BSO-07 Sociology of Gender PDF

BSO-07/OSOU  BSO-07/OSOU BSO-07: Sociology of Gender Brief Contents Block Block Unit Unit No No...

BSO-07/OSOU  BSO-07/OSOU BSO-07: Sociology of Gender Brief Contents Block Block Unit Unit No No 1 Gender as a Social Construct 1 2 Gender Vs. Sex Social Construction of 3 Gender Stereotyping and Gender Socialization 4 Gender Role and Identity Block Block Unit Unit No No 5 Meaning and Definitions 6 Origin, Growth of Feminism, Waves of Feminism 2 Feminism 7 Patriarchy 8 Theories of Feminism-Liberal, Radical, Socialist, Marxist, Materialist Block Block Unit Unit No No 9 Approaches-WAD, WID and GAD 10 Gender mainstreaming: 3 Meaning, Policies and Gender and Development Programmes 11 Gender Development Index 12 Women Empowerment: Meaning and Dimensions: Political, Economic and Social Block Block Unit Unit No No 13 Status of Women in Ancient Period Women in India through 14 Medieval Period 4 Ages 15 Women in Pre-independence India 16 Women in Contemporary Indian Society  BSO-07/OSOU ODISHA STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY, SAMBALPUR Programme Name: Bachelor of Arts (Hons) in Sociology Programme Code: BASO Course Name: Sociology of Gender Course Code: BSO-07 Semester: III Credit: 6 Block No. 1 to 4 Unit No. 1 to 16 Pages: 1 to 169 This study material has been developed by Odisha State Open University as per the State model syllabus for Undergraduate course in Sociology (Bachelor of Arts Examination) under Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) COURSE WRITERS Dr. Tanu Tandon Dr. Kapila Khemundu Dr. Sayantani Behura Professor & Director, Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor, GITAM Deemed University Central University of Odisha RD Women’s University Dr. Santosh Naik R Ms. Madhusmita Sahoo Dr. Roma Dash Assistant Professor, Assistant Director (Research) Lecture in Sociology, Karnataka State Open University SCSTRTI, Govt. of Odisha Ranapur Degree College, Mr. Tapan Sahoo Ms. Damayanti Hial Academic Consultant, OSOU Academic Consultant, OSOU OER OER Source- e-PG Pathshala’ Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University, Guwahati COURSE EDITORS Mr. Pratap Kishore Mohanty Mr. Tapan Sahoo Academic Consultant, OSOU Academic Consultant, OSOU Ms. Damayanti Hial Academic Consultant, OSOU PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY Registrar Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur (cc) OSOU, 2022. Sociology of Gender is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 http://creativecommons.org/licences/by-sa/4.0 Printed by:  BSO-07/OSOU BSO-07: SOCIOLOGY OF GENDER Contents Block/Unit Pg. No BLOCK-1: SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER 1-33 UNIT-1: Gender as a Social Construct: Introduction, Social Construction of Gender, Gender Vs. Biology, What is Gender, Theories on Gender. UNIT-2: Gender Vs Sex: Introduction, Understand the debate on Gender Vs Sex, Conceptualize difference between Gender and Sex. UNIT-3: Gender Stereotyping and Socialization: Introduction, Gender as a Conception, Idea of Gender Difference, Gender Stereotypes, Gender Socialization. UNIT-4: Gender Role and Identity: Introduction, Gender Role, Gender Role Attitude, Gender Identity, Forms of Gender Identity, How is gender identities different from Gender Roles. BLOCK-2: FEMINISM 35-82 UNIT-5: Meaning and Definition: Introduction, Meaning, Definition, Types of Feminism, Liberal, Radical, Marxist, Socialist, Ecofeminism, Black Feminism, Postmodern Feminism, New Feminism. UNIT-6: Origin, Growth of Feminism, Waves of Feminism: Introduction, Origin of Feminism, Western Feminism, Indian Feminism, Waves of Feminism, Liberal Feminism, Radical Feminism, New-age Feminism. UNIT-7: Patriarchy: Introduction, Meaning of Patriarchy, Historical Background of Patriarchy, Capitalist Patriarchy, Impact of Patriarchy. UNIT-8: Theories of Feminism-Liberal, Radical, Socialist, Marxist, Materialist: Introduction, Meaning of Feminist Theory, History of Feminist Theory, Distinct Feminist Theory, Liberal Feminism, Radical Feminism, Socialist Feminism, Marxist Feminism, Materialist Feminism.  BSO-07/OSOU BLOCK-3: GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT 84-124 UNIT-9: Approaches-WAD, WID and GAD: The different approaches to gender and development, WAD, WID, GAD. UNIT-10: Gender mainstreaming: Meaning, Policies and Programmes: Introduction, Emergence of Gender issues and Gender Mainstreaming, Meaning of Gender Mainstreaming, Importance of Gender Mainstreaming, Gender Mainstreaming and Empowerment Approach, Gender Mainstreaming Policies and Programmes, Challenges to Gender Mainstreaming. UNIT-11: Gender Development Index: Introduction, The concept of GDI, Measures of GDI, Calculation of GDI, Gender Development Index Groups. UNIT-12: Women Empowerment: Meaning and Dimensions: Political, Economic and Social: Introduction, Meaning and Need for Women Empowerment, Principle of Women Empowerment, Importance of Women Empowerment, Challenges to Women Empowerment, Legal Provisions for women in India, Dimension of Women Empowerment. BLOCK-4: WOMEN IN INDIA THROUGH AGES 126-169 UNIT-13: Status of Women in Ancient Period: Introduction, Women’s lives during Indus Valley Civilization, Women during the Upanishads Period, Evidence from Epics on the Status of Women in India, Status of Women during the Rig Vedic Period, Women during the later Vedic Period, Women during Gupta Dynasty, Women during Maurya Empire, Women under Matrilineal System, Contribution of Indian Women down the Ages. UNIT-14: Medieval Period: Introduction, Social Status of Women in Mediaeval India, Women’s Education in Mediaeval India, Women in Politics and Governance in Mediaeval India, Women’s Economics Status in Mediaeval India, Women and Religion in Mediaeval India. UNIT-15: Women in Pre-independence India: Introduction, Women in Pre- Vedic Period, Women in Vedic Literature, Historical References to Women in Early Medieval Period, Women in Medieval India, Roles and Challenges faced  BSO-07/OSOU by women, Struggles faced by women in India before Independence, Changing role of Women in India. UNIT-16: Women in Contemporary Indian Society: Introduction, Women during the 19th Century, Position of Women in Twenty-first Century, India, The Present Position of Women in Indian Society, Changing role of Women in India.  BSO-07/OSOU Block-1 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER Unit-1: Gender as a Social Construct Unit-2: Gender Vs Sex Unit-3: Gender Stereotyping and Socialization Unit-4: Gender Role and Identity  BSO-07/OSOU UNIT-1 GENDER AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCT Structure 1.1 Learning Objectives 1.2 Introduction 1.3 Social Construction of Gender 1.4 Gender Vs. Biology 1.5 What is Gender 1.6 Theories on Gender 1.7 Let Us Sum Up 1.8 Check Your Progress 1.9 References 1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be able to – Understand the concept gender. Understand Gender as a social construct. Differentiate between gender vs. biology 1.2 INTRODUCTION An overview of how gender is socially created is provided in this unit. It explores how the scientific foundation for sex differences does not account for the sex groups in society experience disparities. Depending on the social rules governing sex affiliations, there are significant differences in the duties, obligations, rights, and relationships between sex groupings in society. Men's and women's disparities, inequality, and the division of work are sometimes only seen as the inevitable results of "natural" distinctions between male and female beings. However, in actuality, the social norms, institutions, and societal expectations have a big influence on how each sex group behaves. Gender is a social construct, then. 1.3 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER The differences between men and women are more sociological than biological. This viewpoint on the subject is supposed to be conveyed through the conceptual distinction between "sex" and "gender." Gender has emerged as a significant sociological issue as a result of feminism. Page | 1  BSO-07/OSOU Simone de Beauvoir argued that "one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman" in her feminist classic The Second Sex, challenging the assumptions underpinning such formulations. There is now widespread agreement, at least among social scientists, that differences between men and women are more sociological than innate. This demonstrates that gender is a social construct and not the result of biological differences. There is a conceptual distinction between ‘sex’ and ‘gender’. They are not one and the same. One of the first to objectively root the contrast between the biological and social traits of men and women was American anthropologist Margaret Mead. She accomplished this in a pretty dramatic way by researching how the Arapesh, Mundugamor, and Tchambuli communities in the New Guinea Islands saw masculinity and gender. She asserted, based on this study, that femininity is frequently associated with nurturing, whereas aggressiveness is frequently associated with masculine. This correlation between qualities and biological sex is not inherent. Mead's research has a profound impact on how gender was conceptualized in the second half of the 20th century. The concept of "sex's" universality and "gender's" diversity serve as the foundation for the distinction between "sex" and "gender," which started to dominate theorization in the sociology of gender in the 1970s. Sociology became particularly receptive to the sex-gender difference thanks to Ann Oakley's Sex, Gender and Society (1972). According to Oakley, the term "sex" refers to the biological distinctions between males and females, including their distinct genitalia and other reproductive organs. However, "gender" refers to the social division into "masculine" and "feminine" and is a cultural issue. 