Arthrology - Introduction 2024 PDF

Arthrology Dr. Incze-Bartha Zsuzsánna Anatomy - ways to approach gross anatomy: surface anatomy = the study of general form (morphology), superficial anatomical markings regional anatomy = all the superficial and internal features in a specific area of the body systemic...

Arthrology Dr. Incze-Bartha Zsuzsánna Anatomy - ways to approach gross anatomy: surface anatomy = the study of general form (morphology), superficial anatomical markings regional anatomy = all the superficial and internal features in a specific area of the body systemic anatomy considers the structure of major organ systems (groups of organs that function together to produce coordinated effects) 11 organ systems The integumentary system Bones of the skeleton The skeletal system Joints The muscular system Connective tissues Bone marrow The nervous system The endocrine system homeostasis The cardiovascular system The lymphatic system - The respiratory system The digestive system Martini FH, Timmons MJ, Tallitsch RB – Human anatomy, 8th ed, 2015, Pearson Education The urinary system The reproductive system Disease Pathology The skeletal system Bones of the skeleton Joints = articulations Connective tissues Bone marrow Connections between the bones of the skeletal system. Mobility. Joints are the regions of the skeleton where two or more bones meet and articulate. These junctions are supported by a variety of soft tissue structures, and their prime functions are either to facilitate growth or to allow movement between bones. The movements of the skeletal system is restricted to joints, with a specific range of motion, or not. The bones may be in contact or separated (fibrous tissue, cartilage, fluid). Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology The joints of the skeleton Arthrology: a science concerned with the study of joints General guidelines the function and range of motion of each joint depend on its anatomical design joints: without movement slight movement extensive movement variety of bony surfaces, cartilages, ligaments, tendons, muscles keep the movement within the normal range immovable and slightly movable joints are more common in the axial skeleton the freely movable joints are more common in the appendicular skeleton Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology The joints of the skeleton Childrens - immovable joints are primarily meant for growth - may permit slight shape change during childbirth - more joints in children: os coxae, os frontale, mandibula, os sacrum, os coccygis Classification Structural Functional Regional According to number of articulating bones Martini FH, Timmons MJ, Tallitsch RB – Human anatomy, 8th ed, 2015, Pearson Education Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Classification of the joints Structural Functional - the histological structure of the joint: bony, - range of motion permitted at the joint fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial Synarthrosis: syn-together, arthros-joint, Fibrous joints immovable - sutures Amphiarthrosis: amphi – on both sides, - syndesmosis slightly movable - gomphosis Diarthrosis: dia – through, freely movable Cartilaginous joints - primary cartilaginous joints or synchondrosis - secondary cartilaginous joints or symphysis Regional classification Synovial joints - skull type: immovable - planar joints - vertebral type: slightly moveable - hinge joints - limb type: feely movable - pivot or trochoid joints - saddle or sellar joints - bicondylar joints - ellipsoid joints According to number of articulating bones - spheroid joints - simple joint: two bones - compound: in one synovial cavity more than two bones - complex: the joint cavity is divided by an intraarticular disc Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Classification of the joints False joints (Synarthroses) True joints - continuously connected by connective - discontinuous connection tissue, cartilage, or bone; - separated by a joint space - low to moderate degree of mobility - mobility is variable Syndesmoses Amphiarthroses - fibrous joints - stiff joints Synchondroses Diarthroses - cartilaginous joints - joints with varying degrees of freedom Symphysis - classified according to shape, number of - fibrocartilaginous joints joint axes Synostoses - sites of bony fusion Susan Standring – Gray`s Anatomy, The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice, 41th ed., Elsevier, 2016 Arthrology Structural classification Fibrous joints Bones are joined by fibrous connective tissue that allows little movement. The bones are united by collagen fibers, so no joint space is present. Collagen fibers found in fibrous joints lend stability to these joints but permit little, or no motion. Functionally, fibrous joints are synarthroses or amphiarthroses. Three subtypes Sutures Gomphoses Syndesmoses Susan Standring – Gray`s Anatomy, The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice, 41th ed., Elsevier, 2016 Arthrology Structural classification Fibrous joints Sutures - are restricted to the skull - sewed together: the edges of the bones are interlocked and bound together by sutural ligament or sutural membrane - the unossified remnants of the embryonic mesenchymal membrane - many sutures synostose and are obliterated - allow forces to be spread easily with minimal joint movement - type of the bony margin: - plane: internasal suture - serrate: interparietal - squamous: temporo-parietal suture Susan Standring – Gray`s