Introduction To Psychology PDF

WEEK 1-2: Introduction to Psychology Educational psychology- concerned with teaching and learning processes, such as the relationship between motivation and Psychology is defined as the scie...

WEEK 1-2: Introduction to Psychology Educational psychology- concerned with teaching and learning processes, such as the relationship between motivation and Psychology is defined as the scientific school performance. study of behavior and mental processes. Environmental psychology- considers the The phrase behavior and mental processes relationship between people and their in the definition of psychology must be physical environment. understood to mean many things:It Evolutionary psychology- considers how encompasses not just what people do but behavior is influenced by our genetic also their thoughts, emotions, perceptions, inheritance from our ancestors. reasoning processes, memories, and even Experimental psychology- studies the the biological activities that maintain bodily processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, functioning. and thinking about the world. Forensic psychology- focuses on legal Four goals of Psychology: issues, such as determining the accuracy of witness memories. define, predict, explain and change. Health psychology- explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease. Industrial/organizational psychology- THE SUBFIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY: concerned with the psychology of the PSYCHOLOGY’S FAMILY TREE workplace Personality psychology- ocuses on the Behavioral genetics- studies the consistency in people's behavior over time inheritance of traits related to behavior. and the traits that differentiate one person Behavioral neuroscience- examines the from another. biological basis of behavior. Program evaluation- ocuses on assessing Clinical psychology- deals with the study, large-scale programs, such as the Head diagnosis, and treatment of psychological Start preschool program, to determine disorders. whether they are effective in meeting their Clinical neuropsychology- unites the goals. areas of biopsychology and clinical Psychology of women- focuses on issues psychology, focusing on the relationship such as discrimination against women and between biological factors and psychological the causes of violence against women. disorders School psychology- is devoted to Cognitive psychology- focuses on the counseling children in elementary and study of higher mental processes. secondary schools who have academic or Counseling psychology- focuses primarily emotional problems. on educational, social, and career Social psychology- study of how people's adjustment problems. thoughts, feelings, and actions are Cross-cultural psychology- investigates affected by others. the similarities and differences in Sport psychology- applies psychology to psychological functioning in and across athletic activity and exercise. various cultures and ethnic groups. Developmental psychology- examines WHAT ARE THE BIOLOGICAL how people grow and change from the FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR? moment of conception through death. -Behavioral neuroscience HOW DO PEOPLE SENSE, PERCEIVE, According to the 17th-century philosopher LEARN, AND THINK ABOUT THE Descartes, nerves were hollow tubes WORLD? through which “animal spirits” conducted -Experimental psychology impulses in the same way that water is -cognitive psychology, transmitted through a pipe. Franz Josef Gall, an 18th-century WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF CHANGE physician, argued that a trained observer AND STABILITY IN BEHAVIOR ACROSS could discern intelligence, moral character, THE LIFE SPAN? and other basic personality characteristics -Developmental psychology from the shape and number of bumps on a -Personality psychology person’s skull. Hippocrates four temperaments and their HOW DO PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS predominant humors are as follows: AFFECT PHYSICAL AND MENTAL Sanguine: blood, Phlegmatic: phlegm, HEALTH? Choleric: yellow bile, Melancholic: black bile. -Health psychology -Clinical psychology Wilhelm Wundt, German physiologist and -Counseling psychologists psychologist who is generally acknowledged as the founder of experimental psychology. HOW DO OUR SOCIAL NETWORKS AFFECT BEHAVIOR? The Principles of Psychology is a two- -Social psychology volume introduction to the study of the -Cross-cultural psychology human mind published by William James. -Evolutionary psychology -Behavioral Genetics Sigmund Freud psychodynamic -Clinical neuropsychology perspective emphasizes unconscious psychological processes and contends that Psychometrician is responsible for the childhood experiences are crucial in shaping administration and scoring of psychological adult personality. assessment tests under the supervision of a Ivan Pavlov, developed the principles of Psychologist. classical conditioning. Psychologist study cognitive, emotional, and social processes and behavior by THE ROOTS OF PSYCHOLOGY observing, interpreting, and recording how individuals relate to one another and to their The formal beginning of psychology as a environments. scientific discipline is generally considered to A psychiatrist is a physician who be in the late 19th century, when Wilhelm specializes in mental health care. It will Wundt, in Leipzig, Germany, established the require you to go to medical school. first experimental laboratory devoted to psychological phenomena. When Wundt set A SCIENCE EVOLVES: THE PAST,THE up his laboratory in 1879, his aim was to PRESENT, AND THE FUTURE study the building blocks of the mind. He considered psychology to be the study of Seven thousand years ago, people