1.4 GENDER VS. BIOLOGY On the subject of sex and gender connection, biologists and sociologists frequently disagree. The biological basis for gender differences is frequently cited by biologists. For them, the physical differences between males and females are defined by main sex traits and secondary sex characteristics. Males grow more muscles, a lower voice, and more body hair, while girls develop breasts, more fatty tissue, and wider hips throughout puberty, further defining the distinctions between males and females. Additionally, sex is inherited, according to scientists (fertilization decides our sex). Additionally, socialization and social institutions do little more than reflect and, on sometimes, amplify predispositions. Males and females exhibit distinct actions and attitudes as a result of biology. Therefore, gender has a biological basis. Page | 2  BSO-07/OSOU The biological viewpoint advances the claim that there are certain innate differences between men and women's physical, cognitive, and emotional make-up, and that these differences are mirrored in how each group views themselves and the world around them, as well as how they interact with others and go about their daily lives. The following are the main physical and biological distinctions between the gender groups: Genetic difference – girls “XX”, boys “XY” Hormonal difference – testosterone (aggression) and androgen are higher in males while estrogen is higher among females. Gonadal difference – Ovaries in females and testes in males Genital difference – penis/clitoris Reproductive difference – women are loaded with reproductive capacity by nature. According to biology, there are some key distinctions between males and females in their cognitive and emotional makeup: Musculature – women are physically weaker than men. Brain function –Women are more verbal, whereas men are action oriented. Style – women are more diplomatic; men are more direct. Affection – women are more sympathetic, caring and affectionate, while men are straight, task oriented. There is a persistent misconception that sex differences in biology are the cause of the persistent variations in aptitudes and dispositions between males and girls. According to reports, men are more aggressive than women because they have greater quantities of testosterone. Men are also said to be more rational since their left brains predominate, while women are said to be more emotional because of their lower levels of brain lateralization. On the other hand, sociologists contend that gender is acquired via socialisation. Every culture claims the attitudes and practises that are suitable for one's sex. Gender has social relevance since it is a tool used by society to govern its citizens. Sociologists affirm that social structures—rather than biological factors—determine the sorts of labour that men and women perform in each community. Some human conduct is "caused" by biology, but these "causes" have to do with reproduction or physical distinctions. According to sociologists, gender identity and gender roles are more shaped by nurture. In a society, gender identity and gender roles are created and maintained through conventional knowledge and culture. Gender socialisation is Page | 3  BSO-07/OSOU greatly influenced by the people around us, who teach us gender appropriate actions. Whatever differences there may be at birth, culture accentuates them. diverse cultures place diverse gender-related ideals and expectations. However, it may be argued that biology and social work hand in hand in determining gender disparities. This is thus because sociology impacts a person's life outlook, behaviours, and possibilities whereas sociology determines the intrinsic distinctions (such as physical traits that distinguish human beings, such as various hormones that influence their emotions). How closely a mom is to her kid serves as an illustration of this. Since she bears the kid for nine months, the woman is more emotionally connected to the child than the father and naturally assumes a more nurturing role. The woman has the capacity to give birth to a child (which is a function allocated to us by biology). The child's future interactions with each parent and the paths they pursue in life are, however, influenced by gender socialisation in society. Our behavioural manifestations are guided by socialisation, which teaches us what is expected of each sex group in society. 1.5 WHAT IS GENDER The socially constructed roles and relationships between men and women are referred to as gender. The social characteristics, opportunities, and interactions between men and women, as well as between boys and girls, are referred to as aspects of gender boys. These characteristics, possibilities, and connections are socially produced and acquired through socialisation processes. They are context- and time-specific, flexible, and changeable. Gender essentially describes the distinctions between men and women. Gender is a socially created analytical category used to distinguish between the biological men and women are different from one other. Additionally, "masculine" and "feminine" are phrases used to describe how men and women behave differently from one another. Focusing on this, feminist literature argues that rather than being biological, these disparities are social constructions of patriarchal culture. According to certain ideas, men and women differ physiologically from one another, which also has an impact on how they think and seem. They claim that on a biological basis, men are superior to women in terms of strength of body and mind. There may not be as many biological distinctions between men and women as there formerly were, according to certain views. The differences are created socially by the patriarchal social structure, in which men are Page | 4  BSO-07/OSOU valued above women. As a result, women in society are treated as inferior to men. The FAO defines gender as "the relations, both perceptual and material, between men and women." Gender is socially formed rather than defined by biology. It is the fundamental organising force of communities and frequently determines how things are produced and reproduced, consumed, and distributed. Gender issues center on women and how men and women interact, as well as on their roles, control over and access to resources, division of labour, and demands and interests. Gender relations impact a variety of facets of life, including planning, production, planning, family well-being, and many more. The larger socio-cultural backdrop includes gender. The concept of gender is examined by Ann Oakley in her 1972 book Sex, Gender, and Society. The author describes "gender" as a cultural construct. It alludes to the division of genders into masculine and feminine roles in society. There is no biological basis for gender. According to Oakley, women often perform the roles of "housewife" and "mother" in Western civilization. This is due to the biological predisposition of women to fill certain jobs. The western worldview also holds that any attempt to alter the traditional roles of men and women in society risks weakening the fabric of society. Gender is not something we possess or are born with; rather, it is something we do (West and Zimmerman, 1987; Butler, 1990). 1.6 THEORIES ON GENDER On gender, there are four main sociological ideas. They are the Feminist Theory, Conflict Theory, Symbolic Interaction Theory, and Functionalist Theory. According to functionalist thinkers, males play important roles in society while women play more expressive ones. This is advantageous for society as a whole. The requirement for leadership and work completion are examples of instrumental roles, whereas the need for cohesiveness and morale are examples of expressive ones. Furthermore, the main cause of gender inequity is our socialisation into predetermined roles. Theorists of symbolic interaction investigate gender stratification on a daily basis and view it from a micro viewpoint. Men are more prone than women to interrupt each other during talks and at work, which often indicates that men have more influence. These theorists also emphasize how both men and women internalize gender roles. Page | 5  BSO-07/OSOU Conflict Theory: Due to power disparities that are ingrained in the societal structure between men and women, conflict theorists see women as being at a disadvantage. For instance, according to this perspective, salary disparities between men and women are the outcome of men's historical ability to minimise the value of women's employment and gain collectively from the benefits that women's labour delivers. Feminist Theory: The women's movement gave rise to feminist theory, which seeks to comprehend how women are treated unfairly in order to elevate their status in society. Liberal feminism, socialist feminism, radical feminism, and multiracial feminism are the four main frameworks that emerged from feminist philosophy. 1.7 LET US SUM UP Let us by summing up, we will attempt to understand two main perspectives on the subjects of gender and sex through biological and sociological points of view. According to legend, the term "gender" first entered popular culture in the early 1970s. It served as a dividing line between biological sex differences and how they are applied to influence behaviours and abilities that are then classified as either masculine or feminine. On the other hand, sex is a biological categorization based on reproductive potential and gender is the social elaboration of biological sex. In this regard, the word "sex" has two meanings, as noted by Oakley (1972). It first refers to the traits that distinguish males from females, and it then describes the kind of behaviour—mating behaviour—that kicks off sexual reproduction. As people interact with socializational agents like their family, social networks, and other social institutions, they create, fine-tune, and learn to do gender through internalising gender norms and roles. In the context of gender socialisation, it is also important to analyse gender role and its main factors which shape the gender role in a society. Gender roles are socially determined and influenced by social, culture and environmental factors which are different from society to society, culture to culture and time to time. 1.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Describe gender as a social construct. What is Gender? Write a short note on Gender Vs. Biology. Page | 6  BSO-07/OSOU 1.9 REFERENCES Bhasin, Kamala (2003): Understanding Gender, Kali for Women. Holmes, Mary (2007): What is Gender? Sociological Approaches, Sage Publication. Jackson, Stevi, Scott, Sue (2002), Gender: A Sociological Reader, Routledge Butler, J, (2004) Undoing Gender, Routledge Evans, Mary.( 2003) Gender and Social Theory Open University Press Beauvoir, Simone De. (1956). The Second Sex. Jonathan Cape, Thirty Beford Square: London. Bhasin, Kamla, (2000). Understanding Gender. Kali for Women: New Delhi. Butler, J. (2004). Undoing Gender. Routledge. London. Butler, J (1999). Gender Trouble: Feminist and Subversion of Identity. Routledge: London. Firestone, Shulamith (1970). The Dialectic of Sex: The Case of Feminist Revolution. The Women’s Press: London. Lehrke, Robert G. (1972). ‘A Theory of X- linkage of Major Intellectual Trails’. American Journal of Mental Deficiency. (76)611-19. Lippa, Richard A. (2002). Gender, Nature and Nurture. Lawrence Eribaum Associates Publisher: London. Oakley, Ann, (1972). Sex, Gender and Society. Mourice Temple Smith Limited: The University of Michigan. Pilcher, J and Whelehan, Imelda, (2004). Fifty Key Concepts in Gender Studies. Sage Publication. London. Sterling, Anne Fausto. (1992). Myths of Gender: Biological Theories about Women and Men. Basic Book. Page | 7  BSO-07/OSOU UNIT-2: GENDER VS SEX Structure 2.1 Learning Objectives 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Understand the debate on Gender Vs Sex 2.4 Conceptualise difference between Gender and Sex 2.5 Let Us Sum Up 2.6 Glossary 2.7 Check Your Progress 2.8 References 2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be able to- Understand the debate on Gender Vs Biology Conceptualize the difference between Gender and Sex 2.2 INTRODUCTION Under this, we shall try to understand two main perspectives on the subjects of gender and sex through biological and sociological points of view. As it has been highlighted that Gender as a concept came into a common parlance during the early 1970s.The distinction between biological sex differences was made using the concept of gender as an analytical category. They are intended to be used to guide behaviours and competences among them before they are awarded the status of either being "masculine" or "feminine" (Wheleham and Pilcher 2004). Gender has become a prominent sociological concept due to the impact of feminist scholars. In this regard, we shall attempt to focus on the difference between gender and sex through sociological and biological standpoint. We shall also tend to comprehend how gender differences in society are constructed through social norms, values and practices. To understand it clearly, first, we need to make distinction between gender and sex