ABM-12 Review Midterms Day 1 PDF

PHILOSOPHY or considering at the moment. To “To seek and to know the truth is believe means that your mind is human. Truth liberates us from THE VALUE OF TRUTH (LESSON 1) eith...

PHILOSOPHY or considering at the moment. To “To seek and to know the truth is believe means that your mind is human. Truth liberates us from THE VALUE OF TRUTH (LESSON 1) either aware of the propositional ignorance” -Do you believe that you are belief or that you are considering or rational? The critical aspect in doing thinking about the proposition of SHORTCOMINGS OF THE THEORIES philosophy is Rational Inquiry. Logic, your belief. It is also possible that OF TRUTH one of the branches of Philosophy, is your belief is not something that you even dedicated to the discovery of are considering at the moment, but CORRESPONDENCE THEORY OF principles for correct reasoning. even if you are not considering it TRUTH – Criticized in its limitations to Immanuel Kant claimed that reason you still believe it. give future predictions the has the peculiar fate in its cognitions characteristic of being a proposition to be burdened by questions it -NATURE OF TRUTH- due to the indeterminate state of cannot dismiss since it was given to - What is truth? How would you affairs it refers. The proposition “The him as problems by reason itself. determine if your beliefs are true? sun will rise tomorrow” is problematic - When you reason, you find an The following theories will help you under this theory because the term explanation adequate to prove understand the nature of truth and tomorrow is unclear since its that what you believe is true. how each theory is used to meaning changes depending in Reason itself requires a test that determine the truth of beliefs or when it is stated. what you espouse is consistent with propositions the world, meaning, you are COHERENCE THEORY OF TRUTH – certain that what you say or assert -THEORIES OF TRUTH- Criticized for its vulnerability that is verifiable and can be validated clarifies the notion of consistency. in the physical world. Correspondence Theory of Truth What is really meant by “cohere”? If - A belief is true if there exists an truth is about the significant whole, -THE NATURE OF BELIEF- appropriate entity - a fact – to which what does this truly cover? Is truth a - What is it that one accepts or it corresponds. If there is no such compendium of truths? What makes assents when one has a belief? entity, the belief is false. truth true? Believing as a propositional attitude - The correspondence theory of is directed toward the propositions truth compares the given PRAGMATIC THEORY OF TRUTH – or statements about the object of proposition and the truth conditions expediency seems to imply the belief. For example, if you believe or state of affairs that will make the relativity of truth. What is useful to that something is real, your belief is propositions true. one person might not useful to directed to the proposition which another. Is truth relative? represents the object of your belief. Coherence Theory of Truth If truth is the outcome of rational Hence, a belief is a mental state of - The truth of any (true) proposition inquiry, why does it seem too having some attitude, stance, take, consists in its coherence with some difficult to arrive at a perspective or opinion about the proposition or specified set of propositions (or that you can be convinced of and about the potential state of affairs in significant wholes). This means that that exactly expresses what the which what proposition is true. the truth conditions of a proposition nature of truth is? are based on other propositions (as The object of belief is the opposed to the corresponding William Clifford’s essay “Ethics of representation of the fact found in theory of truth where the truth Belief” – it is wrong always, the world or truth conditions about conditions are based on facts or everywhere, and for anyone to the world. The structure is “S believes objective features of the world.) This believe anything on insufficient that P is true”. “S” is the person and means that a belief is true if and only evidence. IF evidence is equated to “P” is the representation of belief. if it is part of the coherent system of truth, you will again be led to the belief. problem cases and criticisms Lily believes that she is in Batangas mentioned previously City. Pragmatic Theory of Truth - This holds that a proposition is true Proposition- “Lily is situated 112 if it is useful to believe it. Thus, utility is -OPINIONS PURPOSE- kilometers south of Rizal’s the essential mark of truth. Truth is - Rene Descartes claimed that we monument in Luneta” arrived at based on beliefs that lead have obligation to withhold assent to the best payoff, give the ultimate from all propositions whose truth we - Each of your beliefs is your benefit or advantage, or promote do not clearly and distinctively affirmation or conviction about the success. perceive. However, we are obliged world that you are either aware of to have some sort of evidence -TRUTH- THEORIES ON HUMAN NATURE before giving our assent. - Supported by verifiable or observable facts, objective, Human Person as an Immortal Soul - -Republic- universally acceptable, and What important theory on human - Plato explained that opinion impersonal. nature is to claim that the human (doxa) and intellect are distinct by - Always related to facts person has a soul. But the nature different degrees upon the nature and function of the soul has been of objects in which it is concerned -OPINION- answered for philosophers since the with. Under these categories, Plato - Mere personal unsupported belief. time of ancient Greeks. In discuss four distinct segments of - Derived from one’s expression of “Phaedrus”, one of the dialogues of cognition. feelings rather than on evidence Plato, Socrates associated “Every and observable facts soul is immortal, for that which Four Distinct Segment of Cognition moves itself is immortal, while what Who is the human person? (Lesson moves, and is moved by something Imaging (eikasia) / conjecture 2) else stops living when it stops - Pictures or images in the lowest Who is the human person? moving. This is the very essence and form on reality. Appropriate degree Play wondering why there is a need principle of a soul, for every bodily of awareness but provides the most to ask such a question when you object that is moved from outside primitive opinions. know that you, yourself, are human. the soul, while the body whose However, you might want to pause motion comes from within, from itself Belief (pistis) for a while and contemplate the does have a soul.” - Based on perception of ordinary answer to that question. For physical objects. This is the most example, what does it really mean Thus, the human person, in the accurate possible conception of when we say “human person”? This platonic account, is an immortal man to the nature and relationship kind of philosophical inquiry is soul that is the source of movement. to temporal things. ontological. Anthology is the area of Therefore, you, as a human person, metaphysics concerned with the have a soul because you are Thought study of the nature and the relations moved from within. No outside force - Intelligible realm, a step higher that of being. compels you to have a life or to belief. Directed toward simple forms The Oxford dictionary have motion. of shapes, numbers, and other defines “human being” as a man, mathematical entities. woman, or child of the species Human Person as a Composite of a Homo Sapiens, distinguish from Body and Soul - Aristotle explained More Significant Forms (true other animals by superior mental in his work De Anima all the equality, beauty, truth, good) development, power of articulate capacities possessed by all living - These permanent objects of speech, and upright stance. things. History is about providing an knowledge are directly account of this capacities Which apprehended by the intellect, THREE ASPECTS OF HUMAN NATURE naturally included human persons. which is the fundamental capacity His work is called Aristotle’s of human reason to comprehend Somatic - Refers to body, material psychology but it involves the the true nature of reality, composition, or substance of a relation between the soul called the human person psyche and the body. Based on the 4 segments of Behavioral - This refers to the human cognition, you can say that the In order to understand the relation persons mode of activity. BF Skinner, phrase “I BELIEVE” may lead to between the soul and the body an American psychologist known for either knowledge or opinion. Aristotle distinguished three kinds of the study of behaviorism, stated that substance; Matter, shape or form, any condition or event that may be Both knowledge and and the product of both. He added shown to take effect on behavior opinion are characterized that of the kinds of substance, there must be taken into account. differently by the object of concern are natural bodies that have either Attitudinal - Refers to the human and are distinguished by the life or do not have life. The natural persons inclinations, feelings, ideas, implication of what is true, real and body has life, it is meant to have convictions, and prejudices or eternal as opposed to what is less himself nutrition and growth and biases. Attitude is a person’s mental real and fleeting. decay. reaction to stimuli or a person’s tendency to act. Aristotle further claimed that the soul is another kind of substance; It is not a body but the form of a natural because the mind is indivisible. -RADICAL FREEDOM- body that has life potentially within Discard this claims that since it is - Sartre argues that human beings it. This means that the natural body divisible, it has parts. Hence, when are characterized by "radical is “ensouled”; that is, you are with you think about yourself, you might freedom," which means that we are the soul, a noncorporeal substance even be confused of your nature entirely responsible for our choices that is the form of your natural body. because two different parts may and actions. There are no external both exist but are of different nature. factors or predetermined values For Aristotle, life, or having a soul, is that can dictate what we should the source of a human persons -HUMAN CONDITION- do. This radical freedom can be being alive, which enables him or - Human condition is defined As the liberating but also anxiety-inducing her to the actions or activities that inevitable positive or negative because it places the burden of are suited to being a human person. events of existence is a human creating meaning squarely on the He is saying that the body cannot being. Through human condition, a individual. be separated from the soul person realizes how it is to be because the soul is the form of the human. While the three aspects of -Nothingness and Consciousness- natural body. The soul is what makes human nature the somatic, - Sartre introduces the concept of the natural body, which is a behavioral, and attitudinal define or "nothingness" in the title of the book. potentially that becomes an characterize the human percent, He suggests that human actuality. This theory implies that one will understand how to live consciousness is marked by an without the soul, the body does not according to this nature to human awareness of nothingness or the have life condition. void. This awareness of nothingness is fundamental to human existence Human Person as a “Thinking Thing” -MAN