assumed conscious experience. His perspective, that psychological problems were caused by which came to be known as structuralism, evil spirits. To allow those spirits to escape focused on uncovering the fundamental from a person’s body, ancient healers mental components of perception, chipped a hole in a patient’s skull with crude consciousness, thinking, emotions, and instruments—a procedure other kinds of mental states and activities. called trephining  2. Psychodynamic perspective is the Introspection, It is a procedure used to approach based on the view that study the structure of the mind in which behavior is motivated by unconscious subjects are asked to describe in detail what inner forces over which the individual they are experiencing when they are has little control. exposed to a stimulus. The perspective that 3. Behavioral perspective is the approach replaced structuralism is known as that suggests that observable, functionalism--concentrated on what the measurable behavior should be the mind does—the functions of mental focus of study. The external behavior activity—and the that can be observed and measured role of behavior in allowing people to adapt objectively. to their environments. 4. Cognitive perspective focuses on how people think, understand, and know WOMEN IN PSYCHOLOGY: FOUNDING about the world. The emphasis is on MOTHERS learning how people comprehend and ⚫ Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) represent the outside world within important work on animal behaviour. themselves and how our ways of ⚫ Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886–1939) thinking about the world influence our focus on child development and on behaviour. women’s issues. 5. Humanistic perspective suggests that ⚫ Mary Calkins (1863–1930), who studied all individuals naturally strive to grow, memory in the early part of the 20th develop, and be in control of their lives century. and behavior. Humanistic psychologists ⚫ Karen Horney (1885–1952) focused on maintain that each of us has the the social and cultural factors behind capacity to seek and reach fulfillment. personality. ⚫ June Etta Downey (1875–1932) PSYCHOLOGY’S KEY ISSUES AND spearheaded the study of personality CONTROVERSIES traits ⚫ Anna Freud (1895–1982), the daughter Issue 1: Nature (heredity) versus nurture of Sigmund Freud. (environment) ⚫ Mamie Phipps Clark (1917–1983) work Issue 2: Conscious versus unconscious on how children of color grew to causes of behaviour recognize racial differences. Issue 3: Observable behavior versus internal mental processes TODAY’S FIVE MAJOR PERSPECTIVES Issue 4: Free will versus determinism. The major perspectives of Psychology. Issue 5: Individual differences versus These broad perspectives emphasize universal principles. different aspects of behavior and mental processes, and each takes our understanding of behavior in a somewhat different direction. 1. Neuroscience Perspective is the approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions. It considers how people and nonhumans function biologically.  they help test the underlying soundness of WEEK 3: Introduction to Psychology theories. A hypothesis must be restated in a (continuation) way that will allow it to be tested, which involves creating an operational definition. An operational definition is the translation scientific method is the approach used by of a hypothesis into specific, testable psychologists to systematically acquire procedures that can be measured and knowledge and understanding about observed in an experiment. behavior and other phenomena of interest. It consists of four main steps: PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Research—systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge—is a central ingredient of the scientific method in psychology. descriptive research is designed to systematically investigate a person, group, or patterns of behavior. These methods include archival research, naturalistic observation, survey research, and case studies. 1. archival research, existing data, such as census documents, college records, online databases, and newspaper articles, are examined to test a hypothesis. 2. naturalistic observation, the investigator observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation. 3. Survey research is a straightforward Theories are broad explanations and way of finding out what people think, predictions concerning phenomena of feel, and do than asking them directly. interest. They provide a framework for 4. case study is an in-depth, intensive understanding the relationships among a set investigation of a single individual or a of otherwise unorganized facts or principles. small group. Psychologists Bibb Latané and John Darley, 5. correlational research, two sets of responding to the failure of bystanders to variables are examined to determine intervene when Kitty Genovese was whether they are associated, or murdered in New York, developed what they “correlated.” Variables are behaviors, called a theory of diffusion of events, or other characteristics that can responsibility--the greater the number of change, or vary, in some way. bystanders in an emergency situation, the smaller the share of the responsibility each Experimental research requires, then, that person feels—and the less likely that any the responses of at least two groups be single person will come forward to help. compared. One group with treatment called ‘experimental group’ no treatment is called a A hypothesis is a prediction stated in a way control group. that allows it to be tested. Hypotheses stem from theories;  WEEK 3: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT independent variable is the condition that is manipulated by an