here. "Gender refers to the socio-cultural notion of man and woman," claims Basin (2000). According to her, societies give social duties to men and women and make distinctions between the two. Gender is utilised in this context as an analytical tool to comprehend social facts pertaining to women Page | 8  BSO-07/OSOU and men. Gender copes with the psychological, social and cultural differences between males and females whereas sex refers to physical differences of the body. It is often said that if the sex of a person is biologically determined, the gender of the person is culturally and socially constructed in society. In view of the above, it has become clear that gender is socially constructed phenomenon while sex is biologically/naturally one. 2.3 UNDERSTAND THE DEBATE ON GENDER VS SEX After introducing the theme of the unit, now we shall tend to understand the debate on the subject of gender and sex through two significant disciplines which are biology and sociology. Both are having the different viewpoints on the subject as far as the concepts of gender and sex are concerned. It is viewed that gender differences are determined by biology. According to biologists, males and females have some inborn distinctions, and as a result, we may be born masculine or feminine. In this approach, physical characteristics clearly provide the biological basis of sex differences. Men generate sperm, whereas women create ova. Men do not menstruate or have cyclical menstrual cycles. Men do not give birth or lactate, whereas women do. Men's bodies create more androgens, whereas women's bodies produce more oestrogens (female hormones) (male hormones). Further, we may state that women are physically differences from men. Biologists also view that females and males have different behaviours and attitudes and they behave accordingly. To understand this argument in a comprehensive manner, we need to analyse Ann Oakley and Robert Lehrke’s views on the biological determination of the sex. According to Oakley (1972), both male and female contribute genetic materials in the reproduction but only one of them that is male determines the sex of the child. She further explains that chromosome which is present in the sperm of a male is the deciding factor for a new baby. It is in this regard that the sperm of male will decide whether the new baby will be male or female. By explaining it further, she clarifies that the cells of the female ovary and male testis play significant part for the reproduction process. In the view of the above explanation, each male and female contain of twenty-three chromosomes in which all the genetic information for the child is coded (ibid, 18). Similarly, Sterling (1972) elaborates Robert Lehrke’s article “A Theory of X-Linkage of Major Intellectual Traits’’ which was published in the American Journal of Mental Deficiency in 1972. She states that according to Lehrke, males and females differ genetically. By taking the idea of Lehrke, she writes that in humans, a person's sex is genetically predetermined. Humans contain (23 pairs) of chromosomes, of which (22 pairs) are known as autosomes and Page | 9  BSO-07/OSOU (one pair) is the sex chromosome, which primarily participates in the process of determining sex. As a result, both men and women have two sets of sex chromosomes. In contrast to females, who only have one active X (XX) sex chromosome, males have one active X and one active Y (XY) sex chromosome each. According to this claim, the XY sex determination mechanism can be found in humans, mammals, some insects, and a small number of plant species. It is also claimed that every child, boy or girl, receives an X chromosome from the mother. As a result, the chromosomal types acquired from the father will decide the sex of the children. A male will be born if the Y chromosome is inherited, and a girl will be born if the X chromosome is inherited. According to Sterling (1992), deciding whether someone is a male or female is societal choice. The battle between sexes is ancient and its origin lies hidden deep in our genes. On the other hand, Sociologists view that society play very significant role in determining the gender role. According to MacIver and Page, “society is a web of social relationships which are always changing”. On the other hand, Hobhouse (1908) views that society is “tissues of social relationship”. In the context of society, it is very significant to understand the important of culture which plays very important part to socialise an individual. As we know that culture varies from society to society. It is stated that culture and biology are in contradiction. In reality, anthropologists refer to culture as a collective noun for the symbolic and learned, non- biological features of human society, such as language, tradition, and convention that set humans apart from other primates in terms of behaviour. Human behaviour is viewed as culturally determined rather than genetically or biologically determined in this way. In other words, culture is a mode of behaviour and the pattern of life through which an individual leans various roles and activities in a society. Sociologically speaking, gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes which are given to men and females to behave in a society. Gender emphasises that masculinity and femininity are the product of social, cultural and psychological factors which are acquired by a person in the process of becoming a man or a woman. In this sense, gender is widely used to denote those ways in which a culture reformulates what begins as a fact of nature. 2.4 CONCEPTUALISE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GENDER AND SEX After the discussion about the debate on gender Vs biology, now we shall try to understand the difference between two concepts which are gender and sex. Both gender and sex are Page | 10  BSO-07/OSOU conceptually distinct from each other. Even both are often used interchangeably in sociology. Typically, the term "gender" is employed in social and cultural contexts while the term sex is actually used to refer to biological connotation. Gender mainly deals with differences, hierarchies, inequalities, status, ordering and ranking between the two sexes-biological male and biological female. Gender is used as a conceptual tool to describe the structural relationship of social inequalities which take place between a boy and a girl in a society. In this sense, sex and gender are commonly used to differentiate between woman and man where the former is biological and physiological aspects of human body and the latter is sociological and cultural aspects of society as a social system. Sex is a biological categorisation based on reproductive potential and gender is the social elaboration of biological sex. On the other hand, Oakley (1972) notes that the word "sex" actually has two meanings. First, it describes the distinctions that separate males and females, and second, it describes the kind of behaviour—mating behaviour—that kicks off sexual reproduction. Kamla Basin (2000) writes that gender is used in sociology as a conceptual category which has a very specific meaning to it. Gender primarily refers to the socio-cultural definition of men and women. It is in the sense that the way society has differentiated men and women and assign them social roles to perform. It is used as an analytical tool to understand social realities regarding men women in society. In addition, she makes distinction between gender and sex by mentioning that for centuries it is thought that the various traits, obligations, and social standing accorded to women and men in society are defined by biology (sex), which is inherent and immutable. She believed that women's bodies were and still are blamed for their inferior standing in a society. Once it is considered as normal, societal injustice and gender inequality won't need to be addressed. Gender is not something we have or are born with; rather, it is something we do (West and Zimmerman, 1987). (Butler 1990). As we know that everyone is born male or female and the sex of the person is determined by looking at our genitalia. Now, we will be understanding the difference between gender and sex which has been discussed by Basin (2000:2) as follows: Gender as a social construct It is socio-cultural and it is known as man-made. It is socio-cultural and it deals with qualities of masculine and feminine, behaviour patterns, roles and responsibilities, etc. Page | 11  BSO-07/OSOU It is a variable which changes from time to time, culture to culture even family to family. It is changeable. It is socially created identity. There are two genders- masculine and feminine. Sex is biologically determined It is a natural phenomenon. It is biologically defined. It also addresses the obvious variations in genitalia and associated variations in procreative function. It never changes. Wherever it stays the same. It is unchangeable. It is ascribed identity. There are two sexes- male and female. Despite the above differences between gender and sex, it is important to mention the views of Ann Oakley who has explored the concept of gender in her masterpiece book “Sex, Gender and Society” which was published in 1972. She is a British sociologist, feminist and writer. She asserts that "gender is a cultural construct; it refers to the societal division of men and women into masculine and feminine roles. She believes that sex and gender are not at all naturally connected and that gender has no biological basis. According to Oakley, women in western society often fulfil the roles of "housewife" and "mother." This is due to the biological predisposition of women to fill certain jobs. The western worldview holds that any attempt to alter the established roles of men and women in society risks tearing apart the social fabric. On the other hand, Simone de Beauvoir, a French feminist, wrote her book ‘The Second Sex’ which was published in 1956. In this book, she makes the powerful statement about a woman by stating that “one is not born but rather becomes a woman”. She also believes that because of the social disparities between men and women, men are superior since they provide for their families. That puts him in a stronger position to rule over women in the home and society. Gender differences are set up in a hierarchical opposition in this way, with the masculine principle always favouring the social norm and the feminine principle taking the role of the Other. Due to this structure, society was completely dominated by men, making women permanent outsiders. The book ‘The Dialectic of Sex’ by Firestone (1970) is one of the significant works in the field Page | 12  BSO-07/OSOU of gender studies. She is a Canadian-American Radical Feminist. In her book, she points out that patriarchy takes advantage of women's inherent biological propensity for procreation. The only way for women to escape oppression is by using modern technology to relieve themselves of the burden of delivery. She also supports dissolving the biological connection between mothers and their offspring and building communes where monogamy and the nuclear family are no longer norms. Butler (1999) emphasises the dichotomous thinking primarily in connection to the distinction between gender and sex in her book "Gender Trouble." She is a third-wave feminist writer from the United States. Butler largely adheres to the post structuralist philosophy, which holds that the discussive, such as culture, embodiment, and gender, are interconnected with the material, such as nature, the body, and sex. She makes a crucial point when she claims that the concept of sex is socially constructed because of how culture's values and customs interact with biology to affect how bodies are classified as male or female. However, in her opinion, gender must be seen as more than just the culture's imposition of meaning on a pre-determined sex. Gender must also refer to the system of production that gives rise to the sexes themselves. Finally, gender is not to the culture as sex is to nature. 