A_P_I_Exam_1_Study_Guide_Answers.docx.pdf

Exam 1 Unit 1 Define anatomy and physiology. -Anatomy: The study of the structures of the body and the relationships between them -Physiology: study of the functions of the body parts (how they work) Be familiar with the levels of...

Exam 1 Unit 1 Define anatomy and physiology. -Anatomy: The study of the structures of the body and the relationships between them -Physiology: study of the functions of the body parts (how they work) Be familiar with the levels of organization and how they relate to one another. -Chemical: Atoms/Molecules, lowest level of organization (DNA, proteins, lipids, carbs) -Cellular(Cytology): Cell may form when chemicals are joined together in different ways. -Tissue(Histology): Group of smaller cells joined together to perform a function. -Organ: Different tissues organized and joined together. -Organ System: Groups of organs forms systems. -Organism: When all systems work together to create a functioning individual. Define homeostasis and explain why it is a central theme to physiology. -Homeostasis: The body’s attempt to maintain a constant environment -The body must operate within a narrow range of temperature and pH. When homeostasis is disturbed, illness, disease, or death can occur. What are the factors in a feedback loop? -Controlled Condition: -Receptor: -Control Center: -Effector: Distinguish between negative and positive feedback loops. -Negative: More common, immediate reversal. Examples: Blood pressure, temperature -Positive: Less common, intensifies/escalates. Examples: Child birth, Blood clotting  Exam 1 Be familiar with the basic functions of each organ system. (Eleven) -Circulatory: Carries oxygen/nutrients to body cells -Digestive: Breaks down food/absorbs nutrients -Endocrine: Maintains homeostasis w/ use of hormones -Integumentary: Protection, senses, temp. regulation -Lymphatic/Immune: Body’s defense against infection, recycling of interstitial fluid, blood cell production -Muscular: Movement, heat protection -Nervous: Controls body activity, regulates metabolism, thoughts -Respiratory: Gas exchange, regulation of pH -Reproductive: Produces gametes (sperm/eggs) -Skeletal: Protection, support, mineral storage -Urinary: Rids wastes, maintains pH, regulates body fluids Know the meaning of the directional terms and planes. Be able to use the terms properly in a sentence. -Frontal(Coronal): Splits the body into anterior and posterior parts -Transverse(horizontal): Splits the body into superior and inferior parts -Sagittal: Splits the body into right and left parts Unit 2 Understand basic atomic structure. -Atom: Smallest stable unit of matter, composed of smaller subatomic particles which include: -Protons: Found in nucleus, positive charge -Neutrons: Found in nucleus, neutral charge -Electrons: orbit the nucleus, negative charge  Exam 1 Be able to define terms such as atomic number, mass number, element, mineral, compound, molecule, isotope, cation, anion, etc. -Atomic number: Number of protons -Mass number: Number of protons + neutrons -Element: A substance that cannot be divided into different/smaller substances, composed of only one type of atom -Mineral: any of a class of substances occurring in nature, usually comprising inorganic substances -Molecule: Combination of two or more atoms (H2O, O2) -Compound: Combination of two or more different atoms (NaCl) -Isotope: Same number of protons and different number of neutrons -Cation: Positive ion (Na+) -Anion: Negative ion (Cl-) Distinguish between ionic, covalent and hydrogen bonds. -Ionic bond: Formed when one atom gives up an electron(s) to another atom (weaker bond than covalent but stronger than hydrogen) -Covalent bond: Formed when atoms share electrons, energy levels overlap, no ions are formed. Single, double, or triple pairs of electrons can be shared, bars are used to show that (H- H, O=O) Strongest bond and will not dissociate in water -Hydrogen bond: Weak attractive force between hydrogen and either oxygen or nitrogen atoms, not strong enough to form a molecule, common in water (forms surface tension), important for shaping molecules(proteins/DNA)  Exam 1 Be familiar with the different types of chemical reactions such as dehydration synthesis, hydrolysis, exchange and reversible reactions. -Chemical Reactions: Process of making/breaking bonds between atoms. Breaking bonds=releases energy, forming bonds=requires energy -Catabolism: Breaking down molecules, releases energy -Anabolism: Building up molecules, requires energy 4 TYPES OF REACTIONS: Decomposition reactions (Hydrolysis), Synthesis reactions (Dehydration synthesis), Exchange reaction, Reversible reactions -Decomposition Reactions: Larger molecules are broken down into smaller molecules. -Hydrolysis (hydro: water, lysis: breaking): Decomposition reaction where water is used to break a single molecule down into two smaller ones. -Synthesis Reactions: assembles smaller molecules into a larger molecule. -Dehydration Synthesis (Condensation): when