experimenter. The Nature and Nurture: The Enduring dependent variable is the variable that is Developmental Issue measured in a study and is expected to change as a result of the experimenter’s Developmental psychology is the branch manipulation of the independent variable. of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout ❖ A significant outcome indicates that life. nature refers to hereditary factors, and the findings are statistically meaningful, nurture refers to environmental influences. making it possible for researchers to feel confident that they have confirmed their Determining the Relative Influence of Nature hypotheses. and Nurture ❖ Replicated research is a research that Human twins serve as another important is repeated, sometimes using other source of information about the relative procedures, settings, and groups of effects of genetic and environmental factors. participants, to increase confidence in prior findings. Developmental Research Techniques Cross-sectional research - a research The Ethics of Research method that compares people of different -One of psychologists’ key ethical principles ages at the same point in time. It provide is informed consent. information about differences in -after participation in a study, they must be development between different age. A given a debriefing in which they receive an cohort is a group of people who grow up at explanation of the study and the procedures similar times, in similar places, and in similar that were involved. conditions. Longitudinal research - A research method Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding that investigates behavior as participants get Experimental Bias older. Longitudinal studies assess change in Experimental bias refers to factors that behavior over time, whereas cross-sectional distort the way the independent variable studies assess differences among groups of affects the dependent variable in an people. experiment. A related problem is participant The Basics of Genetics - The one-cell expectations. If you have ever been a entity established at conception contains 23 participant in an experiment, you probably pairs of chromosomes, rodshaped structures developed participant expectation. that contain all basic hereditary information. psychologists typically use a procedure in One member of each pair is from the which all the participants receive a mother, and the other is from the father. treatment, but those in the control group Each chromosome contains thousands of receive only a placebo—a false treatment, genes—smaller units through which genetic such as a pill, “drug,” or other substance that information is transmitted. Composed of has no significant chemical properties or sequences of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) active ingredient. By keeping both the molecules, genes are the biological participant and the experimenter who equivalent of “software” that programs the interacts with the participant “blind” to the future development of all parts of the body’s nature of the drug that is being administered, hardware. Humans have some 25,000 researchers can more accurately assess the different genes. effects of the drug. This method is known as the double-blind procedure.  4. Down syndrome -one of the causes of a child inherits an X chromosome from its intellectual disability, occurs when the mother and either an X or a Y chromosome zygote receives an extra chromosome at the from its father. When it receives an XX moment of conception. Down syndrome is combination, it is a female; with an XY often related to the mother’s age; mothers combination, it develops as a male. Male over 35 and younger than 18. development is triggered by a single gene on the Y chromosome. If a child receives a PRENATAL ENVIRONMENTAL three pair of chromosomes XXY or XXX it INFLUENCES might develop Edward syndrome (Trisomy Environmental influences—the nurture part 18). of the nature–nurture equation—also affect the fetus. Some of the more profound The Earliest Development consequences are brought about by When an egg becomes fertilized by the teratogens, environmental agents such as sperm, the resulting one-celled entity, called drugs, chemicals, viruses, or other factors a zygote(the new cell formed by the union of that produce birth defects. an egg and sperm), immediately begins to develop. The zygote starts out as a 1. Mother’s nutrition - What a mother eats microscopic speck. Three days after during her pregnancy can have important fertilization, though, the zygote increases to implications for the health of her baby. around 32 cells; within a week it has grown 2. Mother’s illness - Even minor illnesses to 100–150 cells. These first two weeks are that a mother catches during the early known as the germinal period. months of pregnancy can have devastating Two weeks after conception, the developing consequences for a developing fetus. individual enters the embryonic period, 3. Mother’s use of drug - Mothers who take which lasts from week 2 through week 8; he illegal, physically addictive drugs such as or she is now called an embryo(a developed cocaine run the risk of giving birth to babies zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other who are similarly addicted. organs). From week 8 and continuing until 4. Alcohol - Alcohol is extremely dangerous birth, the developing individual enters the to fetal development. fetal period and is called a fetus 5. Nicotine use - Pregnant mothers who smoke put their children at considerable risk. GENETIC INFLUENCES ON THE FETUS Smoking while pregnant can lead to 1. Phenylketonuria (PKU) - A child born with miscarriage and infant death. the inherited disease phenylketonuria cannot produce an enzyme that is required for Infancy and Childhood normal development. This deficiency results Several factors cause a neonate’s strange in an accumulation of poisons that appearance. Neonate is a newborn child. eventually cause profound intellectual Reflexes - A neonate is born with a number disability. of reflexes—unlearned, involuntary 2. Sickle-cell anemia - a disease that gets its responses that occur automatically in the name from the abnormally shaped red blood presence of certain stimuli. cells it causes. Children with the disease o Rooting reflex, turn their heads toward may have episodes of pain, yellowish eyes, things that touch their cheeks—such as the stunted growth, and vision problems mother’s nipple or a bottle. 