Definitions, Women and Gender Studies PDF

Feminism: ​ “A movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation, and oppression.” ​ “A movement for ending gender-based oppression and all forms of related patterns of domination and subjugation in our homes, communities, and the world [regardless of social location/category].” ​ Th...

Feminism: ​ “A movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation, and oppression.” ​ “A movement for ending gender-based oppression and all forms of related patterns of domination and subjugation in our homes, communities, and the world [regardless of social location/category].” ​ The foundation of equality and justice. Not just for women. Both men and women can be sexist. ​ Origin: Coined in France in the 1880s, derived from femme (women) + isme (social movement/political ideologies). ​ Comes in different forms. (Sexual oppression) Key Attributes ➔​ An interpretative lens or filter for understanding the world; always analytical. ➔​ Places gender at the center while including social categories/locations (e.g., race, geographic location). ➔​ A political way of thinking that questions assumptions like “biology as destiny.” ➔​ Includes gender justice: transgender, genderqueer, and intersex individuals. Patriarchy: ​ A system of social relationships, values, norms, and behavior patterns predominantly shaped by men, which encourage a privileged position for men, allowing them to dominate, oppress, and exploit women. ​ Most men find being a patriarch (means exploiting and oppression women through violence) difficult by refuse to let go for fear of violence from other men and fear of losing the benefits it provides them ​ Women enact patriarchy when it benefits them and once they've been socialized. Matriarchy: ​ The opposite of patriarchy, historically found in many pre-colonization Indigenous and African communities. ​ Women hold power and influence over the community as leaders. Institutional Sexism: ​ A form of sexism ingrained in institutions, socializing individuals to accept the system. Power: ​ “The probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance.” ​ “The human ability not just to act but to act in concert.” ​ Feminism views power in three ways: 1.​ As a resource to be (re)distributed.  2.​ As domination. 3.​ As empowerment. ​ Ways in which individuals and there societies are constituted into hierarchies Privilege: ​ A special right, advantage, or immunity granted or available only to a particular person or group. Oppression: ​ Systemic constriction of agency, movement, and opportunities where dominant norms are imposed on others. Equality: ​ State of affairs in which all people within a specific society or group have the same status, potentially including civil rights, freedom of speech, property rights, and equal access to social goods and services. ​ Equal opportunity examples; education, healthcare, equity in the workplace, freedom from violence ​ Equality can be contested. Who defines and experiences equality? Womanism: ​ Defined as a focus on how Black women experience power, oppression, and status within the social hierarchy to advocate for social change and improved gender politics and analysis. ​ “ Only some [feminist activism} concentrate solely on women, while others recognize complex links to the politics of race, class, religion, and nationality.” Lifestyle Feminism: ​ “No matter a woman’s politics… she can fit feminism in her existing lifestyle; (Feminism) without fundamentally challenging and changing themselves or the culture.” FGM (Female Genital Mutilation): ​ The practice of clitoral mutilation to remove sexual pleasure, often perpetuated by women as the strongest patriarchal voices for young girls. Settler Colonialism: ​ A system that functions to erase Indigenous people both literally and culturally through physical violence, land removal, and forced assimilation. ​ Patriarchy + Colonialism = Violence against women & children + Women lost their equal power to men & leadership roles. Hegemonic Masculinity: ​ A hierarchy where White women may sit higher than men of color due to racial privilege. ​ Formulated 1980s-90s = “pattern of practice that allows men's dominance over ‘women to continue’” ​ Come to us from Antonio Gramsci, told us Hegemony creates a prevailing culture where all systems are related and there is the influence exerted by the dominant group over all facets of the society. ​ Hegemonic masculinity is not statistically normal BUT it is normative Contested concept, Most honored way of being a man Origins ​ Feminist theories of patriarchy debate on the role of men in transforming patriarchy. ​ Core concepts of power and difference found in the gay liberation movement Two important aspects ​ Plurality of masculinities → Multiple patterns of masculinities where other forms of masculinity are subordinated ​ Hierarchy of masculinity Departing from the Norm…. Conforming to the Norm…. ​ “Though men