water is removed to form a larger molecule -Exchange Reaction: atoms are shuffled, decomposition and synthesis reactions are involved -Reversible reactions: Reaction can go back and forth, commonly occur within body to maintain homeostasis List the special characteristics of water and describe the biological importance. A. Great Solvent, many molecules dissociate/dissolve in water B. Takes part in chem. Reactions (Dehydration/hydrolysis), many reactions take place in water C. High heat capacity (can absorb and retain heat), hydrogen bonding in water is what gives it this characteristic D. Great lubricant between organs and bones, little friction between water molecules. Define and understand the application of terms such as polar, hydrophilic, hydrophobic, polar, non polar, polar covalent bonds, non polar covalent bonds, solute, solution, solvent, electrolyte. Give examples of each.  Exam 1 -Polar: Electrons are shared unequally (Water) -Hydrophilic (water soluble): Molecules that mix with water -Hydrophobic (not water soluble): Molecules that do not mix with water -Polar: Electrons are shared unequally -Non Polar: Two atoms share a pair of electrons equally -Polar covalent bonds: type of chemical bond where a pair of electrons is unequally shared between two atoms -Non polar covalent bonds: type of chemical bond where two atoms share a pair of electrons with each other -Solute: Dissolved in the solvent -Solution: liquid mixture in which the solute (minor component) is dissolved in the solvent (major component) -Solvent: able to dissolve other substances -Electrolyte: When an ionic bond is broken in water, the resulting cations and anions are electrolytes. They conduct electricity in solution. (Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) Distinguish between acids and bases. Acids: Any solute that dissociates in solution and releases an H + (hydrogen) ion and an anion Bases: Any solute that dissociates in solution and releases OH- (hydroxide ions) and a cation Be familiar with the pH scale. -A pH of 7 is neutral -Values below 7 is acidic -Values about 7 is basic (alkaline) Define the terms salt, buffer. Buffer: Stabilizes pH by binding or releasing hydrogen ions. Weak acids/bases often act as buffers  Exam 1 Unit 3 List the four major macromolecules found in the body. -Carbs, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids (DNA/RNA) Know the basic structure and building block of a carbohydrate. -Contain: C, H, O (1:2:1 ratio) -Energy Source when bonds are broken Define the term isomer -Isomer: Has the same formula but the structures are different. Body recognizes them as two distinct molecules because their shapes are different. Describe the different types of carbohydrates and their functions in the body. -Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars): BUILDING BLOCKS OF CARBS (3-7 ATOMS) Only monosaccharides can be absorbed and used for energy -Disaccharides: two simple sugars joined together EX. Glucose/fructose join together to form the disaccharide sucrose Soluble in water -Polysaccharides many): monosaccharides + disaccharides linked together (forms long branched/unbranched chains) Ex. Cellulose: Can’t digest but carries fiber (Broccoli) Starch: Plants use as storage; we digest (potatoes) Glycogen: Animals use as energy storage, found in liver and muscle tissue Know the building block and basic structural components of a lipid. Lipid (fat): Long fatty acid tails saturated with hydrogen = nonpolar covalent bond (not soluble in water)  Exam 1 -Carbon: hydrogen ratio is 1:2, very little oxygen found in lipids List the basic structure of various lipids. (FOUR TYPES) Fatty Acids: Long carbon chains with hydrogen atoms attached (hydrocarbon tail) -One end: ALWAYS has COOH (Carboxyl group) Portion will associate with water (hydrocarbon tail is hydrophilic) a. Saturated fatty acid: NO double covalent bonds w/ carbons, solids at room temp, bad for body b. Unsaturated fatty acid: HAVE double covalent bonds w/ carbons, liquid at room temp, hearty healthy Glycerides: Made up of fatty acid chains attached to glycerol (molecule with three Cs) -Energy Reserves, insulation, protection -Fatty Acids are attached to glycerol at carboxyl ends by dehydration synthesis and are separated by hydrolysis Phospholipids (cell membrane: phospholipid bilayer): Phosphate group (PO43-) links a diglyceride to a non-lipid group (usually contains N) -Long hydrocarbon tails: Hydrophobic; Non-Lipid tails: Hydrophilic Steroids: Made from cholesterol base (3 6-C ring and 1 5-C ring) -Animal cell membranes: have cholesterol within phospholipid bilayer, helps stabilize membrane -Hormones are synthesized from cholesterol (estrogen/testosterone) -Liver makes all cholesterol required for body Describe the different types of lipids and their roles/locations within the body.  