3. Tay-Sachs disease -a disorder most often o Sucking reflex suck at things that touch found in Jews of Eastern European their lips. ancestry, usually die by age 3 or 4 because o Gag reflex (to clear the throat) of the body’s inability to break down fat.  Social Relationships with Peers - By the o Startle reflex (infant flings out the arms, time they are 2 years old, children become fans the fingers, and arches the back in less dependent on their parents, more self- response to a sudden noise) reliant, and increasingly prefer to play with o Babinski reflex (a baby’s toes fan out when friends. the outer edge of the sole of the foot is The Consequences of Child Care Outside stroked). the Home-- Parenting Styles and Social Development DEVELOPMENT OF THE SENSES: - Parents’ child-rearing practices are critical TAKING IN THE WORLD in shaping their children’s social This phenomenon is known as habituation, competence. the decrease in the response to a stimulus ⚫ Authoritarian parents - They have that occurs after repeated presentations of strict standards and discourage the same stimulus. expressions of disagreement. ⚫ Permissive parents give their children Physical Development - Children’s physical relaxed or inconsistent direction and growth provides the most obvious sign of they are warm, require little of them. development. ⚫ Authoritative parents are firm and set Development of Social Behavior: Taking limits for their children. on the World - Attachment, the positive ⚫ Uninvolved parents show little interest emotional bond that develops between a in their children. Emotionally detached, child and a particular individual, is the most they view parenting as nothing more important. Imprinting, is a behavior that than providing food, clothing, and shelter takes place during a critical period and for children. involves attachment to the first moving object that is observed. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development- Psychosocial development Assessing Attachment - Developmental involves changes in our interactions and psychologists have devised a quick and understanding of one another as well as in direct way to measure attachment. (mother) our knowledge and understanding of ⚫ Securely attached children. Children ourselves as members of society. Stage of who are securely attached employ the development: mother as a kind of home base 1. Trust-versus-mistrust stage- HOPE (0-2 ⚫ Avoidant children. Avoidant children do years -infancy), infants develop feelings of not cry when the mother leaves, and trust if their physical requirements and they seem to avoid her when she psychological needs. returns. 2. Autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt ⚫ Ambivalent children. display anxiety stage- WILL (3-4 years), toddlers develop before they are separated and are upset independence and autonomy if exploration when the mother leaves, but they may and freedom are encouraged, or they show ambivalent reactions to her return, experience shame, self-doubt, and such as seeking close contact but unhappiness if they are overly restricted simultaneously hitting and kicking her. 3. Initiative-versus-guilt stage -PURPOSE ⚫ Disorganized-disoriented children. A (4-5) in this period come to understand that fourth reaction is disorganized- they are persons in their own right, and disoriented; these children show begin to make decisions about their inconsistent and often contradictory behavior. behavior. 4. Industry-versus-inferiority stage - Father’s Role - When fathers interact with COMPETENCE(5-12). During this period, their children, their play often differs from increasing competency in all areas, whether mothers’ play. social interactions or academic skills, Psycho sexual stages of development by characterizes successful psychosocial Sigmund Freud Theory of Development development. 1. Oral stage -(0to2) erogenous zone is in 5. Identity-versus-role-confusion - the mouth FIDELITY (13-19)stage, encompasses -fixation (not satisfied in stage) oral fixated adolescence. During this stage, a time of nail biting major testing, people try to determine what 2. Anal stage -(2to4) sexual gratification in is unique about themselves. They attempt to defecation -fixation discover who they are, what their strengths 3. Phallic stage- (4to6) erogenous zone in are, and what kinds of roles they are best genital part. experience attraction towards suited to play for the rest of their lives—in opposite sex parent. Oedipus complex male short, their identity child to mother, Electra complex female child 6. Intimacy-versus-isolation -LOVE stage to father. Fixation-homosexual (20-40), this stage focuses on developing 4. Latent stage -(6to12) sexual impulses in close relationships with others. Difficulties dormant activities, playing, going to school during this stage result in feelings of and socialization. loneliness and a fear of such relationships 5. Genital stage -(12 above) sexual 7. Generativity-versus-stagnation stage attraction begin in opposite sex. CARE - (40-45 yrs) Generativity is the