'Sexed nature', or natural sex, is formed and established as pre-discussive antecedent to culture through gender discussion and cultural meaning (referred in Whelehan and Pilcher, 2004). 2.5 LET US SUM UP Let us by summing up, we will attempt to understand two main perspectives on the subjects of gender and sex through biological and sociological points of view. According to legend, the term "gender" first entered popular culture in the early 1970s. It served as a dividing line between biological sex differences and how they are applied to influence behaviours and abilities that are then classified as either masculine or feminine. On the other hand, sex is a biological categorisation based on reproductive potential and gender is the social elaboration of biological sex. In this regard, the word "sex" has two meanings, as noted by Oakley (1972). It first refers to the traits that distinguish males from females, and it then describes the kind of behaviour—mating behaviour—that kicks off sexual reproduction. As people interact with socializational agents like their family, social networks, and other social institutions, they create, fine-tune, and learn to do gender through internalising gender norms and roles. In the context of gender socialisation, it is also important to analyse gender role and Page | 13  BSO-07/OSOU its main factors which shape the gender role in a society. Gender roles are socially determined and influenced by social, culture and environmental factors which are different from society to society, culture to culture and time to time. 2.6 GLOSSARY Gender-gender refers to the socio-cultural definition of men and women. It is socially created phenomenon. It is a sociological concept that deals with differences, hierarchies, inequalities, status, ordering and ranking between the two sexes-biological male and biological female. Sex- The biological and physiological distinctions between males and females are referred to as sex. Depending on their sex, new-born babies are given the labels "boy" or "girl" at birth. There are two sexes-male and female. Gender Socialisation – In internalising gender norms and roles as they interact with socializational agents like their family, social networks, and other social institutions, people grow, fine-tune, and learn to do their gender. This process is known as gender socialisation. Gender Role- The term "gender role" refers to the responsibilities or roles assigned to men and women based on their respective genders. Gender roles also deal with how we should act, speak, dress, groom, and conduct ourselves according to the sex to which we are allocated. 2.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. What is Gender? 2. What is Sex? 3. What are the Difference between Sex and Gender? 2.8 REFERENCES Beauvoir, Simone De. (1956). The Second Sex. Jonathan Cape, Thirty Beford Square: London. Bhasin, Kamla, (2000). Understanding Gender. Kali for Women: New Delhi. Butler, J. (2004). Undoing Gender. Routledge. London. Page | 14  BSO-07/OSOU Butler, J (1999). Gender Trouble: Feminist and Subversion of Identity. Routledge: London. Firestone, Shulamith (1970). The Dialectic of Sex: The Case of Feminist Revolution. The Women’s Press: London. Lehrke, Robert G. (1972). ‘A Theory of X- linkage of Major Intellectual Trails’. American Journal of Mental Deficiency. (76)611-19. Lippa, Richard A. (2002). Gender, Nature and Nurture. Lawrence Eribaum Associates Publisher: London. Oakley, Ann, (1972). Sex, Gender and Society. Mourice Temple Smith Limited: The University of Michigan. Pilcher, J and Whelehan, Imelda, (2004). Fifty Key Concepts in Gender Studies. Sage Publication. London. Sterling, Anne Fausto. (1992). Myths of Gender: Biological Theories about Women and Men. Basic Book. Page | 15  BSO-07/OSOU UNIT-3: GENDER STEREOTYPING AND SOCIALIZATION Structure 3.1 Learning Objectives 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Gender as a conception 3.4 Idea of Gender Differences 3.5 Gender Stereotypes 3.6 Gender Socialization 3.7 Let Us Sum Up 3.8 Glossary 3.9 Check Your Progress 3.10 References 3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be able to understand- The ideational understanding of gender and sex. The ideological understanding of gender differences. about Gender Socialization the issues of gender stereotypes based on current research 3.2 INTRODUCTION Gender as a simple noun is insufficient, it can be a compound noun, an adjective and is increasingly sighted as a verb. The intellectuals accept gender identity, gender roles, gender relations, gender stereotyping, gender systems, gender and this, gender and that. The meaning of 'gender' slips and slides. In the 1990s, the word 'gender' has become so widespread, is used so loosely, that it runs the risk of losing any meaning at all. 'Gender' is sometimes used in the place of 'sex', or of 'women' - or in opposition to them; in most cases it remains undefined, its meaning assumed to be self-evident. We’ll discuss the meaning of gender in conjunction with the terms with which it is associated and at the use of the word itself within feminism as it has developed over the past few years. Page | 16  BSO-07/OSOU 3.3 GENDER AS A CONCEPTION 'Gender', understood in its various ways, is now accepted as a social variable as important as 'race' and 'class', and as such, has made a considerable impact on the academy. From knowledge production to course content, the social relations of the sexes, when that is what gender is said to be, and the role, status and experience of women, when that is what gender is said to be, cannot be ignored or omitted any more. This is not a product of some so-called political correctness, but is rather a matter of recognition that there are, there have been, differential social and cultural experiences of men and women; that the construction of gender roles and relations is an integral part of all societies; that questions of politics, economics - everything - look different once refracted through a gendered lens, and that 'gendering' an issue does not mean that one can simply add women to what is already there and stir. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary from 1974 gives four definitions of gender: a) kind or sort; b) the three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter); and c) sex. Now only jocular; d) offspring. Feminism's attention to gender focuses mainly on c) sex, but not now only jocular. While the dictionary suggests that gender and sex are synonymous, feminism's early claims insist that, on the contrary, the two terms are distinct. Much effort has indeed been expended in demonstrating this analytical distinction. From Robert Stoller's 1968 book Sex and Gender, popularized widely in Ann Oakley's 1972 study Sex, Gender and Society, the notion has become current, within feminist scholarship at least, that sex refers to physiology that is reciprocal with biology, nature, and gender to culture that is to society, nurture. We are born with a sex assigned to us, but we develop a sense of ourselves as men or women in a range of ways shaped by the cultures and subcultures in which we live. As sex is too male and female, so gender is too masculine and feminine, and the meaning ascribed to masculinity and femininity varies greatly both between cultures and within one culture. 3.4 IDEA OF GENDER DIFFERENCES Why insist on the distinction between sex and gender? In practical terms, it doesn't matter much: 'most people class themselves and are categorized by others as the gender congruent with their biological sex', mentioned by John Archer and Barbara Lloyd in their work Sex and Gender (1982). What makes the distinction important, analytically, for feminism is the supposedly natural and logical linkage of a set of gender roles - which used to be called sex roles - to a biological sex. Feminist thinking in the post-war period has disputed the assumption of the naturalness of gender roles. Simone de Beauvoir 's statement in The Second Sex that Page | 17  BSO-07/OSOU women are made not born underpins the claims of feminists who contest the inevitability of a female destiny initially spelled out by anatomy, by sex. From Margaret Mead, Ann Oakley, Carol MacCormack and so many others in sociology, psychology and ethnography come the examples that disprove the naturalness and universality of women's 'condition'. The distinction between sex and gender, biology and society, is therefore axiomatic to feminism - to the point that it has gone practically without questioning for two decades. The definition of 'gender' in The Blackwell Dictionary of Twentieth Century Social Thought (1993) opens with the distinction as a given: 'As the social aspect of the relations between the sexes, gender is a concept which is distinguished from the biological one of sex.’ Yet the question must nonetheless still be asked: What exactly is the relationship between sex and gender? If gender and sex are not synonymous, then how is gender attributed? If they are apparently so separate, why do they, in reality, usually coincide? Does biological sex really have so little to do with cultural gender? Is there no social element to sex? Is gender purely cultural? How culturally and linguistically specific is the sex/gender distinction? Does it work in languages other than English? Christine Delphy, a French feminist, has brought up the sex/gender pertain in her book Rethinking Sex and Gender. Feminists, according to her, 'see gender as the [varying] content with sex as the [unvarying] container'. Is it true that sex comes before gender in this way, as is frequently thought, or may the question be phrased differently? We should query "why sex should give rise to any sort of social classification," she argues. The intriguing claim made by Delphy is that "the social division of labour and associated hierarchical relations lead to physiological sex being used to distinguish those who will be assigned to be dominant from those who will be part of the subordinate gender or class." Delphy contends that the relationship between gender and sex is extremely arbitrary and that this proves that gender, not sex, is the more important factor in how people grow. The argument in feminist history about the relative importance of "women's history" and "gender history" serves as another example of how "gender" and "women" are opposed to one another. According to the most simplistic definition, "women's history" is defined as the history that reveals the women who have been kept secret from and by historians; in other words, it provides women a history and introduces them to history. Women's history is valued as a pioneering endeavour, however feminist historians who prefer the term "gender history" dispute whether it is still a valid historical endeavour. They contend that it is only a preliminary phase that has since been superseded and instead envision reconsidering how the past should Page | 18  BSO-07/OSOU be understood in light of a renewed focus on gender. The American historian Joan Scott likes to view gender