in general benefit from inequality of gender order, they do not benefit equally” ➔​ Depart from dominant definitions of masculine (gay, effeminate, wimpish) → subject to physical violence, hate crimes, verbal abuse, and discrimination. ➔​ Conform to dominant definitions of masculinity → lower life expectancy rates → higher rates of death by violence and work-related incidents, sporting injuries; alcohol and drug abuse Gender Justice: ​ A movement addressing interconnected movements outside the scope of white feminism, focusing on gender justice for all categories, including transgender, genderqueer, and intersex individuals. Womanist vs Feminist: ​ “Womanist is to feminism what lavender is to purple.” Reformist feminist thinking + emphasizes gender equality ​ The vision of ‘women's liberation’ represents women as wanting what men had. Let us think we've progressed but we have not because there has been no justice. Revolutionary feminist thinking + fought for transforming the system (white supremacist capitalist patriarchy. ​ Ends patriarchy and sexism; goes beyond altering the existing system Hegemonic masculinity hierarchy ​ White women sit further up on the hierarchy than men of color because they are white and therefore have higher social status due to their race. History of Feminism Liberal Feminism ➔​ 19th C and Early 20th C ➔​ Suffragist, Fight for rights; Enlightenment* (Age of Reason) ➔​ First wave of feminism from Western thought ➔​ Founded on shared equality and shared common humanity, achievement through merit, equal rights, equal rights to opportunity, freedom of choice ​ The suffragist movement starts in Europe; very defined class structures ➔​ Famous Five; Fierce Eugenists (sterilization) Radical Feminism, 2nd Wave ➔​ 1960s -1970s ➔​ Sexuality, Control, Violence; Civil Rights; Anti-War ➔​ The personal is political ➔​ Institutions are based on reproductions of life and social systems ➔​ Everything is a site of oppression for women; Family, State, Patriarchy ➔​ Created the foundation for modern feminism Socialist Feminism, 3rd Wave ➔​ 1980s -1990s ➔​ Marxism (Marx and Engels), oppression rooted in capitalism, Neoliberalism (structural adjustment programs) Postcolonial Feminism, 4th Wave ➔​ 1990s -2000s ➔​ Euro-American feminism hegemony → Imperial Feminism; colonialism ➔​ Where there is capitalism there is patriarchy ➔​ Strongest Triangle; White Supremacy, Patriarchy, Capitalism Global Feminism, 5th Wave ➔​ 2010s -Current ➔​ Trans-national women’s activism, International feminism; Feminism at the global level/scale 1st Wave vs 4th Wave 1st Wave; suffrage, focused on mandated inequalities education, safe work, etc., political goals, mainly European and American, 1800s-1950s 4th Wave; digitally based worldwide, intersectionality, being sexual beings while also not simply being sexually objectified, Male: not being subjected to “macho-man” stereotype, 2008 - present Shared Similarities; equality, fighting gender stereotypes for men and women Theory (Central Debate) ​ Framework for understanding and explaining the complex connections between people’s everyday lives and larger social, political, legal, and economic forces ​ Feminism → analysis of systems of power - unequal distribution of power shapes the lives of women and men Praxis (Central Debate) ​ The process by which theory, lesson, or skill, is enacted, embodied, or realized; engaging, applying, exercising, realizing, practicing ideas Theory of Oppression ​ Intersectionality is a lens that examines how intersecting identities such as race, gender, class, and ability shape people’s experiences with state organs and society at large. ​ “An account for the multiple grounds of identity when considering how the social world is constructed” ​ As oppression = critiques the very systems, institutions, laws, and social foundations that oppress Black women and women of color at the intersections of identity Intersectionality ​ A lens that examines how intersecting identities such as race, gender, class, and ability shape people’s experiences with state organs and society at large. ​ An account for the multiple grounds of identity when considering how the social world is constructed. ​ Critiques the very systems, institutions, laws, and social foundations that oppress Black women and women of color at the intersections of identity. ​ Intersectionality → define the profound invisibility of law = Racial and gender discrimination. Intersectionality: Axes of Oppression ➔​ Sex, gender, race, ethnicity, class, age, ability, religion, etc. Criticism: Intersectionality is obsessed with identity politics Rather; Intersectionality exposes how “institutions use identity to exclude and privilege” (Crenshaw, 2018, p. 58) Criticism; Intersectionality as theoretical Rather; Intersectionality is about “examining the structures of power that so successfully resist change [rather than] blaming the voices that highlight problems” (Crenshaw, 2018, p. 58) Criticism; Intersectionality as ‘bullying’ and ‘privilege checking’ Rather; Naming and recognizing intersectional locations/identities that reveal privilege is hard “, particularly for those who also experience discrimination and exclusion” Sojourner Truth: ​ Intersectionality pioneer through “Ain’t I a Woman?”