Anatomy, The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice, 41th ed., Elsevier, 2016 - denticulate: lambdoid suture - schindylesis: rostrum sphenoidale – vomer Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Structural classification Fibrous joints Sutures Fontanelles membrane filled suture (6), temporary will allow the brain to increase Susan Standring – Gray`s Anatomy, The Anatomical Basis of Clinical ossify ~ 18 months Practice, 41th ed., Elsevier, 2016 Martini FH, Timmons MJ, Tallitsch RB – Human anatomy, 8th ed, 2015, Pearson Education Paulsen F, Waschke J - Sobotta Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol.1, 15th ed., 2013, Urban & Fischer Arthrology Structural classification Fibrous joints Gomphoses - between the teeth and the maxilla or mandible - is an immoveable fibrous joint - between a tooth and its corresponding osseous pocket (alveolus) in the mandible or maxilla - is a synarthrosis - primary function is to provide stability by restricting motion - each individual tooth is firmly attached to the jaw by a strong fibrous membrane called the periodontal ligament Susan Standring – Gray`s Anatomy, The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice, 41th ed., Elsevier, 2016 Paulsen F, Waschke J - Sobotta Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol.1, 15th ed., 2013, Urban & Fischer Arthrology Structural classification Fibrous joints Syndesmoses - the articulating bones are connected by a long membrane composed of dense regular collagenous connective tissue - interosseous membrane or ligament - allows a limited amount of movement (to pivot around one another) Susan Standring – Gray`s Anatomy, The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice, 41th ed., Elsevier, 2016 Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Structural classification Cartilaginous joints The articulating bones are held together by cartilage. Lack the joint cavity and allow for little, no motion. Functionally are synarthroses or amphiarthroses. Two types: Synchondrosis or primary cartilaginous joints Symphysis or secondary cartilaginous joints Susan Standring – Gray`s Anatomy, The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice, 41th ed., Elsevier, 2016 Arthrology Structural classification Cartilaginous joints Synchondrosis or primary cartilaginous joints - consists of bones united by hyaline cartilage - epiphyseal plate in growing long bones: where advancing centres of ossification remain separated by an area of hyaline (but nonarticular) cartilage, in all postcranial bones that form from more than one centre of ossification; hyaline cartilage retains the capability to ossify with age; synchondroses tend to synostose when growth is complete - the sternocostal joints and costochondral joints (persist into adulthood) - functionally are synarthroses - no motion Susan Standring – Gray`s Anatomy, The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice, 41th ed., Elsevier, 2016 Arthrology Structural classification Cartilaginous joints Symphysis – fibrocartilaginous or secondary cartilaginous joints - defined by the presence of an intervening pad or disc of fibrocartilage interposed between the articular cartilage that covers the ends of two articulating bones - axial regions: resist to a wild range of stresses (compression, tension, shear, bending, torsion) while still allowing a small amount of motion - discs: which function primarily for protection and shock absorption, from compression that could damage the vertebrae - intervertebral joints (each individual intervertebral joint allows a small degree of motion → the spinal column as a whole is flexible) - pubic symphysis: normally limited motion, but during childbirth it allows increased motion, which creates a larger opening through the pelvic outlet where the head of the newborn is emerging Susan Standring – Gray`s Anatomy, The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice, 41th ed., Elsevier, 2016 Arthrology Structural classification Cartilaginous joints Symphysis – fibrocartilaginous or secondary cartilaginous joints - intervertebral joints (each individual intervertebral joint allows a small degree of motion → the spinal column as a whole is flexible - pubic symphysis: normally limited motion, but during childbirth it allows increased motion, which creates a larger opening through the pelvic outlet where the head of the newborn is emerging Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Structural classification Synovial joints - the articulating bony surfaces are covered in hyaline articular cartilage and separated by a film of viscous synovial fluid that serves as a lubricant - joint stability is provided by a fibrous capsule, internal or external accessory ligaments, forming a cavity - functionally: diarthroses (freely moveable joints), specialized for movement, a wide range of motion, shock absorbers - shape and arrangement of articular surfaces - planar joints - hinge joints - pivot or trochoid joints - saddle or sellar joints - bicondylar joints - ellipsoid joints - spheroid joints - movement: - monaxial: the elbow, ankle - biaxial: ribs, wrist - triaxial: the shoulder, hip - the structure of a typical synovial joint: - a joint cavity - joint capsule - synovial fluid - articular cartilages - accessory structures - sensory nerves, blood vessels that supply the joint Martini FH, Timmons MJ, Tallitsch RB – Human anatomy, 8th ed, 2015, Pearson Education Arthrology Structural classification Synovial joints