as a power dynamic between the sexes rather than as a fundamental identity— the proportion of femininity and masculinity present in each of us. In the United States, Scott is well recognised as one of the leading proponents of "gender history." Scott makes the case that "gender is a primary way of signifying relationships of power" in her influential article Gender: a useful category for historical analysis. Scott believes that "gender is a constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived differences between the sexes." The ambiguity between the two words is more prevalent outside of this specific discussion than putting "gender" and "women" in theoretical conflict. In most cases, it's only a matter of switching one out for the other. To put it bluntly, "gender" is frequently used when "women" is definitely what was intended. No one disputes the significance of names, and 'gender' seems to have an intellectual legitimacy that 'women' does not. In comparison to the word "gender," "women" is regarded as less serious, less scientific, and less believable for scholarly purposes. In order to move forward with their research projects and course development, feminist academics had to practically establish a variety of rhetorical methods. However, the use of the word "gender" in a course title does not imply that the content will not primarily focus on women. Gender is perceived as both more thrilling and more subdued. It does not raise any red flags. Why do the terms "women" and "feminism" unmistakably alarm people yet the word "gender" does not? What does the word "gender" imply? It achieves a degree of abstraction that is undoubtedly the cause for its acceptance but might also be the explanation for its elusiveness. It is less based in flesh and blood than "women" and less political than "feminism." The focus of all these studies is on how sexual difference interacts with other structures of inequality—such as those in education, money, and labor—to build evolved gender systems. The anti-essentialist conviction that drives this work is that gender attitudes, behaviours, and social roles are socially and culturally constructed, though there is still some debate regarding those "fairly rigid limits laid down by biological differences." Both of these works clearly link their interest in "gender" to the feminist criticism agenda, as if they were interchangeable. On this understanding, studying "gender" involves posing theoretical and political issues that are framed within a feminist goal. 3.5 GENDER STEREOTYPES Over the past fifty years, most developed nations have seen a social trend towards more egalitarian gender role ideals. Additionally, during the past several decades, particularly in Page | 19  BSO-07/OSOU highly developed nations, female labour force participation in general and mother labour force involvement in particular have grown significantly. As the growth of the service industry has impacted women's employment and family life, the rates of female labour participation in Asian cultures have also increased (Quah, 2008, 2003). The rising significance of education, a change in values, modifications to labour markets and welfare state laws, and an increase in the variety of living arrangements are only a few of the variables that are typically cited as contributing to this development (Jaumotte, 2003). Notwithstanding this overall trend, there are still significant regional differences in views towards female work, employment rates for mothers and women, and percentages of employed women (Haller and Hoellinger, 1994). The investigation of gender role perceptions in high-income cultures begins with this circumstance. What part does a lady play? Should women choose to work or stay at home to take care of the family and home? These issues have long piqued the curiosity of the general public and of scientists. Yates (1910) provided one of the earliest in-depth analyses of the subject in the social sciences. Parsons and Bales defined a woman in the 1950s as a wife, mother, and head of household (Parsons and Bales, 1955:14f). In the present social science discourse, the issue of whether mothers should work is still hotly debated (see, for instance, Larner et al., 2001). Gender roles, defined as common expectations that apply to people based on their socially assigned gender (Eagly, 1987:12), and attitudes towards gender roles, or people's ideas of what roles women and men should play, have drawn a lot of attention from researchers and been the focus of numerous surveys. To comprehend real conduct, it is crucial to look at the mechanisms that form values. Among other authors, Kaufman (2000) emphasises the significance of gender role beliefs for interpersonal interactions and behaviours in families and society at large. Industrialised nations, especially East Asian civilizations like Singapore, Japan, and South Korea, have attained a demographic stage known as the Second Demographic Transition with complete control over fertility (van de Kaa, 1987). While the mortality declines during the first of these transitions, the fertility declines well below replacement levels during the second. Van de Kaa (1987), Lesthaeghe (1995), and others view significant changes in norms and values, particularly gender roles, as the cause of the decline in childbearing rates within this framework of the Second Demographic Transition. According to statistics from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Turkey has a total fertility rate of 2.18, which is higher than South Korea's anticipated average of 1.13 children per woman in her lifetime (OECD, 2009). Other, wealthier areas of East Asia are also concerned about the reduction in Page | 20  BSO-07/OSOU fertility. According to the most recent data (UNDP, 2009), Singapore and Japan both have total fertility rates of 1.3. The complicated reasons underlying fertility reductions are unclear, and the social and individual concerns about gender relations and family difficulties in these nations have not yet been addressed. 3.6 GENDER SOCIALIZATION Gender socialisation is a key factor in the field of gender studies by which boys and girls learn basic roles and activities of life. As it has been mentioned above that gender is regarded as socially and culturally constructed concept. Gender is socialised through the process. To understand this process, we need to focus on the term ‘socialisation’ first then we go for gender socialisation. In a common parlance, the process of socialisation is how people become used to their own society's culture. Learning about one's culture and the social norms of the group to which one belongs is a lifelong process for every individual. As Horton and Hunt (1968) defines that “socialisation is the process whereby one internalises the norms of his groups so that a distinct ‘self’ emerges, unique to this individual’’. After understanding about the socialisation in a general sense, it is very pertinent to know the meaning of gender socialisation. Hoominfar (2019) writes that gender socialisation is a “process by which individuals develop, refine and learn to do gender through internalising gender norms and roles as they interact with agents of socialisation such as their family, social networks and other social institutions”. It is in this sense that gender as a social category gets socialised through various institutions of society. They learn and internalise their roles through socialisation associated with their sex. As it has been said that socialisation is a process by which one gradually learns his/her role in the way of the culture into which he/she is born. Sociologists generally view that socialisation is the key process of transforming norms, values, beliefs and behaviours to group members. Gender socialisation begins as soon as an infant is born. Parents treat a boy and a girl unequally due to their sex reinforced by many other cultural influences. These differences are reinforced by other cultural influences. When adults who belong to a particular cultural group teach young children how to act in order to adhere to social norms, it typically occurs during childhood. This procedure includes teaching people how to behave socially in accordance with the assigned gender that is determined at birth based on their biological sex. In this regard, let's attempt to describe how gender is socialised in a society through agents of socialisation like family, school, peers, Page | 21  BSO-07/OSOU media, and so on. Family: Family is generally considered to be the first and one of the most important agents of gender socialisation. Family is the most important institution of primary socialisation. First, both boys and girls learn the basic behaviour and cultural pattern of life in the family. It is believed that boys and girls take on different identities such as masculine and feminine and owing to it parents treat boys and girls differently in a family. Parents do have different behaviour pattern and expectations for their children depending on their gender. From time to time, parents create a gendered world through purchasing various toys, clothes, games, decoration, painting. Parents use different language and behaviour pattern for boys and girls. In a family, girls are delicately treated by both mother and father compared to boys. On the other hand, boys and girls also observe how their mother and father play different roles and do various activities in a family and outside the family and because of such observation they develop their roles and activities accordingly. In this way, it is said that family is known as the primary agent of socialisation of boys and girls. School: School is another agent of socialisation of boys and girls. School has a significant role in the process of gender awareness and socialisation. In the process of gender socialisation, education system plays very crucial part to transfer the values, behaviour patterns, norms, culture through interaction with teachers, peer groups, textbooks and curriculum. Teachers contribute to the formation of gender roles and identities through various activities in the classrooms. Teachers also create a comprehensive gendered environment based on gender stereotypes and gender roles. In this way, school as a social institution can play very significant part for gender socialisation. The school also teaches civil sense, patriotism and pride in the national heritage. The school even inculcate critical thinking among students through teaching learning process. John Dewey rightly said that education is not preparation for life but life itself. Peer groups: Peer groups are consisting of those people who are in similar age. Peer group socialisation begins in the earliest years of their life. Peers play the significant contribution on forming gender self-concept and gender stereotypes through interaction, friendship and groups norms. Children in their peer groups demonstrate and develop their social self and recognize their identity through various activities. Both boys and girls generally prefer to play games according to their gender. It is also a fact that games, toys, activities, roles and norms in peer groups socialise them in the different manner. Friends may be selected in peer groups based on physical appeal, shared interests, or shared backgrounds. They are also interested in ideology Page | 22  BSO-07/OSOU both inside and beyond the organisation, as well as in sports, music, movies, fashion, and other things. If any problem occurs in the peer groups, they all cooperate to each other unconditionally. In this peer group, children maintain the strong bond of friendship and close tie throughout their lives. Media: Media as an agent of socialisation also plays active role for gender socialisation. Media plays an important role in teaching behaviour and attitudes among children through movies, serials, news, magazine, books and so on. The term "mass media" refers to all forms of communication, including radio, television, newspapers, magazines, motion pictures, and recordings. Television has emerged as the most important form of communication in the modern world. Young people have been seen to be more interested in western music, dance fashion, fast food, and other non-Western cultural behaviours. Moreover, educational networks like Discovery, National Geographic, and History offer numerous programmes that entertain, educate, and help develop social skills in young people. It is also true that the contemporary media presents both positive and negative impact on the mind of young people through debate, discussion, programme. In a nutshell, we may state that media is a powerful instrument of gender socialisation. 