ability to contribute to one’s family, community, Adolescence: Becoming an Adult work, and society and to assist the Adolescence, the developmental stage development of the younger generation. between childhood and adulthood, is a Success in this stage results in a person’s crucial period. feeling positive and optimistic Physical Development: The Changing 8. Ego-integrity-versus-despair stage Adolescent WISDOM- (65 above) spans later adulthood Puberty, the period at which maturation of and continues until death. People in this the sexual organs occurs, begins at about stage ask themselves if they have lived a age 11 or 12 for girls, when menstruation meaningful life. If they see their lives starts. positively, they feel a sense of accomplishment; if not, they feel regret over For boys, the onset of puberty is marked by a misspent life. their first ejaculation, known as spermarche. Spermarche usually occurs around the age of 13. Week 4: NEUROSCIENCE AND The primary components of the neuron, the BEHAVIOR basic element of the nervous system. A neuron has a cell body and structures that Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior conduct messages: the dendrites, which receive messages from other neurons, and The Structure of the Neuron --Such the axon, which carries messages to other messages—as well as those that enable us neurons or body cells. As with most to think, remember, and experience neurons, this axon is protected by the emotion—are passed through specialized sausage-like myelin sheath. cells called neurons. Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic elements of the nervous system. neurons have a cell body that contains a nucleus. The nucleus incorporates the hereditary material that determines how a cell will function. Neurons are physically held in place by glial cells. Glial cells provide nourishment to neurons, insulate them, help repair damage, and generally support neural functioning. There’s a cluster of fibers at the end of every neuron that are called dendrites. Dendrites, which look like the twisted branches of a tree, are the part of the neuron that receive messages from other neurons. The axon carries messages received by the dendrites to other neurons. The axon is considerably longer than the rest of the neuron. Axons end in small bulges called terminal buttons, which send messages to other neurons. How Neurons Fire -neurons follow an all-or- none law: They are either on or off, with nothing in between the on state and the off state. When there is enough force to pull the trigger, a neuron fires. MIRROR NEURONS - there is significant specialization among different types of The synapse is the space between two neurons. For example, neuroscientists have neurons where the axon of a sending neuron discovered the existence of mirror neurons, communicates with the dendrites of a neurons that fire not only when a person receiving neuron by using chemical enacts a particular behavior but also when a messages. person simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior. chemical recycling called reuptake. Like a vacuum cleaner sucking up dust, neurons reabsorb the neurotransmitters that are now clogging the synapse. ⚫ Motor (efferent) neurons communicate Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical information in the opposite direction, Couriers - Neurotransmitters are a from the brain and nervous system to particularly important link between the muscles and glands. When the brain nervous system and behavior. sends a message to the muscles of the ⚫ Acetylcholine (or ACh, its chemical hand (hot—move away!), the message symbol) – most common travels via motor neurons. neurotransmitter, which is found throughout the nervous system. ACh is The peripheral nervous system branches out involved in our every move, ACh is also from the spinal cord and brain and reaches involved in memory capabilities, and the extremities of the body. Made up of diminished production of ACh may be neurons with long axons and dendrites, the related to Alzheimer’s disease peripheral nervous system encompasses all ⚫ Glutamate - another common excitatory the parts of the nervous system other than neurotransmitter, plays a role in the brain and spinal cord. memory. ⚫ Somatic division of the peripheral ⚫ Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)- nervous system specializes in the which is found in both the brain and the control of voluntary movements, such as spinal cord, appears to be the nervous the motion of the eyes to read. The system’s primary inhibitory somatic division also communicates neurotransmitter. information to and from the sense ⚫ Dopamine (DA) - another major organs. neurotransmitter, which is involved in ⚫ Autonomic division of the peripheral movement, attention, and learning. nervous system controls the parts of the ⚫ Serotonin - another neurotransmitter, is body that keep us alive— the heart, associated with the regulation of sleep, blood vessels, glands, lungs, and other eating, mood, and pain. organs that function involuntarily without ⚫ Endorphins - another class of our awareness. neurotransmitters, are a family of chemicals produced by the brain that are The major functions of the autonomic similar in structure to painkilling drugs nervous system. The sympathetic division such as morphine. acts to prepare certain organs of the body for stressful situations, and the The nervous system is divided into two main parasympathetic division acts to calm the parts: the central nervous system and the body after the emergency has passed. peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord, which is about the thickness of a pencil, contains a bundle of neurons that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back. It