers for formulating and executing development programmes. The Samiti is assisted by the B.D.O and the extension officers. Wherever the Panchayati Raj is not working, there are block development advisory committees. (E) Village Level: At the village level, the multi-purpose village-level worker is the main extension staff. He is the last extension functionary in the administrative hierarchy and is the main contact person. He is responsible for all developmental work at the village level, and forms a connecting link between the various technical departments and the rural people. Usually, in a normal community development block, there are 10 village level workers. Their number has been double in the Intensive Agricultural Development Programme (IADP) blocks. On the non-official side, usually there is a Panchayat in every village or for a cluster of villages, and is responsible for planning and implementing the community development programmes and ensuring people's participation in them. 2.3.2 Stage IV - Intensive Agricultural Development Era (1960-onwards) Keeping this in view, agriculture which was the main stay of Indian economy was given more thrust for its development and accordingly, various development programmes for agricultural production and productivity were launched since 1960s. The sole objectives of these programs were economic upliftment of the people of the country and taking them out from poverty line. All the programmes focused towards agricultural development by which large majority of rural people, who are dependant solely on agriculture were aimed for their socio economic development. The programmes initiated over the years till date are: Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) 41  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) High Yield Variety Programme (HYVP) Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers (MFAL) Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) Command Area Development Programme (CADP) Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) Training and Visit (T&V) System of Agricultural Extension The Intensive Cattle Development Project (ICDP) Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM) Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) National Agricultural Extension Project (NAEP) Technology Mission on Oilseeds (TMO) Jawahar Rozgar Yojana MGNREGA National Horticultural Mission RKVY(Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana) National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) All these programmes, though not attempted towards development of agricultural extension but definitely production and productivity of their farming operations and other rural enterprise which ultimately helped in obtaining more income and livelihood security. But all the programmes followed extension approach to reach to its clients and target groups to provide them with education, information, 42  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ knowledge, skills, understanding and other related matters so as to empower them in accomplishing their goal of economic upliftment. 2.4 EXTENSION STRATEGY FOR AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT Agriculture extension plays a pivotal role in rural and agriculture development by combining farm and non-farm sources of livelihood. Seventy five percent 75% of world poor (The World Bank in its 2000-2001 Report, estimates that about people who have to survive with less than one dollar a day) live in families of farmers and farm labourers. This implies that any programme aiming at poverty alleviation has to give considerable attention to agricultural development. And agricultural extension will be an important and significant element in such an agricultural and rural development programme. The definite objectives of Agricultural Extension in the present era will be: Helping farmers to increase their standards of living by increasing Farm income & yields of crops and animals by combining farm and non-farm sources of income For Sustainable Rural livelihood and developing the farms, farmers need not only financial capital but also need social, physical, natural, and a healthy Human capital (Sustainable rural livelihood framework of DFID) and extension system has to educate farmers to access these. Hence, in global competitiveness of high quality, low cost agricultural products in WTO regime, Indian farmers have to prepare themselves to meet the challenges. To make it possible, agricultural scientists, extension personnel and agricultural administrators, backed by Government must work in tandem and the Agricultural research in ICAR Institutes and State Agricultural Universities also must change its focus and direction in meeting the challenges of the WTO regime to help, provide farmers the competitive edge over other farmers of the globe. 43  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ Agricultural Extension & Need of Reorienting Its Strategy Agricultural Extension is central in formulating and disseminating knowledge and in teaching farmers to be competent decision makers. Therefore, extension plays an important and significant role in most agricultural development projects. Agriculture Extension has both public and private players and all stake holders put together must work on the PPPP (public, private, panchayat, partnership mode) Challenges for Extension in the New Millennium As we move into the new millennium, it will be increasingly necessary and definitely feasible to take a holistic approach to organize positive change in rural areas, helping farmer towards sustainable increasing productivity - particularly in the small - mixed farming systems in rainfed areas, in upland areas and in other places, which have been neglected. It also demands measuring success in terms of the consumption of rural people as well as their production. And that, in turn, will require agricultural extension systems which help farm men and women organize themselves in ways which empower them - to lead agricultural extension