3.7 LET US SUM UP Yet other research demonstrates the significance of socioeconomic and cultural elements, such as institutional restraints and social norms, in determining gender role beliefs. Government- sponsored family policies have an impact on gender role views, according to Sjöberg (2004). They do this by permitting the balancing of work and family obligations and by establishing standards of acceptable behaviour. Knudsen and Waerness (2001) examine Great Britain, Sweden, and Norway in research that focuses on views regarding mothers' work and discover a pronounced between-country variance in opinions impacted by various welfare measures. While this strategy may be categorised as structuralist, some academics advocate a culturalist strategy. With regard to gender-specific work arrangements, the latter strategy emphasises the impact of societal values, norms, and preferences (Haas, 2005). 3.8 GLOSSARY Gender: 'Gender', understood in its various ways, is now accepted as a social variable as important as 'race' and 'class', and as such, has made a considerable impact on the academy. Page | 23  BSO-07/OSOU 3.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. What is sex? 2. What is gender? 3. Who wrote the book Sex, Gender and Society? 4. Describe Gender Socialization. 5. What is Gender Stereotype? 3.10 REFERENCES Shiach Morag, 'Gender' and cultural analysis (1994), Inequality / Theory 2 Gender and Sexuality (March 1994), Vol. 17, No. 1, Edinburgh University Press. Huws Ursula, The reproduction of difference: gender and the global division of labour (Spring 2012), Work Organisation, Labour & Globalisation, Vol. 6, No. 1, Pluto Journals. Boehnke Mandy, Gender Role Attitudes around the Globe: Egalitarian vs. Traditional Views (2011), Asian Journal of Social Science, Vol. 39, No. 1, Special Focus: Social Stratification Studies in East Asia (2011), pp. 57-74, Brill. Duchen Claire, Gender (1994), Paragraph, NOVEMBER 1994, Vol. 17, No. 3, KEYWORDS (NOVEMBER 1994), pp. 227-235, Edinburgh University Press. Hakim Catherine, The Sexual Division of Labour and Women's Heterogeneity (1996), The British Journal of Sociology, Mar., 1996, Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 178-188, Wiley on behalf of The London School of Economics and Political Science. N. D. and K. G., Sexual Division of Labour (1989), Economic and Political Weekly, Aug. 26, 1989, Vol. 24, No. 34, pp. 1949-1950, Economic and Political Weekly. Bjørnerud Andreas, Sexual politics: a re-trait? (1994), Paragraph, MARCH 1994, Vol. 17, No. 1, INEQUALITY / THEORY 2 GENDER AND SEXUALITY, pp. 5-16, Edinburgh University Press. Hurst Charles E., Gibbon Heather M. Fitz & Nurse Anne M., Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, And Consequences (2018), Routledge. Page | 24  BSO-07/OSOU UNIT-4: GENDER ROLE AND IDENTITY Structure 4.1 Learning Objectives 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Gender Role 4.4 Gender Role Attitude 4.5 Gender Identity 4.6 Forms of Gender Identity 4.7 How is Gender Identities different from Gender Roles? 4.8 Let Us Sum Up 4.9 Check Your Progress 4.10 References 4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be able to understand- The ideational understanding of Gender Roles The ideological understanding of gender Identity. about forms of gender identity 4.2 INTRODUCTION Gender has become a prominent sociological concept due to the impact of feminist scholars. In this regard, we shall attempt to focus on the difference between gender and sex through sociological and biological standpoint. We shall also tend to comprehend how gender differences in society are constructed through social norms, values and practices. To understand it clearly, first, we need to make distinction between gender and sex here. "Gender refers to the socio-cultural notion of man and woman," claims Basin (2000). According to her, societies give social duties to men and women and make distinctions between the two. Gender is utilised in this context as an analytical tool to comprehend social facts pertaining to women and men. Gender copes with the psychological, social and cultural differences between males and females whereas sex refers to physical differences of the body. It is often said that if the sex of a person is biologically determined, the gender of the person is culturally and socially Page | 25  BSO-07/OSOU constructed in society. In view of the above, it has become clear that gender is socially constructed phenomenon while sex is biologically/naturally one. Gender may be a compound noun, an adjective, and is increasingly recognised as a verb, making it inadequate as a basic noun. The intellectuals are in agreement with gender identity, gender roles, gender relationships, gender stereotypes, gender systems, and gender and this and that. 'Gender' has a hazy definition. The term "gender" has become so pervasive and is used so frequently in the 1990s that it is in danger of losing all of its meaning. In some contexts, "gender" is used in place of "sex," "women," or in contrast to them; in most instances, it goes undefined since its meaning is assumed to be obvious. We'll talk about what gender means in relation to the phrases that are linked with it and how feminism has evolved over the past few years using the word itself. 4.3 GENDER ROLE Over the past fifty years, most developed nations have seen a social trend towards more egalitarian gender role ideals. Additionally, during the past several decades, particularly in highly developed nations, female labour force participation in general and mother labour force involvement in particular have grown significantly. As the growth of the service industry has impacted women's employment and family life, the rates of female labour participation in Asian cultures have also increased (Quah, 2008, 2003). The rising significance of education, a change in values, modifications to labour markets and welfare state laws, and an increase in the variety of living arrangements are only a few of the variables that are typically cited as contributing to this development (Jaumotte, 2003). Notwithstanding this overall trend, there are still significant regional differences in views towards female work, employment rates for mothers and women, and percentages of employed women (Haller and Hoellinger, 1994). The investigation of gender role perceptions in high-income cultures begins with this circumstance. What part does a lady play? Should women choose to work or stay at home to take care of the family and home? These issues have long piqued the curiosity of the general public and of scientists. Yates (1910) provided one of the earliest in-depth analyses of the subject in the social sciences. Parsons and Bales defined a woman in the 1950s as a wife, mother, and head of household (Parsons and Bales, 1955:14f). In the present social science discourse, the issue of whether mothers should work is still hotly debated (see, for instance, Larner et al., 2001). Gender roles, defined as common expectations that apply to people based on their socially Page | 26  BSO-07/OSOU assigned gender (Eagly, 1987:12), and attitudes towards gender roles, or people's ideas of what roles women and men should play, have drawn a lot of attention from researchers and been the focus of numerous surveys. To comprehend real conduct, it is crucial to look at the mechanisms that form values. Among other authors, Kaufman (2000) emphasises the significance of gender role beliefs for interpersonal interactions and behaviours in families and society at large. Industrialised nations, especially East Asian civilizations like Singapore, Japan, and South Korea, have attained a demographic stage known as the Second Demographic Transition with complete control over fertility (van de Kaa, 1987). While the mortality declines during the first of these transitions, the fertility declines well below replacement levels during the second. Van de Kaa (1987), Lesthaeghe (1995), and others view significant changes in norms and values, particularly gender roles, as the cause of the decline in childbearing rates within this framework of the Second Demographic Transition. According to statistics from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Turkey has a total fertility rate of 2.18, which is higher than South Korea's anticipated average of 1.13 children per woman in her lifetime (OECD, 2009). Other, wealthier areas of East Asia are also concerned about the reduction in fertility. According to the most recent data (UNDP, 2009), Singapore and Japan both have total fertility rates of 1.3. The complicated reasons underlying fertility reductions are unclear, and the social and individual concerns about gender relations and family difficulties in these nations have not yet been addressed. 