AS FREEDOM- and contributes to our sense of Rene Descartes asserted that the - Jean Paul Sartre, a French freedom. It means that we are human person is a thinking thing Philosopher, publish Being and aware of what we lack or what is not consider the following passage: Nothingness: A Phenomenological present, and this awareness drives Essay on Ontology – one of the best us to act and make choices to fill Under one hand I have a clear and books on existentialism. that void. distinct idea of myself, in so far as I EXISTENTIALISM – is a philosophical am simply a thinking, non extended tradition that focuses on centrality -BAD FAITH- thing, and on the other hand I have of the human person’s existence. - Sartre explores the phenomenon a distinct idea of body, in so far as Existentialist advanced of "bad faith," where individuals try this is simply an extended, non philosophical ideas that are said to to escape the anxiety of freedom thinking thing and accordingly, it is be directed toward the goal of by denying their own freedom and certain that I am really distinct from understanding the human condition responsibility. They may conform to my body, and can exist without it. through these themes: existence, societal norms, adopt roles and authenticity, anxiety, freedom, life’s identities imposed by others, or Descartes asserted that the mind is absurdity, and man’s situatedness. blame external circumstances for a thinking thing, distinct and their actions. Bad faith represents a unextended; and that the body is a -EXISTENCE PRECEDES ESSENCE- refusal to fully embrace one's non thinking thing, distinct and - One of the central ideas in Sartre's freedom. extended; And that his reality is how philosophy is the notion that - Imagine a person who is in a distinct he is from the body, and he "existence precedes essence." This romantic relationship but is no can exist without it do you discard means that unlike inanimate longer happy in that relationship this assertion in a philosophical objects, which have a predefined and wishes to end it. However, they perspective that he believes that essence or nature, human beings convince themselves that they the nature of man is pure mind. do not have a fixed nature or cannot end the relationship purpose. Instead, we exist first, and it because they believe they are Descartes claim that the mind is is up to us to define our essence morally obligated to stay, or indivisible, the body is divisible into through our choices and actions. because they fear societal parts. What does the claim imply This emphasizes human freedom judgment, or they think they are about the nature of humanity? As a and responsibility, as individuals are incapable of being alone. thinking mind, it is clear that as you constantly making choices that doubt your existence singular self, shape their identities -The Other and the Look- you will always arrive at the distinct - Sartre also examines the role of idea that you are, indeed, oneself other people in our lives. He argues that the presence of others is essential to our self-awareness and PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT can lead to feelings of shame and consciousness. When we encounter doubt. others, we experience what Sartre DEVELOPMENT STAGES IN calls "the look." This is the feeling of ADOLESCENCE 03 - INITIATIVE VS. GUILT being objectified or judged by (PRESCHOOL, 3-6 YEARS) others, which can lead to self- DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE THEORIES Now the child is in consciousness and influence our Erikson’s psychosocial preschool, bursting with energy and choices and behaviors. development theory curiosity. They love to play, ask Theory of Moral questions, and start projects—like What makes human beings Developement building a tower with blocks or different from other beings is the Piaget;s cognitive drawing a picture capacity to be aware of himself or development theory This stage is about taking herself and create possibilities initiative. Encouragement leads to a ahead of himself or herself. - Erikson’s psychosocial sense of purpose, while constant development theory - criticism can make a child feel guilty Freedom is what makes you about their natural desires to lead a human person freedom allows you 8 STAGES PSYCHOSOCIAL and create. to create your own identity DEVELOPMENT THEORY possibilities and what you want to Erik Erikson's Eight Stages of 04 - INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY become. Psychosocial Development Theory (SCHOOL AGE, 6-12 YEARS) outlines the psychological and As the child enters school, "Man is condemned to be free; social challenges individuals face at they start to face new challenges— because once thrown into the different stages of life learning to read, write, and solve world, he is responsible for Each stage involves a math problems. This is a time when everything he does." - Jean-Paul central conflict that must be they begin to compare themselves Sartre resolved for healthy psychological to their peers. growth This stage is like building skills. Success in school and other 01 - TRUST VS. MISTRUST (INFANCY, activities leads to a sense of industry 0-1 YEAR) and confidence, while failure and Imagine a newborn baby in criticism can lead to feelings of their first year of life. This baby is inferiority entirely dependent on their caregivers for everything—food, 05 - IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION warmth, comfort, and love. (ADOLESCENCE, 12-18 YEARS) Trust is like the baby’s first During the teenage years, building block. If they receive the individual begins to explore their reliable care, they build a strong own identity—asking big questions foundation of trust, setting the stage like “Who am I?” and “What do I for future