Articular / Joint capsule - the joint cavity of true joints is fully enclosed by a joint capsule - 2 layers: Fibrous membrane - firm, collagenous connective tissue: fibres continues in the periosteum - variates in thickness - can be reinforced by ligaments (intracapsular ligaments) Synovial membrane - loose connective tissue that lines the entire joint cavity except the hyaline cartilage articulating surfaces of each bone - attached to the margin of the joint capsule - Synovial intima: 1-3 layers of epithelial-like lining cells - production (type B synoviocytes) - resorption (Type A synoviocytes) of synovial fluid - Synovial subintima: connective tissue with - blood and lymph vessels - pain receptors (free nerve endings) - mechanoreceptors (proprioceptors) Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Structural classification Synovial joints Synovial fluid - a clear, slightly yellowish, viscous fluid - product of secretion of the synovial cysts - pH value 7.4-7.7 - its volume: 3-5 ml (less than 1 ml in small joints) - composition: hyaluronate, lubricin (mucin-like glycoprotein), phospholipids, blood plasma components, macrophages, lymphocytes -3 functions: - provides lubrication: for the cartilaginous surfaces, which reduce friction between the cartilage surfaces in a joint to around one-fifth of that between two pieces of ice - nourishes the hyaline cartilage, which has no blood vessels, through diffusion and convection - acts as a shock absorber: synovial fluid cushions shocks in joints, distributes it evenly across the articular surfaces Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Structural classification Synovial joints Articular cartilages - hyaline cartilage, fibrous cartilage (temporomandibular joint, sternoclavicular) - provides slippery surface for movement - avascular, non-nervous, elastic, malleable, reacts to pressure (elastic compression) - does not have perichondrium - nourished by synovial fluid (diffusion + convection) - can hardly regenerate - thickness 1-2 mm (interphalangeal) → 5-7 mm (femoropatellar) - composition: extracellular matrix + chondrocytes ( aprox. 5%) - chondrocytes: - in small lacunae within the matrix - produce and maintain the extracellular matrix - extracellular matrix: - collagen fibers + proteoglycans (aggrecan) + glycosaminoglycans (hyaluronate, chondroitin) + glycoproteins (chondronectin) + interstitial fluid (water) + electrolytes (Ca+, K+, Na) - divided into zones: determined by the arcade-like course the collagen fibrils follow Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Structural classification Synovial joints Blood supply - periarticular arterial plexus - vascular plexus in the subintima of the synovial membrane - blood vessels terminate around the articular margins - supply the capsule, the synovial membrane, the epiphysis - cartilage is avascular Nerve supply - capsule, ligaments: rich – sensitive to pain - synovial membrane: poor – relatively insensitive - articular cartilage: non-nervous, totally insensitive - principles (Hilton law): a motor nerve to the muscles acting on the joint tend to give a branch to that joint and an other branch to the skin covering the joint Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Structural classification Synovial joints Accessory structures Intra-articular structures - Menisci, discs, articular labra Ligaments Fat pads Bursas Tendons Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Structural classification Synovial joints Accessory structures Intra-articular structures - fibrocartilage, are in the articular cavity, float within synovial fluid (nourished) - for stability and function - they increase the force-transmitting surface by balancing out incongruencies between the different parts of the joint → reducing the compressive force on the cartilage Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Structural classification Synovial joints Accessory structures Intra-articular structures Menisci - crescent-shaped structures, wedge-shaped in cross section - attached to the capsule - in the knee only - peripheral components are supplied by blood vessels of the joint Frank H. Netter - Atlas of human anatomy, 6th ed., 2014, Saunders Elsevier Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Structural classification Synovial joints Accessory structures Intra-articular structures Articular discs - disk-like structures - divide the joint into two separate chambers - temporomandibular joint, sternoclavicular joint, medial wrist joint Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Structural classification Synovial joints Accessory structures Intra-articular structures Articular labra - wedge-shaped structures at the outer margins of the bone - enlarge the articulating surfaces - glenoid and acetabular labra Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Structural classification Synovial joints Accessory structures Ligaments - support, strengthen, and reinforce synovial joints - intrinsic ligaments, or capsular ligaments: thickenings of the joint capsule - extrinsic ligaments are separate from the joint capsule; these ligaments may be located either outside or inside the joint capsule, and can be extracapsular or intracapsular ligaments Fat pads - are often found around the periphery of the joint - covered by a layer of synovial membrane - protection for the articular cartilages - packing material for the joint as a whole - fill spaces created when bones move and the joint cavity changes