. ​ Challenged essentialist ideas of womanhood. Gender and Politics ​ Sports and Entertainment: Women's bodies as visual images for consumption ​ Politics: Lowest representation of G20 4 out of 20 world leaders (2013); Welfare or education ministries; Never had a woman UN Secretary-General or World Bank leader. ​ Business: Global Fortune 500 (2013) 22 out of the 500 companies ​ Labor/Workforce: Child-care, nursing, education, clerical, call centers, retail, wait staff (food servers); unpaid domestic work; lower rates in the workforce ​ Globally ⅔ illiterate people are women. Nowhere in the world are women earned incomes equal to men Gender Order → “One is not born, but becomes a woman” ​ But we are socialized otherwise - there is an essential, biological nature and this should determine our personal and public lives Gender Identity: “a name for a sense of belonging to a gender category” ​ Identity includes our ideas of what belonging means ​ Womanhood and Manhood are not fixed by nature ​ People construct themselves as masculine or feminine Gender Ambiguity: We combine feminine and masculine characteristics Definitions ​ Masculine= Having qualities of an appearance traditionally associated with men or boys ​ Feminine Having qualities or an appearance traditionally associated with women or girls. ​ Male Gender: This category includes persons whose current gender was reported as male. This includes cisgender and transgender persons who were reported as being male (Statistics Canada, 2021). ​ Female Gender: This category includes persons whose current gender was reported as female. This includes cisgender and transgender persons who were reported as being female (Statistics Canada, 2021) Sex vs. Gender ​ Sex = Biological ​ Gender = Social Construct Myth of the Natural Body ​ Biological Determinism: "Biology, rather than society, sets the constraints on the behavior and abilities of women and men – biology is destiny." ​ Nature does not determine womanhood, the body, or femininity. ​ Social inequality between women and men is not due to biological sex differences. Perceptions of the Body ​ Perceptions and interpretations of the body are mediated by language, influenced by biomedical sciences and knowledge. ​ Scientific facts are "not objectively given but collectively created." Body and Sex: Historical and Modern Views 1.​ Medical Textbooks: Early "one-sex model" lacked specific anatomical terms for female reproductive organs (e.g., ovaries referred to as male testicles). ○​ This model was intertwined with patriarchal thinking. ○​ 18th Century: The first inclusion of female anatomy in medical texts. 2.​ Sexualization of the Body: ○​ The skeleton and skull were used to suggest that women were intellectually inferior to men. ○​ Physiological traits became linked with women’s rights and abilities. 3.​ Sex Similarities → Sex Differences → Radical Naturalization of Femininity: ○​ ‘Essence of Femininity’: Belief in unique sexual characteristics that belong only to women (e.g., the womb/uterus as the seat of femininity). ○​ 21st Century Shift: Focus on sex hormones (e.g., estrogen and progesterone) as defining masculinity and femininity. Sex Differences and Hormones ​ Biological Roots: The concept of female and male sex hormones as messengers of masculinity and femininity is dominant. ​ Estrogen and Progesterone: These hormones are among the most widely used in medicine and control the female body. Women in Sports: Where Does Sex Exist in Our Biology? ​ IAAF and IOC Sex Testing: ○​ Targets female athletes, often involving genital inspections, genetic analysis, and physical exams. ○​ Conditions such as 5-alpha reductive deficiency and Gonadal Dysgenesis are examples of biological variations that challenge traditional sex categories. ​ Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome: Individuals with XY chromosomes but no functional androgen receptors, resulting in a typical female appearance despite male sex chromosomes. Medical Solutions and Gender Politics ​ Medical Interventions: ○​ Gonadectomy (removal of reproductive organs). ○​ Clitoridectomy (partial or full removal of the clitoris). ○​ Feminizing vaginas. ○​ Estrogen replacement therapy. ​ Sexism and Gender + Race: ○​ Example: Caster Semenya, a South African 800m athlete, publicly humiliated in 2009 and later cleared for competition in 2010. ○​ Issues around female hyperandrogenism and racialized views of femininity, especially among Black athletes. ○​ Historical Certificates of Femininity issued in 1988 to enforce gender norms. Gender Diversity Around the World ​ Western anthropologists have documented third genders in different