relationships. want to do with my life?” They might experiment with different roles, 02 - AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND trying out different hobbies, DOUBT (EARLY CHILDHOOD, 1-3 interests, and even social groups. YEARS) Adolescence is a time of As the baby grows into a self-discovery. Successfully toddler, they start to explore the navigating this stage leads to a world on their own. Think of a child strong sense of identity, while learning to walk, talk, and use the confusion can lead to uncertainty potty. This is a time when they begin about one’s place in the world. to assert their independence, saying things like “Me do it!” 06 - INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION This stage is about learning (YOUNG ADULTHOOD, 18-40 YEARS) independence. A child who is As the individual enters supported in their attempts to be young adulthood, they start forming autonomous develops self- deeper relationships—perhaps confidence, while excessive control dating, making close friends, or even getting married. This stage is Moral reasoning is based on these principles even if they conflict about the ability to form intimate, avoiding punishment and obeying with laws or social norms. The focus loving relationships with others. authority. Actions are considered is on justice, equality, and respect Young adulthood is about right or wrong depending on their for all people. forming meaningful relationships. consequences for the individual. Success leads to intimacy, while fear -Cognitive Development Theory or failure to connect can lead to Stage 2: Individualism and (Piaget’s Theory)- feelings of isolation. Exchange Individuals recognize that there is Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years) 07 - GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION not just one right view that is handed Infants learn about the (MIDDLE ADULTHOOD, 40-65 YEARS) down by authorities. Different world through their senses and In middle adulthood, the individuals have different actions. focus shifts from building one’s own perspectives and interests. Moral They develop object life to nurturing the next decisions are based on personal permanence—the understanding generation—whether through needs and desires that objects continue to exist even raising children, mentoring others, or when they can’t be seen contributing to the community. This Conventional Level is a time when people ask, “What Focus: Social Norms and am I leaving behind?” Relationships Middle adulthood is about contributing to the world. Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Generativity brings a sense of Relationships fulfillment, while stagnation can Moral reasoning is based on living lead to feelings of emptiness. up to social expectations and roles. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years) There is a focus on being a good Children begin to use 08 - INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR (LATE person in the eyes of others, symbols, like words and images, to ADULTHOOD, 65 YEARS AND UP) including family and friends. represent objects and experiences. In late adulthood, the They are egocentric, individual looks back on their life, Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order meaning they have difficulty seeing reflecting on what they’ve Individuals become more aware of things from others' perspectives, accomplished and the choices the importance of maintaining and struggle with understanding the they’ve made. social order and following laws and concept of conservation Late adulthood is a time of rules to ensure a functioning society. reflection. A life well-lived leads to a The focus is on duty and the sense of integrity, while regrets can importance of upholding societal lead to feelings of despair. rules. -THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT- Post-Conventional Level Lawrence Kohlberg’s Focus: Universal Principles and Theory outlines six stages that Ethical Principles Concrete Operational (7-11 years describe how individuals develop old) moral reasoning and ethical Stage 5: Social Contract and Children start to think behavior over time. Individual Rights logically about concrete events Moral reasoning is based on the and understand the concept of These stages are divided into three understanding that laws and rules conservation. levels are social contracts that should be They can perform Pre-Conventional Level upheld for the greater good. operations like classification and Conventional Level Post- However, there is also recognition seriation(arranging), and Conventional Level that laws should be changed if they understand that quantities remain do not uphold individual rights and the same despite changes in Pre-Conventional Level justice appearance Focus: Self-Interest and Consequences Stage 6: Universal Principles Moral reasoning is based on Stage 1: Obedience and abstract reasoning using universal Punishment Orientation ethical principles. Individuals follow Formal operational (11- up) Individuals develop the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically. They can reason about complex ideas, solve problems systematically, and think about abstract concepts like justice and freedom. -Robert Havigghurst Developmental Task Theory- 1. Achieve more mature relationships with peers of both sexes 2. Achieve social roles 3. Accept Ones physical aspect and treat your body with respect 4. Achieve emotional independence from adults 5. Prepare for Marriage or family life 6. Prepare for an occupation or a career 7. Acquire a set of values 8. Achieve socially responsible behavior Failure to complete developmental tasks at a stage result in people becoming dissatisfied and unhappy and not receiving the social approval they seek from society