and to exert enough power and influence over agricultural research system so that they generate useful practical information which fits the needs and interests of those farming people. Generally, extension has to prepare itself to face six challenges in the new millennium. They are: 1. Control, accountability and sustainability in agriculture 2. Developing a comprehensive Agricultural Extension Policy 3. Addressing the Educational and Technological Needs of Target Clientele 4. Farm Women and Women Extensionists 5. Improving Communication Support in Extension through ICT 6. Strengthening Extension Management 44  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ 2.5 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND EXTENSION PROGRAMMES So far, extension objectives have been to increase productivity at any cost and in the process have ignored the key issues like clients’ needs and problems, appropriate technology development and dissemination ensuring input supply and information services, training of farmers and extension personnel for knowledge and skill up gradation to cope up with the technological advancement, marketing and management. Emerging Priorities in Extension in the New Millennium In the present context of liberalized economy and globalization of agriculture time has come now for agricultural extension to cope up with the changing scenario with its new strategy and approach to reach farmers not only with basket of technological options, but also with information of new market opportunities and gain, more profit and sustainability of income. For the purpose, extension is to be redefined, redesigned and equipped with several solutions to the problems of different groups of farmers, with varied dimensions of land holdings, farmer’s situations and income. The priorities in these are: 1. Technological options and development in agricultural production process- the basket approach. 2. Location specific and need-based extension strategies and approaches. 3. Participatory extension for technology development and dissemination. 4. Linkages and coordination among concerned development departments and organizations.(PPPP mode) 5. Use of new communication channels and media support in extension. (ICT) 6. Human resources development and management in agricultural extension. 7. The cost sharing of extension services and privatization of extension. 8. Institutional innovations to build effective extension strategy. 45  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ Keeping these cardinal principles in view, following programmes were launched by Government of India to help farmers for their socio-economic development through improving agricultural production and productivity. Some of them are: Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) With a focus on increasing productivity and production, IADP was launched in July 1960 in 7 selected districts of various states in its first phase and later extended to another 9 more districts in second phase during 1963-64. This programme was aimed at integrated and intensive approach to solve the problems of agricultural production through adoption of package of improved practices. The achievements accomplished through this programme were tremendous and it really made a dent into the rural poverty for its eradication through agriculture. This programme was popularly known as Package Programme. Intensive Agricultural Area Program (IAAP) To meet the demand of food for the vast population of the country, it was decided that at least 20 to 25 per cent of cultivated area of the country should be earmarked and selected for intensive agricultural development. Accordingly in 1964, IAAP came into operation in 114 districts of the country. The IAAP’s main objective was to bring about the progressive increase in production of main crops in selected areas by intensive and coordinated use of various aids to production. The IAAP partially achieved its prime objectives by increasing food production in the selected area and on the selected crops. High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP) The IADP and IAAP were concerned with the package approach and intensive agriculture and these programmes increased the food production to some extent. But in the later period, when yield production was stabilized, it could not meet the demand of the need of further food production and this experience directed the need of HYVP. 46  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ The HYVP came into being in Kharif 1966-67 with a sole objective to increase the total food production by utilizing high yielding seeds of selected crops. The selected crops were paddy, wheat, bajra, jowar and maize. The salient features of HYVP were: (1) Supply of inputs like seeds, fertilizer and plant protection chemicals, (2) Supply of credit, (3) Cooperative marketing, (4) National Demonstration and (5) Training. These programmes achieved some significant result, particularly in the areas of increasing production and the awareness to the cultivators about available means of increasing production like high yielding seeds, fertilizers and plant protection chemicals. However, there were also failures in this program like unfavourable seasonal conditions, susceptibility of some crops towards pests and diseases and incomplete adoption of package of practices by many cultivators. During this period and after, it was felt that small farmers constituting around 60 per cent of the total cultivators require special support and development systems for their agro-economic development. Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) In India, approximately, 19 per cent of the total land is frequently affected by drought. To overcome this problem Government of India launched the DPAP during 5th Five Year Plan in June 1973. The basic objective of DPAP was to reduce the severity of the impact of the drought and stabilizing the income of the people, particularly, the weaker sections of the society together with restoration of ecological balance. Special emphases of DPAP were: 47  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ 1. Development and management of irrigation resources 2. Soil moisture conservation and aforestation 3. Restructuring of cropping pattern and pasture development 4. Changes in agronomic practices 5. Livestock development of small farmers, marginal farmers and agricultural labourers through special action plan. The DPAP programme was in operation in 74 districts of 13 states of the country. This programme exceeded target in the areas of soil and moisture conservation, forestry and pasture development, distribution of milch animals, organization of sheep cooperative societies and in most of these areas, the programme exceeded the target levels. However, the DPAP had also some limitations such as beneficiary and area development programme oriented approaches could not solve the problems of poverty and unemployment to a greater extent. Command Area Development Authority (CADA) The Irrigation Commission observed that the utilization of irrigation potentialities was slow and not efficient which resulted in increase of drought prone areas. The National Commission on Agriculture too subscribed the same view that every old irrigation project should be upgraded so that existing irrigated areas can be provided with required irrigation and plan should be made to cover more areas under its operation. Based on these recommendations, Government of India established Area Development Authority in July 1973 and later it was converted into CADA from June 1974. The basic concept of this CADA was coordination among the different departments like irrigation, soil conservation, agricultural extension and co-operation & credit agencies. The basic aim of CADA was to bridge the gap between the irrigation potentialities and its actual coverage in irrigation of the land. The CADA’s more important function was to utilize the water available through its various irrigation projects and to 48  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ distribute the same under command area through modernized distribution system. Though this programme helped in achieving some objectives of availability of irrigation water through dam / canals, it could not meet the need / demands of vast area of land in the country and in the process wherever these facilities were available, the farmers of these areas got maximum benefits by utilizing irrigation water for their cultivation but other areas were deprived of it and gap widened between the two areas and its people. The CADA helped in achieving increase of production by providing irrigation water and also helped the big farmers to invest more and also get the high returns. And it proved that irrigation and its proper management if provided the productivity of the crops can be increased in no time. This programme had some problems like proliferation of projects, escalation of costs, difficulties of land acquisition and non- availability of potential & actual cultivable command area. Training and Visit (T & V) System of Agricultural Extension The Training and Visit (T&V) system, the brain child of Dr Daniel Benor (World Bank Consultant) was introduced in India in 1974 for all round development of agricultural extension system in the country to introduce observation, training and technology transfer to the farmers and extension workers so as to enable them achieving greater productivity and production in the agricultural sector. This new agricultural extension strategy was developed with a view to achieving acceleration of economic growth and reduce absolute poverty from poorer nations by the end of 20th century on the suggestions of Robert S. Mc. Namara, the then President of World Bank in its annual conference held at Nairobi in 1970. This was World Bank assisted project and introduced in number of countries beginning first in Israel. In India this system was been introduced first in 1974 in two states viz., Rajasthan and West Bengal and then spread to another 16 states of the country aimed at building a professional extension service that is capable of assisting farmers in raising production and increasing incomes and of providing appropriate support for 49  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ agricultural development. The important features of this system include professionalism, single line of command, concentration of effort, time bound work, field and farmer orientation, regular and continuous training and close linkages with research. T & V system resulted in creation of a dynamic link between farmers, professional extension workers, and researchers. The impact of T&V system was readily apparent over a wide range of agro-ecological conditions in farmers’ fields, whether irrigated or rainfed. By adopting and implementing T&V system in its extension network, India gained a lot in increasing its food production with scientific means coupled with effective technology transfer system. National Agricultural Extension Project (NAEP) The basic objective of NAEP was to bridge the gap between the well-developed research systems with that of extension system so that the transfer of technology takes place at a much faster rate resulting in higher production and prosperity in the rural sector in general and agricultural sector in particular. In spite of these special extension efforts, there remained large gaps in achieving in certain sectors which needed more concerted attention. 2.6 VARIOUS CLIENT FOCUSSED PROGRAMMES AND PROJECTS IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT Small Farmers’ Development Agency (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers (MFAL) SFDA started with the objectives to help and identify the special problems of small farmers as producers and also identifying marginal farmers and agricultural labourers, so that necessary measures can be taken to boost their occupation and helping them to get appropriate income as wages for support to their cultivation. 