cultures, including: ○​ Samoan Fa’afafine ○​ South Asian Hijra ○​ Female husbands in some African tribes. ○​ Ndongo people of Angola (3 genders). ○​ Bugis people of Indonesia (5 genders). Defining Genitals: Intersex and Trans ​ Intersex and Intersectionality: Individuals with ambiguous genitalia at birth often face medical interventions to "assign" their sex. ○​ Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS): A disorder of sex development (DSD), leading to incongruence between physical traits and sex chromosomes. ○​ Genital reconstruction surgeries are common in the U.S., where 5 children every day undergo such procedures, resulting in lasting physical, psychological, and emotional scars. ○​ Doctors often use genital size to manage "sex assignments," with the assumption that size "matters." Politics of Sexuality and Body Dualism ​ Sex is not purely physical: Body aspects are entangled with gender ideas and norms. ​ Euro-American Dualism: The belief in opposing concepts, such as male/female, limits feminist analysis. ​ Intersex Traits: Around 1.7% to 4% of the global population carries intersex traits, illustrating the complexity of biological sex. European Anthropometry: The measurement of the human body, often used to support notions of male superiority. Scientific Certitude: The belief in the inherent inferiority of women, perpetuated through biased research. Intelligence Testing and Craniometry ​ Intelligence Testing: The ethics of IQ tests, often used to justify gender inequality.  ​ Craniometric Studies: The measurement of the skull, frequently linked to theories of racial and gender superiority. Sexist Science and Style Aristotle’s Views on Women: ​ In his treatise Politics, Aristotle claims, “The male is by nature superior to the female, except when something happens contrary to the usual course of nature.” ​ Women are considered lower than men but higher than slaves in the social hierarchy. ​ Aristotle believed female fetuses took up to ten months to form, that women’s brains were less developed, and that only fair-skinned women experienced orgasms. ​ According to Aristotle, women were inferior because their bodies were too cold to produce seed (semen), and he described women as "deformed males." Misogynist Figures in Science Gustave Le Bon (1879): ​ Founder of social psychology and a noted misogynist. ​ He argued that women's brains were closer in size to gorillas than to developed male brains, viewing women as intellectually inferior to men. ​ Le Bon’s views suggested that women were closer to children and savages, excelling only in fickleness, inconstancy, and an inability to reason. Paul Broca (1824-1880): ​ Broca conflated the measurement of height with brain weight, leading to misguided conclusions about brain size. ​ He argued that "men of the black races have a brain that is scarcely heavier than that of white women," reinforcing both racial and gender-based biases. ​ Broca’s theory of recapitulation suggested that women and Black people were at a primitive stage of human evolution. Sexism in Religion and Science ​ Theologians questioned whether women had souls, while some scientists were prepared to deny them human intelligence. The Construction of the "Other" ​ The concept of "Othering" led to the oppression and exploitation of marginalized groups, including disabled people, people of color (POC), and Indigenous peoples. Oppressive Exploitation Ideology: This ideology fueled hatred and fear of disabled people, people of color, and the unfamiliar. Freaks and Queers: Categories of Otherness Disabled People (White and POC): Examples include armless wonders, frogmen, giants, midgets, pinheads, Carmel girls, wild men of Borneo, etc. Cannibals and Savages (Non-disabled POC): People forcibly taken from colonized countries, often labeled as savages. Natives from the Exotic Wild: Indigenous peoples seen as “primitive” and exotic. Wondrous and Horrific Exhibits (Non-disabled POC with visible differences): This category includes individuals such as bearded women, fat women, very thin men, tattooed people, and intersex individuals. X and Y - Identity Crisis? ​ X: A fabulous children's story ​ Better Politics: Transgender, Gender-Fluid, Non-binary, and Gender Non-Conforming Hegemonic Masculinity ​ Definition: Formulated in the 1980s-1990s, hegemonic masculinity is "a pattern of practice that allows men's dominance over women to continue." ​ Key Points: ○​ Hegemonic masculinity is not statistically normal, but it is normative (dominant and widely accepted). ○​ It is a contested concept with its origins rooted in feminist theories of patriarchy and debates on the roles of men in a transformed patriarchy. ○​ The core concepts are drawn from power and difference found in the gay liberation movement. Core Aspects of Hegemonic Masculinity: 1.​ Plurality of Masculinities: Multiple forms of masculinity exist, with some forms subordinated to others. 2.