Exam 1 Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated fats. -Saturated: NO double covalent bonds, solids at room temp, animal sources, bad cholesterol -Unsaturated: HAVE double covalent bonds, liquid at room temp, plant source(oils), good cholesterol What is the basic building block of a protein? -Amino Acids List the various functions of proteins in the body. -Support: Collagen, Elastin -Movement: Actin + Myosin -Transport: HDL/LDL (transports fats), hemoglobin (Oxygen) Explain how an enzyme functions. -Speed up chemical reactions -Stays the same throughout (unaltered) -Can repeat constantly *Describe the process of protein folding. Be sure to include what is responsible for the formation of the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures. Primary: Sequence of amino acids along amino acid chain (DNA DETERMINES THE SEQUENCE)  Exam 1 Secondary: results from H bonding along amino acid chain. -Depending on sequence of amino acids, different shapes are formed: Alpha-helix: A spiral Pleated sheet: flat pleated sections Tertiary: Complex coiling that gives proteins final shape (R-group/water play role in determining structure) Quaternary Structure: Two or more protein molecules (Tertiary Structures) interacting wo form a protein complex. -Globular proteins: rounded/compact; soluble in water -Fibrous proteins: Sheets/strands; very tough; (generally) not soluble in water (collagen) What happens of a protein does not fold properly? What if it is not in its optimal environment? -Protein may not be able to carry out its job. Functioning of protein may be altered, can mess up ionic composition, pH, and temperature. What is the building block of nucleic acids? -Nucleotide Distinguish between DNA and RNA. -See chart on pg. 20 What are the 3 different types of RNA? Describe the role of each in protein synthesis. -mRNA: Messenger, copy of a gene -rRNA: Ribosomal, forms the ribosome, site of protein synthesis -tRNA: Transfer, brings the amino acid to the ribosome Describe the structure, function and production of ATP. ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate -Nitrogenous base adenine, a sugar (ribose), 3 phosphate groups  Exam 1 -Transported where it is needed within cell, phosphate bond is broken to release energy Unit 4 Be able to describe the steps of protein synthesis: gene activation, transcription and translation. -Gene Activation, Transcription and Translation (pg. 22-24) Explain the importance of histone, promoter sequence, RNA polymerase, codon, anticodon, stop codon, template strand, coding strand, ribosome, etc. -Histone: Protein that DNA is wound around (keeps DNA inactive, must be uncoiled from histone to code for a protein) -Promoter sequence: beginning of the gene that the histone is removed from -PNA polymerase: binds to the promoter and copies the DNA. Makes new strand of mRNA (transcription) -Codon: Sequence of every three nucleotides -Anticodon: Binds to the appropriate mRNA codon, anticodon on tRNA codes for a specific amino acid -Stop Codon (UAA): Ribosomal subunits detach, protein takes on secondary/tertiary structures, tRNA is reused. Template Strand: RNA polymerase attaches to, makes a complementary copy that exactly matches the coding strand (uracil[U] replaces thymine[T]) Coding strand: Same base sequence as the RNA transcript produced Ribosome: Particle consisting of RNA and associated proteins Match the complementary base pairs. T-A, C-G, G-C, A-T(U) Unit 5  Exam 1 Describe the catabolism of glucose in 4 steps. 1. Glycolysis (10 Reactions): Anaerobic, Incomplete oxidation (removal of H) of glucose 2. Formation of acetyl coenzyme A (Occurs in mitochondria): 2 pyruvic acids formed, if O2 NOT available, pyruvic acid will convert to lactic acid 3. Citric Acid Cycle (Occurs in mitochondrial matrix): Oxidation of acetyl CoA to CO 2 4. Electron Transport Chain: Series of reactions to form ATP Be able to put the steps in the correct order. *Know which of the 4 steps are anaerobic and which are aerobic. -Glycolysis/Formation of acetyl CoA: Anaerobic -CAC(Krebs Cycle)/Electron Transport Chain: Areobic Memorize the equations presented in class and/or the products of each step. Know which steps occur on the cytosol and which occur in the mitochondria. Explain the significance of NAD. When is NAD an electron acceptor verses an electron donor? -NAD: Co-Enzyme, electron acceptor -stores energy from glucose -Electron acceptor in steps 1-3 and in step 4 is a donor to help get rid of H + Know the fate of each carbon atom in the glucose molecule as glucose is systematically broken down.  Exam 1 Give examples of circumstances that would require a cell to function anaerobically. -Red Blood Cells have no mitochondria -Strenuous exercise: Can’t supply O2 fast enough to meet energy demands Lipids and protein can also be used as an energy source. Where do the catabolites of these molecules enter the cycle described for the catabolism of glucose? Lipids: Lipolysis- catabolism of triglycerides -Fatty acids are converted to acetyl CoA, enters cycle, undergoes oxidation to generate ATP Protein: Proteases digest amino acids and the C chain from amino acid is converted to acetyl CoA