shape Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Structural classification Synovial joints Accessory structures Tendons - pass across or around a joint - in some joints, tendons are an integral part of the joint capsule Bursae - small, fluid-filled pockets in connective tissue - filled with synovial fluid, lined by a synovial membrane - may be connected to the joint cavity, or separate from it - form where a tendon or ligament rubs against other tissue - function is to reduce friction and act as a shock absorber Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Synovial joints - primarily enable motion - guarantee stability of the Classification musculoskeletal system - assist in transmitting force between based on the number of joint axes the articulating bones - a joint can be mobile or stable, but 1 axis → uniaxial not both at the same time 2 axes → biaxial - with the increasing amount of 3 axis → triaxial or multiaxial movement, they become increasingly unstable. based on the shape of their articular surfaces - the most mobile joints in the body planar joints are also the most easily injured hinge joints pivot or trochoid joints saddle or sellar joints bicondylar joints ellipsoid joints spheroid joints Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Synovial joints Axes of motion ▪ an axis is an imaginary plane along which joint movement occurs (coronal, sagittal, transvers) ▪ three axes of motion (three dimensions in the world around us) longitudinal sagittal Transvers Joint movement: ▪ Linear motion: translation, gliding in one axis ▪ Angular motion: movement around one point ▪ Circumduction: angular motion describing a circle around one point ▪ Rotation: movement in longitudinal axis Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Synovial joints Movements Linear movements (gliding) - are considered nonaxial because the bones slide past each other and move in several possible directions without the constraint of an axis or axes - the direction of movement depends on the shape of the articulating surfaces at the joint as well as the limitations of the surrounding supportive connective tissues. - between the intercarpal joints of the wrist and hand, the intertarsal joints of the ankle and foot Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Synovial joints Movements Angular movements: movements that change the angle between bones Flexion Extension - the angle between two articulating bones will increase or decrease Lateral flexion - sideways movement: tilt of the head to one side or the other, bending the trunk sideways at the hips Hyperextension - the extension beyond the anatomical position of the joint, shoulder at pitch, hip at running Martini FH, Timmons MJ, Tallitsch RB – Human anatomy, 8th ed, 2015, Pearson Education Arthrology Synovial joints Movements Angular movements: movements that change the angle between bones Abduction Adduction - the motion of a body part related to the midline of the body or the midline of the hand or foot Circumduction - freely moveable distal bone moves around a stationary proximal bone in a cone-shaped motion complex movement that is the sum the flexion-extension + abduction-adduction Martini FH, Timmons MJ, Tallitsch RB – Human anatomy, 8th ed, 2015, Pearson Education ! remember the anatomical position Arthrology Synovial joints Movements Rotational movements - is a nonangular, pivoting motion in which the shaft of the bone rotates around the longitudinal axis Internal (medial) rotation External (lateral) rotation Rotation (the bone turns around itself) ≠ circumduction (the bone moves in a circular or cone-shaped manner) Multiaxial joints such as the hip and shoulder are also able to rotate. Martini FH, Timmons MJ, Tallitsch RB – Human anatomy, 8th ed, 2015, Pearson Education Arthrology Synovial joints Movements Special Movements - apply to specific articulations or unusual types of movement Eversion - is a twisting motion of the foot that turns the sole outward - inversion: the opposite movement, turning the sole inward Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion - dorsiflexion elevates the distal portion of the foot, “digging in the heels” - plantar flexion elevates the heel, “standing on tiptoe” Lateral flexion the vertebral column bends to the side to the left and to the right - most pronounced in the cervical and thoracic regions Protraction - moving a part of the body anteriorly in the horizontal plane - retraction is the reverse movement - jaw, clavicles when the arms cross Opposition - special movement of the thumb that produces pad-to pad contact of the thumb with the palm or any other finger - reposition: reverse of opposition is called Elevation and depression - when a structure moves in a superior or inferior direction - mandible, shoulders Martini FH, Timmons MJ, Tallitsch RB – Human anatomy, 8th ed, 2015, Pearson Education Arthrology Synovial joints Classification based on the shape of their articular surfaces Planar joints - Articulatio plana - allow sliding (gliding) of one bone across the surface of another - acromioclavicular, intercarpal, intertarsal, zygapophyseal, sacro-iliac - nonaxial - slight linear motion, translation Hinge joints - Ginglymus - permit flexion - extension around one transversal axis - elbow - humero-ulnar, knee, ankle, interphalangeal - uniaxial - angular motion Pivot joints – Articulatio trochoidea - allow rotation around longitudinal axis of the shaft of the bone - atlanto-axial joint, proximal radioulnar - uniaxial - rotational movement Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Martini FH, Timmons MJ, Tallitsch RB – Human anatomy, 8th ed, 2015, Pearson Education Arthrology Synovial joints Classification based on the shape of their articular surfaces Specific hinge joints The elbow joint - composed of two separate articulations - humeroulnar + humeroradial joint – hinge joint → extrinsic collateral ligaments reinforce the articular capsule - proximal radioulnar - pivot joint → anular ligament binds the head of the radius to the neck of the ulna to stabilize Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Synovial joints Classification based on the shape of their articular surfaces Specific hinge joints The knee joint ⁃ is functionally a hinge joint that allows flexion and extension ⁃ but when the knee is flexed, it also allows some degree of internal rotation and lateral gliding; ⁃ fully extended, the tibia rotates laterally ⁃ two distinct articulations: tibiofemoral joint (hinge) + patellofemoral joint (planar joint) ⁃ knee “lock out” - in weight-bearing, the knee joints can be locked in extension for long periods of time without causing undue muscle fatigue Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Synovial joints Classification based on the shape of their articular surfaces Bicondylar joints – Articulatio bicondylaris - movement in one axis with rotation around a second axis - 2 convex condyles that articulate with concave or flat surfaces - knee joint, temporomandibular - biaxial - rotation and gliding Condylar (ellipsoid) joints – Articulatio ellipsoidea - movement around 2 axes that are at right angles to each other - permit flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction - wrist joint - biaxial - angular motion Saddle joints – Articulatio sellaris - movement around two axes that are at right angles to each other - the articular surfaces are saddle shaped - permit flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction - carpometacarpal joint of the thumb - biaxial - angular motion Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Martini FH, Timmons MJ, Tallitsch RB – Human anatomy, 8th ed, 2015, Pearson Education Arthrology Synovial joints Classification based on the shape of their articular surfaces Ball and socket joints (spheroidal) - Enarthrosis - the round head of one bone rests within a depression in another bone - movement around multiple axes - permit flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, medial rotation, lateral rotation, circumduction - shoulder, hip - triaxial - angular motion, circumduction, rotation Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Frank H. Netter - Atlas of human anatomy, 6th ed., 2014, Saunders Elsevier Arthrology Basic principles of joint mechanics The range of joint motion - movement of a joint in its anatomical limit Goniometer: is a device that measures an angle The neutral zero method - standardized method for measuring the range of joint motion - anatomical position Joint stability - muscles, ligaments, bones Close packed position - when the joint surface become completely congruent, the area of contact is maximum - capsule and ligaments are maximally tensed, no further movement is possible Constraints on joint motion - bony constraint: the shape of the bony joint members - muscular constraint - ligamentous constraint - soft-tissue constraint Strength versus mobility - a joint cannot be both highly mobile and very strong - the greater the range of motion at a joint, the weaker it becomes - a synarthrosis, the strongest type of joint, does not permit any movement - any mobile diarthrosis may be damaged by movement beyond its normal range of motion Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Basic principles of joint mechanics Dependence of joint load on the size of the force-transmitting surface on the joint load - the larger the force-transmitting surface, the more evenly the force is distributed and the lower the joint pressure, or joint load, per unit area The convex-concave rule describes the sliding motion in dependence of the angular rotation motion - if the convex joint partner moves in an angular direction around the axis of motion, its rotation motion inside the joint is in the opposite direction of the angular motion - if the concave joint partner moves in an angular direction around the axis of motion, its rotational motion inside the joint is in the same direction as the angular motion Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology https://www.zygote.com all specific physiological functions ⟶ anatomical structures connection between structure and function is always present Human body movement: relationship between structure and function of each joint. - Pathology Disease Trauma: joint dislocations, fractures Inflammatory, degenerative joint diseases Arthrology Pathology locations Trauma: joint dislocations, fractures Inflammatory, degenerative joint diseases Schuenke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U - THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, 2nd edition, 2014, Thieme Arthrology Pathology Shoulder dislocation Source: Dr. Incze-Bartha Zsuzsánna Arthrology Pathology Meniscal tears Source: Dr. Incze-Bartha Zsuzsánna Arthrology Pathology Arthrosis hip, knee Source: Dr. Incze-Bartha Zsuzsánna Arthrology Pathology Arthrosis hip, knee Source: Dr. Incze-Bartha Zsuzsánna Arthrology Andreas Vesalius “De humani corporis fabrica libri septem”, 1543 Thank You!