​ Hierarchy of Masculinity: There is a ranking of masculinity, with more honored forms (e.g., sports heroes) and dishonored forms (e.g., homosexuality, ethnic masculinities). Doing Gender in Everyday Life ​ Multiplicity/Plurality: There is no singular pattern of masculinity; cultural differences and contexts affect how masculinity is "done" differently. ​ Hierarchy: There are more honored (e.g., athleticism, heroism) and dishonored ways of being masculine (e.g., effeminate, homosexual). ​ Active and Dynamic: Masculinity is actively created, not fixed, and can change, be contested, and be replaced over time. Departing from vs. Conforming to the Norm ​ Inequality among Men: Though men generally benefit from the gendered inequality, they do not benefit equally from hegemonic masculinity. ​ Departing from the Norm: Men who depart from dominant definitions of masculinity (e.g., gay, effeminate) face discrimination, physical violence, hate crimes, and verbal abuse. ​ Conforming to the Norm: Men who conform to dominant masculinity definitions may experience higher rates of death by violence, work-related accidents, sporting injuries, drugs, and alcohol. Sex Role Theory & Socialization (Ex. Pink vs Blue) ​ Definition: Socialization is the process through which individuals learn societal norms and expectations associated with gender. ​ Examples of Agencies of Socialization: ○​ Family ○​ School ○​ Religion/Religious Institutions ○​ Peer group ○​ Mass Media Problematic Aspects of Sex Role Theory: 1.​ Monolithic View: The theory presents a homogeneous and oversimplified view of culture. 2.​ Passive Learner: The theory assumes that individuals are passive recipients of gender norms. 3.​ Unidirectional Learning: The learning process is assumed to be one-directional, either towards or away from sex norms. Transgender, Gender-Fluid, and Non-Binary Concepts ​ Rikki Arundel's Ted Talk: "Why Gender Identity is So Important": ○​ Key Insights: ​ Gender identity is complex and involves more than just biological sex. ​ Sex has two meanings: bonding and sexual activity. ​ Pre-1992, women in sports were sex-tested. ​ Gender is a social construct that shapes behavior and expectations. ​ Gendered Toys: Toys are marketed by gender, e.g., "pinkification" of toys for girls and gender-specific toy areas. ​ Stereotypes: Kids face bullying into gender stereotypes (e.g., “female behavior”). ​ Trans women tend to show patterns more aligned with "women's brains" and vice versa for trans men. ​ Gender Continuum: Gender is fluid, not binary. ​ Sexual Orientation: Gay and lesbian people express gender in various ways, distinct from their sexual orientation. ​ Harassment: People who are secretly gay or trans face bullying, humiliation, and discrimination. ​ Fear of Humiliation: The greatest fear faced by individuals is humiliation, making it vital to challenge rigid, harmful rules and treat everyone with dignity and respect. Born in the Wrong Body ​ Key Concept: People are assigned gender at birth, but sometimes the gender assignment doesn't match how they feel.  ○​ Many trans people know from a young age they are in the "wrong body." ○​ Transitioning can happen at any point in life, and it can look different for everyone. ○​ Passing: A term in the trans community that refers to whether a trans person is seen as the gender they identify with. Being passable often helps trans people navigate social situations. ○​ Transphobia works in distinct ways, often reinforcing harmful stereotypes and discrimination. Typing and Types ​ Type:​ “A simple, vivid, memorable, easily grasped, and widely recognized characterization in which a few traits are foregrounded and change or 'development' is kept to a minimum.” ​ Typing:​ The process through which we make sense of the world via classification schemes, effectively decoding information. It is essential in the production of meaning, often through wider categories such as: ○​ Membership Type: Classifications based on group membership. ○​ Personality Type: Classifications based on personal traits. ○​ Character Type: Classifications based on roles or behaviors. Stereotypes and Stereotyping ​ Stereotypes:​ These are rigid and oversimplified ideas that reduce everything about a person to a few simple, vivid, memorable, easily grasped, and widely recognized traits. These traits are often exaggerated and fixed without change or development, creating a static and unchanging view of the individual. ​ Stereotyping:​ The act of applying stereotypes, which creates boundaries and involves boundary maintenance—creating fixed, clear-cut, and unalterable categories. Characteristics of Stereotypes ​ Reduce: Simplifying complex identities into basic traits. ​ Essentialize: Emphasizing only certain characteristics, ignoring others. ​ Naturalize: Presenting stereotypes as inherent or natural traits. ​ Fix: Treating these traits as permanent and unchanging.