4.4 GENDER ROLE ATTITUDE But perceptions towards gender roles are influenced by both structural aspects of society and by personal and social circumstances. In order to understand how gender roles, change among cultures in the context of reproductive choices, the current study examines several socio- structural as well as psychological presumptions. What are the reasons that account for the disparities in attitudes regarding gender roles around the globe? Findings on cross-cultural heterogeneity in gender role perceives across cultures and attitudes towards female employment in particular demonstrate that, usually, more favourable attitudes towards female employment are also observed in countries with a high female employment rate (Fortin, 2005). One may discover a variety of studies that rely their interpretations on exposure in the form of socialisation, education, and personal experience when focusing on Page | 27  BSO-07/OSOU research regarding gender role views at the micro level (Davis and Greenstein, 2009). According to Velia (1994), the foundation of gender role views, for instance, is formed in youth and is systematically impacted by family background. Contrary to several research, having a working mother in the home has a de-traditionalizing influence on gender role views. Children of working moms are more likely to have non-traditional gender roles than children of housewives. Individual experiences may also influence gender role beliefs; for women, participation in the workforce has led to a shift away from more conventional ideas. Among the women polled, full-time working women did indeed have the most egalitarian gender role attitudes, according to research that examines the attitudes towards gender roles of employed and unemployed women (Cassidy and Warren, 1996). In domestic partnerships, employment and care arrangements are crucial, according to other study. Although historically to a lesser extent, Zuo and Tang (2000) demonstrate that gender role views of both males and females are more conventional than in other family types among couples with a definite male- breadwinner/female-caregiver allocation of labour in their relationship. Higher education has been linked to better gender equality, according to a number of studies (e.g., Thornton et al., 1983; Bolzendahl and Myers, 2004). Other research has shown that it is feasible to adjust to more egalitarian attitudes under particular circumstances (Bryant, 2003). Due to the exposure to egalitarian concepts that higher education offers, gender stereotypes are frequently questioned. However, studies have found that having children tends to make couples lean towards maintaining more conventional roles. Liao and Cai (1995), who examine lifecycle effects on gender role attitudes, conducted analyses of the General Social Survey in the United States and found that, among other things, being in the lifecycle phase of mothering is likely to have a traditionalizing effect on gender role attitudes. Numerous studies have revealed that older women have more conventional views of gender roles than younger women (e.g., Thornton and Freedman, 1979). However, the effects of cohort and age are frequently muddled. The life experiences of various cohorts are also effective predictors of gender role views, according to research by Lynott and McCandless (2000) that takes cohort and life experience into account. It is undeniable that attitudes towards gender equality have increased over time (Cherlin and Walters, 1981; Brooks and Bolzendahl, 2004). It may be presumed that the modernization paradigm's description of social development will also include this historic shift in gender role beliefs (Inglehart & Welzel, 2005). Page | 28  BSO-07/OSOU 4.5 GENDER IDENTITY Gender identification refers to a person's perception and experience of their own gender. It involves the psychological experience of being either male, female, or neither (APA, 2012). People who identify as transgender think that their gender identity does not match their biological sex or the gender that was assigned to them at birth, according to the APA (2012) and Moleiro & Pinto (2015). They may also feel that neither the male nor female gender categories really represent them in some circumstances. The practise of expressing one's gender identity through one's appearance, behaviour, and social interactions is known as gender expression (APA, 2012; Drescher, 2014). The most prevalent gender identities in Western culture are "male" and "female"; they represent a dualistic view of gender that frequently influences the identification alternatives that people believe are open to them (Prentice & Carranza, 2002). Regardless of their biological sex, anyone can closely resemble culturally manufactured ideas of "maleness" or "femaleness" by acting in ways that are stereotypically linked with traditional male or female gender identities. This includes how they dress, speak, and engage in certain activities. However, a lot of people create gender identities for themselves that go beyond the male-female dichotomy by thinking "outside the box" when it comes to gender. Check out lists of well-known 'gender benders' from publications like Oxygen, Vogue, More, and The Cut for examples (not to mention Mr. and Mrs. Potato Head, whose changing gender identities made news this week). The evidence on whether there are more than two genders is unequivocal; there are as many possible gender identities as there are persons who cognitively develop identities, regardless of whether society accepts these identities or not. Rep. Taylor Greene's contention that there are only "male" and "female" gender identities is only a continuation of Western culture's long- standing tradition of recognising these gender identities as "normal." However, if we are to "trust the science" (as Representative Taylor Greene advises), we must first cease conflating biological sex with gender identity. While the latter is merely bound by our imaginations, the former may be limited by biology. 4.6 FORMS OF GENDER IDENTITES Gender identities can in a wide variety. A handful of them are included in the list below: A gender: someone who does not identify as either a certain gender or any gender at all. A Page | 29  BSO-07/OSOU person who falls in between the genders of femininity and masculinity is said to be androgynous. Bigender: A bigender is someone who considers themselves to be of both genders. They typically exemplify the gender roles that are set out by culture. Butch: Women, especially lesbians, commonly use this word to describe how they act or act in ways that are deemed to be masculine by society. The LGBTQIA Resource Centre notes that "butch" may also be used as a gender identity within itself. Cisgender: Cisgender individuals identify as the sex to which they were biologically assigned. A cisgender guy who identifies as a male, for example, despite having the sex given at birth. Gender expansive: The LGBTQIA Resource Centre explains that this expression applies to those who challenge societal norms around gender. Identity, role, and perceived gender norms are all addressed, along with expectations for how gender should be represented.2Examples of gender-expansive persons include transgender people and those whose gender challenges society's definition of what gender is. Genderfluid: The presentation and gender identification of someone who identifies as gender- fluid might vary from inside or outside of what society normally expects of persons of a particular gender. Gender outlaw: One who rejects the conventional categories of "female" and "male" as defining traits is referred to as a "gender outlaw." Genderqueer: In contrast to what society normally expects for the sex they were assigned at birth or the gender they were thought to be, a person who identifies as genderqueer has a gender identity or expression. Additionally, this expression may be used to describe someone who considers themselves to have characteristics of both genders. Masculine of gender: The most frequent users of this term are lesbians and trans people, who tend to choose masculine phrases and experiences of gender. Nonbinary: The gender binary is not how nonbinary persons perceive gender. They could also experience overlap with other gender expressions, such as being gender non-conforming. Page | 30  BSO-07/OSOU Omnigender: Someone who experiences and possesses all genders. Polygender and pangender: Someone who experiences and displays aspects of multiple genders. Transgender: a blanket term used to describe anyone who identifies with and has experiences with genders different than the one they were assigned at birth. In addition to men and women, the phrase also refers to non-binary and gender non-conforming individuals. Two-Spirit: A blanket term used to describe a variety of genders and sexual orientations in Indigenous Native American communities. The phrase "Two-Spirit," which has a number of meanings, may or may not be used by indigenous Native Americans to express how they perceive and feel about gender. It is a cultural expression that is solely applied to people who consider themselves to be Indigenous Native Americans. 4.7 HOW IS GENDER IDENTITIES DIFFRERENT FROM GENDER ROLES? An individual's internal sensation of being male, female, or another gender. Sexual orientation does not affect gender identity. While gender identity is concerned with how you view yourself, sexual orientation relates to the people to whom you are sexually attracted. Gender identification can either match or diverge from the sex that was assigned to a person at birth. Gender identities are expressed through gender roles. Gender roles refer explicitly to behaviours that fit within society's definition based on how we portray ourselves on the outside, as determined by the sex to which we were born. The social conventions, expectations, and stereotypes that society connects with being male or female are known as gender roles. For instance, it is common to criticise both men and women who do not adhere to the expectations of their gender roles. Women are supposed to have a certain look, be soft-spoken, and have a particular range of interests. Contrarily, men are often supposed to be strong, competitive, and assertive. While gender roles are created by society, gender identity is determined by the individual. Gender expression is the process of expressing one's gender through choices in attire, hairstyles, mannerisms, and other behaviours. Gender can be expressed in a variety of ways, and these ways may or may not correspond to the sex that was assigned to a person at birth. Although they can be distinguished from one another, gender identity and gender roles are Page | 31  BSO-07/OSOU connected to the concept of gender. One can play specific gender roles and still have a strong sense of their gender identity. In some situations, one of these two characteristics will stand out more than the other. For instance, a woman may follow gender norms for women but identify as a guy. Given that she favours women over men, she might also identify as a lesbian. Another option is for someone to identify as both male and female while adhering to a mixture of gender roles. Some people who don't identify as either male or female may reject both gender identities and gender roles since they are indifferent to either issue. 4.8 LET US SUM UP Yet other research demonstrates the significance of socioeconomic and cultural elements, such as institutional restraints and social norms, in determining gender role beliefs. Government- sponsored family policies have an impact on gender role views, according to Sjöberg (2004). They do this by permitting the balancing of work and family obligations and by establishing standards of acceptable behaviour. Knudsen and Waerness (2001) examine Great Britain, Sweden, and Norway in research that focuses on views regarding mothers' work and discover a pronounced between-country variance in opinions impacted by various welfare measures. While this strategy may be categorised as structuralist, some academics advocate a culturalist strategy. With regard to gender-specific work arrangements, the latter strategy emphasises the impact of societal values, norms, and preferences (Haas, 2005). 4.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS What is Gender Role? What is Gender Identity? How Gender Identities is different from Gender Roles? 