50  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ SFDA was first introduced in 168 district level agencies covering 1818 blocks. Later MFAL was combined to make this as a composite SF/MFAL blocks. The major achievements this programme brought were that all small farmers, marginal farmers and agricultural labourers came in one umbrella to help them, identify their problems and solve them with the support from Government. It also helped agricultural labourers to get their minimum wages from the land owners where they used to put their labour. The marginal and small farmers both got several subsidies from various agencies, identified by SFDA and MFAL for their cultivation practices, and as a result to some extent they could improve their economic conditions. However, these programmes could not achieve fully the target as it did not cover whole area throughout the country and also it covered only one or two aspects of rural life and sections of rural people in selected blocks/districts. Local level planning and monitoring were absent in these programmes. Integrated Rural Development Programme The basic concept of IRDP was both on planning and implementation of rural development policies in an integrated system. It includes (1) Coordination among different organizations involved, (2) Improvement of vertical integration relationship among government agencies at village, block, district, state and central level, (3) Giving importance to local level administration in deciding the programmes, planning of projects etc. (4) Optimum utilization of local resources and change in individual values and perception of rural people towards socio-economic changes in the village and more importantly, the people’s participation in formulation, implementation and evaluation of the development programme. 51  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ IRDP included all the sectors in its operation to help support people in the rural area to attend their economic up-liftment. The sectors included agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, horticulture, forestry, industry, marketing and service sectors. At the beginning, this programme brought tremendous impact and improved economic conditions. But at the later part of the programme, improper selection of beneficiaries had resulted is deprival of benefits to genuine beneficiaries. Because of the very nature of this problem and its huge machinery for implementation of the same in almost all blocks of the country, proper follow up was almost absent. Particularly after sanction of loans or distribution of some inputs to the beneficiaries for their economic development, no one kept track with the beneficiaries. The bench mark survey for selection of beneficiaries were not done as per plan and also there were lack of coordination among the development departments and people at the block level and in the process, participation from people were very much less in the programme. The problem also came up because of rigid approach of bureaucracy from the block and district level. However, IRDP brought the awareness among the rural people for their economic development and expected roles government should play for the purpose. The Intensive Cattle Development Project (ICDP) The initiation of Key Village Scheme in August 1952 was the first systematic attempt to improve the quality and productivity of cattle and buffaloes in the country. The ICDP was initiated in 1964-65. The objectives of the project were the same as the Key Village Scheme, but had much wider scope. It envisaged provision of a package of improved practices to the cattle owners to effect a breakthrough in milk production (National Commission of Agriculture, 1976). The package included: 1. Cattle breeding 2. Castration of scrub bulls 3. Veterinary aid and disease control 4. Registration of milk recording 52  Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM) _________________________________________________________________________ 5. Introduction of high yielding Milch cattle 6. Subsidies and incentives for milk production 7. Feed and fodder development including demonstration, distribution of fodder seeds, silage making and popularization of chaff cutters and 8. Dairy extension. The programme was launched in the milk shed area of major dairy plants to ensure the increased and steady flow of milk to these plants. There is no doubt that ICDP did help in increasing milk production in Milch animals in the country to a great extent. Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM) The Centrally sponsored scheme TRYSEM was launched by Government of India under Department of Rural Development on August 15, 1979. TRYSEM is a facilitating component of the IRDP. The major and significant objective of TRYSEM was to provide technical skills to the rural youth from the families below poverty line to enable them to take up self-employment in the broad fields of agriculture and allied activities, industries, services and business enterprises. This system helped a lot of unemployed rural youth in the country side to earn substantial amount of income for their own maintenance and also were engaged in permanent livelihood earning. Though this programme could not overcome the huge unemployment in the country, it showed the path for their taking up own initiatives for self-employment and earning for their own development. Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) A unique programme, called DWCRA was started as a sub-scheme of IRDP in 1982-83 with the sole objective of improving the conditions of women and children in the rural areas. The rationale behind the programme was that the women’s income is known to have positive correlation with the nutritional and educational status of the family and in building of positive attitude towards status of women. If they are developed and empowered, all care could be possible for the looking after of their 53  Introduction to Agricultural Extension (3 Credits) AEM 101 ___________________________________________________________________________ children in