​ Stereotyping involves: ○​ A strategy of splitting: categorizing things into acceptable vs. unacceptable, which excludes everything outside of the "normal." ○​ Practices of closure and exclusion: reinforcing boundaries that fix who belongs and who doesn’t. ○​ Occurs in contexts of gross inequalities of power. Ethnocentrism  ​ Ethnocentrism:​ The application of one's own cultural norms to judge and evaluate others’ cultures, often resulting in a biased view that favors the dominant culture. ○​ Stereotypes serve to maintain social and symbolic order through what can be seen as a 'Power-knowledge game'. Negative Feelings in Stereotypes ​ Deviant:​ The "Other" is seen as unacceptable, outside the norm. ​ Normal:​ The "Us" is seen as acceptable, part of the norm. Signifying Practice & Example of Stereotype ​ Example of Stereotype:​ The idea that “Feminism is solely a Western notion” can lead to an epistemic hegemony, where Western feminist agendas are seen as the only valid ones, sidelining global feminist movements and essentializing gender norms based on Western ideals. Gender Essentialism vs. Cultural Essentialism ​ Gender Essentialism:​ The idea that gender is an intrinsic, unchanging characteristic, often used in a binary manner (e.g., male/female). ​ Cultural Essentialism:​ The belief that cultures have fixed, inherent characteristics that define them. This can overlap with gender essentialism when certain groups are reduced to cultural or gender stereotypes. ○​ When divided along global fault lines (e.g., Western vs. non-Western cultures), there is a risk of reinforcing essentialist analyses that group diverse identities together without acknowledging intersectionality. Cultural Imperialism ​ Cultural Imperialism:​ The imposition of one culture’s norms over others, often associated with colonialism. It denies the similarities between cultures and insists on the inferiority of colonized cultures compared to the Western ideal. This often manifests in the representation of values like liberty and equality as Western values. ○​ Anti-colonial nationalist movements may perpetuate essentialist notions about culture, though many third-world feminists do not align with these agendas. Tracing Essentialism in Stereotypes ​ The 'Picture of Western Culture':​ The idea of Western culture, originating in Greece and culminating in the U.S., is often presented as the epitome of civilization. This view contrasts sharply with ‘Eastern’ or ‘Oriental’ cultures, a distinction with colonial roots that has been used to justify Western superiority. Identity and Difference: Race and Gender Interaction  ​ 'How to Know You Are White':​ Whiteness is defined as access to privilege—those who "exist in bodies that give them access to white privilege," regardless of their personal identification with being white. ○​ Anti-Racism:​ Anti-racism is not about ignoring race but actively recognizing and challenging racism, both personally and in broader societal structures. Gender & Race Interaction The intersection of gender and race produces specific social inequalities: ​ Jobs/Income: Racialized women often face more economic inequalities than white women and men. ​ Housing: Racialized women face greater barriers to homeownership and rental opportunities. ​ Access to Justice: Racialized women often experience greater violence and distrust in legal systems. ​ Racialized Sexuality: Racist stereotypes affect sexual identity and experiences, with specific stereotypes about different racialized women. ​ Schools: Racialized women often experience infantilization and lack representation in academic knowledge production. ​ Media: Racialized women are poorly represented and often stereotyped. ​ Self-Esteem: These experiences contribute to a diminished sense of power and worth. ​ Citizenship & Immigration: Racialized women face greater challenges regarding rights and citizenship. ​ Domestic Workers: Often unaware of their rights, leading to exploitation. ​ Hate Crimes: Racialized women are more vulnerable to sexual and physical violence. Internalized Racism and Externalized Behavior ​ 'Lies, Masks & Respectful Femininity':​ Asian women often face cultural pressures to embody the role of "good daughters and community members." Their reputation, especially in terms of sexual behavior, is closely monitored. ○​ Normative Feminine Behavior:​ Gender and ethnicity work together to define what is considered appropriate femininity, with East/West dualism often framing these norms. Canada as ‘Freedom Land’ ​ Slave Society: A society whose economy was based on slavery and continues to benefit from it. ​ A Society with Slaves: Slavery was institutionalized as a practice. ​ Canada’s Involvement: 200 years ago, Canada was involved in the British slave trade, even building slave ships. ​ Freedom Image: Canada became associated with “freedom” and “refuge,” especially through the Underground Railroad (1830-1860). Slavery Defined  ​ Slavery: "The robbery of one's freedom and labor by another, usually more powerful person. Violence