4.10 REFERENCES Shiach Morag, 'Gender' and cultural analysis (1994), Inequality / Theory 2 Gender and Sexuality (March 1994), Vol. 17, No. 1, Edinburgh University Press. Huws Ursula, The reproduction of difference: gender and the global division of labour (Spring 2012), Work Organisation, Labour & Globalisation, Vol. 6, No. 1, Pluto Journals. Page | 32  BSO-07/OSOU Boehnke Mandy, Gender Role Attitudes around the Globe: Egalitarian vs. Traditional Views (2011), Asian Journal of Social Science, Vol. 39, No. 1, Special Focus: Social Stratification Studies in East Asia (2011), pp. 57-74, Brill. Duchen Claire, Gender (1994), Paragraph, NOVEMBER 1994, Vol. 17, No. 3, KEYWORDS (NOVEMBER 1994), pp. 227-235, Edinburgh University Press. Hakim Catherine, The Sexual Division of Labour and Women's Heterogeneity (1996), The British Journal of Sociology, Mar., 1996, Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 178-188, Wiley on behalf of The London School of Economics and Political Science. N. D. and K. G., Sexual Division of Labour (1989), Economic and Political Weekly, Aug. 26, 1989, Vol. 24, No. 34, pp. 1949-1950, Economic and Political Weekly. Bjørnerud Andreas, Sexual politics: a re-trait? (1994), Paragraph, MARCH 1994, Vol. 17, No. 1, INEQUALITY / THEORY 2 GENDER AND SEXUALITY, pp. 5-16, Edinburgh University Press. Hurst Charles E., Gibbon Heather M. Fitz & Nurse Anne M., Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, And Consequences (2018), Routledge. Self-Learning Material, HSO Sociology, CC-SO-10 (CBCS), (2022), Under Graduate Degree Programme, Netaji Subhas Open University. Page | 33  BSO-07/OSOU Block-2 FEMINISM Unit-5: Meaning and Definitions Unit-6: Origin, Growth of Feminism, Waves of Feminism Unit-7: Patriarchy Unit-8: Theories of Feminism-Liberal, Radical, Socialist, Marxist, Materialist Page | 34  BSO-07/OSOU UNIT-5: MEANING AND DEFINITIONS Structure 5.1 Learning Objectives 5.2 Introduction 5.3 Meaning 5.4 Definition 5.5 Types of Feminism 5.5.1 Liberal 5.5.2 Radical 5.5.3 Marxist 5.5.4 Socialist 5.5.5 Ecofeminism 5.5.6 Black Feminism 5.5.7 Postmodern Feminism 5.5.8 New Feminism 5.6 Let Us Sum Up 5.7 Glossary 5.8 Check Your Progress 5.9 References 5.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this Unit, you will be able to: Understand the meaning and concept of Feminism Study the types of Feminism 5.2 INTRODUCTION Women have always been regarded as a second sex or weaker sex; they have always faced inequality, subordination, and oppression. They were denied their rights, in all domains be it personal, social, economical or political. The demand and quest for equality gave rise to movement which has come to be known as Feminism. It began as a movement for equality, a socio-political movement which has evolved over the years and now it includes all genders. Etymologically Feminism is derived from French word “Femme” which means woman and Page | 35  BSO-07/OSOU ism is political position which is symbolic of movement. Although, there are as many definitions of feminism, however all these denote only one thing equality for all genders. Feminism is not personal but a social and political thought process and as quoted by Deaney every woman should get equal chance in opportunities and also access to resources. According to Oxford Dictionary “feminism is the belief and aim that women should have the same rights and opportunities as men; the struggle to achieve this aim”. Feminism stands for movement of women, for women. It started in 1880 when it was used to refer to women who fought for their rights, especially political rights to begin with. As the fight for equality progressed, social, personal, economical rights also gained momentum. 5.3 MEANING OF FEMINISM The definition and establishment of political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes are the objectives of feminism. A variety of social movements and ideologies make up feminism. Feminism claims that civilizations that prioritise male opinion over female opinion unfairly punish women. Some approaches to address this include combating gender stereotypes and boosting women's opportunities and results in the workplace, in academia, and in interpersonal relationships. Since its founding in late 18th-century Europe, feminist organisations have battled for women's rights, such as the freedom to vote, run for office, work, get equal pay, own property, pursue an education, enter into contracts, enter into matrimonial unions, and take maternity leave. Feminists have also worked for access to legal abortions, social inclusion, and contraception in addition to safeguarding women and girls against rape, sexual assault, and domestic abuse. Changes in female clothing rules and acceptable forms of exercise have both been affected by feminist movements. Many academics think feminist campaigns were a significant factor in historical societal changes for women's rights in the West, where they are almost universally credited with achieving women's suffrage, gender-neutral language, reproductive rights for women (including access to contraceptives and abortion), and the right to contract and own property. Feminist action has historically focused mostly on advancing the rights of women, but some feminists believe that men should also be liberated from the confines of stereotypical gender roles. Feminist theory, which developed from feminist movements, looks at the social roles Page | 36  BSO-07/OSOU and experiences of women in an effort to comprehend the causes of gender disparity. To address gender-related concerns, feminist theorists have developed theories in a variety of fields. Numerous feminist movements and ideas reflecting distinct worldviews and political goals have evolved over time. First-wave liberal feminism, which fought for political and legal parity through reforms within a liberal democratic framework, is sometimes contrasted with labor- based proletarian women's groups, which over time developed into socialist and Marxist feminism founded on the ideology of class struggle. Since the 19th century, this has always been the case. The "Big Three" schools of feminist thought are frequently referred to as liberal, socialist, and radical feminism together. These two ideologies have also been pitted against radical feminism, which arose from the second-wave feminist movement's extreme wing and demands for a fundamental restructuring of society to do away with male dominance, since the 1960s. Feminism has evolved significantly since the start of the century. Some feminisms, such as white feminism, have drawn criticism for only taking into account the perspectives of white, middle-class, college-educated, heterosexual, or cisgender individuals. These criticisms led to the creation of feminisms that are specifically racial or cultural, such intersectional and black feminism. Some feminists contend that feminism frequently promotes misandry and places women's interests above men's and that extreme feminist ideals are damaging to both men and women. 5.4 FEMINISM: DEFINITION AND CONCEPT According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary (Online Dictionary) “Feminism is the theory of the political, economic and social equality of the sexes and it also stands for formal structured activity for woman, mostly by women.” As per Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary “feminism is a belief that women should be allowed the same rights, power and opportunities as men and be treated in the same way”. Feminism has always been understood as the struggle for equality among men and women, and has opposes patriarchy and sexism. Feminism is an ideology, which seeks equal status for women, like men in all areas, be it politics, personal decisions, like family, children or professional world. It is not a single movement but includes number of social, cultural and Page | 37  BSO-07/OSOU political movements which demand equality among gender. It is also taken as a struggle of women to achieve equality of sexes. It tries towards ending the male oppression and rule over women and ensuring that both men and women get equal rights in all areas. Feminism has evolved as guiding movement, to give directions to society so as to bring change in its thinking and functioning, so that both women and men are considered equal and are treated as equals. Hence, we can say that, feminism is combination of various social theories, movements, and thoughts and perspectives. “It mainly looks social, political, and economic inequalities of women” (Adawo et al., 2011). Feminism attempts to elaborate, decode and explain the various oppressions which women go through, causes behind them and ways to remove those from society. It has always endeavored to achieve equality, dignity, rights, for women leading to their emancipation and empowerment. 5.5 TYPES OF FEMINISM 5.5.1 Liberal Feminism Liberalism emerged as a political and economic movement, with focus women’s rights of equality, equal opportunity and being socially, economically, personally independent. As stated by Giddens, in 2001, It evolved as “feminist theory that believes gender inequality is created by lowering access for women and girls to civil rights and allocation of social resources such as education and employment”. Liberal feminism has its roots in liberal political theory, evolved as inspired by French Revolution, and advocates equality. Liberal feminists are of the opinion that both men and women are equal hence both should have same rights and should get equal opportunities in all areas of life. Liberal feminism took shape in the 17th and 18th centuries in the western countries and later spread across the world, with aim to free women from all oppressive forces. It was in the 19th century that the feminists advocated for the equal rights for women for suffrage and property. Liberal feminism has been most spread and widely propagated movement among feminists. It has given a strong platform for other feminist movements. 5.5.2 Radical Feminism Radical feminist movement originated, in the 1960s by the women activists who believed that patriarchy is responsible for discrimination and oppression of women (Millet, 1970; Vukoičić, 2017). Radical feminist blame patriarchy and sexism for the subjugation and oppression of women, patriarchy is dominance of men over women which is ingrained into mind of people Page | 38  BSO-07/OSOU and also supported by physiological aspects, unfortunately society is governed by it. (Nachescu, 2009). Radical feminism speaks loudly about the physical, mental and emotional abuse afflicted by men over women by way of rape, violence and molestation. Radical feminists see the society as patriarchal, where men are considered superior, women inferior and men rule the society and women. They are of opinion that women are not lesser but superior than men and women should dominate, and matriarchy should be the way of society rather than patriarchy. Radical feminist, as name suggests want to bring radical changes. (Tong, 2009). They think that men are against women and marriage is an institution set up by men to oppress and exploit women. Radical feminists consider motherhood, child bearing, as delimiting women to household. 5.5.3 Marxist Feminism Marxist feminism started in the 1970s, It has its roots in Marxism and views women’s problems also from class angle, therefore it focuses on removing capitalism. According to Calas & Smircich, 1996 “Marxist feminism is “critical of traditional Marxism for its gender blindness”. It is concerned with women’s double oppression of both class and sex”. Marxist feminist believe that capitalism is responsible for oppression of women. (Tong, 2009). Marxist feminists believe that subjugation of women starts from home and then extends to the society but has reasons in economics and business. (Kuleli, 2019). Women are discriminated due to capitalism and only way out is socialism which will ensure equality for all. 5.5.4 Socialist Feminism Socialist feminists are of view that women are exploited by both: capitalism and patriarchy, according to them home is the place of production and women are involved in productive work but not paid for it. They believe that both capitalism and patriarchy is the cause behind women’s oppression and subjugation. They believe that the society burdens women with rol