and coercion are used to carry out the theft and to keep the slave captive in the condition of bondage and servitude." ​ Canada’s Slave History: Slavery was legal and accepted in French and British Canada from 1628 to 1833. Colonial Impact on Indigenous Peoples ​ Genocide: The extermination of Indigenous populations through harsh conditions, diseases, and violence. ​ Resulting in Demand for Black Slaves: This genocide led to the increased need for Black slaves. Legal and Social Codes ​ Code Noir: The French legal code that regulated various aspects of slavery, including master-slave relationships, marriages, and the status of children born to slaves. ​ Property: Slaves were treated as personal property (e.g., livestock, furniture, trade goods). ​ Patriarchy in Slavery: Slavery in Canada was patriarchal, with male slaveholders at the head of an extended family structure that included both blood relatives and enslaved persons. Conquest and Expansion ​ End of the Seven Years' War (1760): The British won, and the Treaty of Paris (1763) ceded Canada from France to Britain, intensifying slavery in Canada. ​ Britain’s Role in Slavery: Britain was one of the largest slave-trading nations, with colonies in the West Indies, the U.S., South Africa, and India. Slavery: Race and Gender ​ Sexual Exploitation: Slavery involved the dehumanization of Black and Indigenous women, with sexual violence and forced reproduction. The children of enslaved women inherited their mother’s enslaved status. ​ Gendered Violence: White men owned Black women’s bodies, subjecting them to rape and sexual assault, while often blaming the women for their victimization. Stereotypes and Negative Identities ​ Misrepresentation of Indigenous Women: Stereotyped as sexually available, submissive figures, such as the “Squaw” and “Indian Princess,” often depicted as needing white men’s salvation. ​ Squaw: A derogatory, racist, and misogynistic term representing Indigenous women as aggressive and militant, embodying both the beauty and danger of the land. ​ The Indian Princess: A sexualized image of Native women as innocent, in need of white male intervention and civilization. Land, Landscape, and the Female Image ​ Euro-Canadian Symbolism: Native women were often equated with the land, symbolizing control, possession, and exploitation. ​ The Virgin Land: The frontier was presented as an untouched, eroticized space for European men to conquer and lay claim to. Global Versions of Native Women ​ Transformative Borderlands: Similar stereotypes of Native women persist across cultures: ○​ Canada: Tekakwitha (“Mohawk Saint”) ○​ U.S.: Pocahontas (“Indian Princess”) ○​ Mexico: Malintzin ○​ South Africa: Krotoa Colonial Legacy: Indigenous Women and Resistance ​ Resistance and Resurgence: Indigenous women continue to resist colonialism through political mobilization, culture, and spiritual practices. ​ Shame and Colonial Abuse: Colonialism imposes both individual and collective shame on Indigenous peoples, disconnecting them from their resistance narratives. ​ Cognitive Imperialism: The process of convincing Indigenous peoples that resistance is futile, reinforcing their defeat. Reconciliation and Restorative Justice ​ Reconciliation: A meaningful process grounded in cultural generation and political resurgence. It requires collective understanding and a commitment to stopping abuse. ​ Restorative Justice: A process where perpetrators take full responsibility in a collective setting, allowing survivors to have agency and decide restorative measures. The Indian Act (1869) ​ Legal Framework: The Indian Act governs the lives of Indigenous peoples, determining status through patrilineal descent (through male ancestors). ​ Bill C-31 (1985): This bill marked a significant moment in Indigenous women’s activism by ending 100 years of sexual discrimination, allowing Indigenous women to regain full rights and status. Indigenous Women’s Activism and Resurgence ​ Political and Social Activism: Indigenous women’s activism aims to address social and political deprivation, building community-based solutions and reinvesting in traditional knowledge, values, and legal systems. ​ Friendship Centers: These centers serve as cultural hubs and agents of change, created by community women to provide social safety nets and cultural education. Impact of Colonialism ​ Forced Assimilation and Systemic Discrimination: Colonization has forced Indigenous peoples to redefine their humanity in opposition to the dehumanizing portrayal of them as “savages.” Patrilineal: Descent traced through the male line. Cognitive Imperialism: A strategy to convince colonized peoples that resistance is pointless. Restorative Justice: A collective process where perpetrators take responsibility for their actions, and survivors have agency. Reconciliation: A broad, decolonizing process that involves cultural regeneration and political resurgence, not just “taking responsibility” for past wrongs.