is the primary means for transmitting messages between the brain and the rest of the body ⚫ Sensory (afferent) neurons transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system and the brain. For example, touching a hot stove sends a message to the brain (hot!) via sensory neurons. The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and Glands endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream. Its job is to secrete hormones, ⚫ Transcranial magnetic stimulation chemicals that circulate through the blood (TMS) - exposes a tiny region of the and regulate the functioning or growth of the brain to a strong magnetic field, thereby body. causing a momentary interruption of A key component of the endocrine system is electrical activity. One of the newest the tiny pituitary gland, which is found procedures used to study the brain, TMS near—and regulated by—the hypothalamus is sometimes called a “virtual lesion,” in the brain. The pituitary gland has potential to treat certain kinds of sometimes been called the “master gland” psychological disorders, such as because it controls the functioning of the rest depression and schizophrenia, by of the endocrine system. shooting brief magnetic pulses through the brain The use of testosterone, a male hormone, and drugs known as steroids, which act like The Central Core: Our “Old Brain” testosterone, is increasingly common. A portion of the brain known as the central The brain is responsible for our loftiest core, is quite similar in all vertebrates thoughts—and our most primitive urges. (species with backbones). The central core is sometimes referred to as the “old brain,” Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: The first part would be the hindbrain, which Spying on the Brain contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. ⚫ Electroencephalogram (EEG) - records The medulla controls a number of critical electrical activity in the brain through body functions, the most important of which electrodes placed on the outside of the are breathing and heartbeat. The pons is a skull. diagnosis of disorders such as bridge in the hindbrain. Pons acts as a epilepsy and learning disabilities. transmitter of motor information, ⚫ Functional magnetic resonance coordinating muscles and integrating imaging (fMRI) - provide a detailed, movement between the right and left halves three-dimensional computer-generated of the body. It is also involved in regulating image of brain structures and activity by sleep. aiming a powerful magnetic field at the body. With fMRI scanning, it is possible The cerebellum extends from the rear of the to produce vivid, detailed images of the hindbrain. Without the help of the cerebellum functioning of the brain. disorders such we would be unable to walk a straight line as strokes, multiple sclerosis, and without staggering and lurching forward, for Alzheimer’s it is the job of the cerebellum to control ⚫ Positron emission tomography (PET) bodily balance.  - show biochemical activity within the brain at a given moment. PET scans The reticular formation extends from the begin with the injection of a radioactive medulla through the pons, passing through (but safe) liquid into the bloodstream, the middle section of the brain—or which makes its way to the midbrain—and into the front-most part of the brain.presence of brain tumors brain, called the forebrain. Reticular formation also helps regulate our sleep- wake cycle by filtering out background The hypothalamus is located just below the stimuli to allow us to sleep undisturbed. thalamus. One of its major functions is to maintain homeostasis, a steady internal The thalamus, which is hidden within the environment for the body. The hypothalamus forebrain, acts primarily as a relay station for helps provide a constant body temperature information about the senses. and monitors the amount of nutrients stored in the cells. A second major function is THE SENSORY AREA OF THE CORTEX - equally important: the hypothalamus The sensory area of the cortex includes produces and regulates behavior that is three regions: one that corresponds primarily critical to the basic survival of the species, to body sensations (including touch and such as eating, self-protection, and sex. pressure), one relating to sight, and a third relating to sound. The somatosensory area The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core in the parietal lobe encompasses specific Limbic system is the part of the brain that locations associated with the ability to controls eating, aggression, and perceive touch and pressure in a particular reproduction. Injury to the limbic system can area of the body. An auditory area located in produce striking changes in behavior. The the temporal lobe is responsible for the limbic system and hippocampus, in sense of hearing. particular, play an important role in learning and memory. The limbic system is THE ASSOCIATION AREAS OF THE sometimes referred to as the “animal brain,” CORTEX - The association areas control because its structures and functions are so executive functions, which abilities are similar to those of other mammals. related to planning, goal setting, judgment, and impulse control. Injuries to the The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain” association areas of the brain can produce The cerebral cortex is referred to as the Aphasia - problems with language. In “new brain” Broca’s aphasia, speech becomes halting, laborious,. Wernicke’s aphasia produces side view of the brain, the frontal lobes lie at difficulties both in understanding others’ the front center of the cortex and the parietal speech and in the production of language lobes lie behind them. The temporal lobes are found in the lower-center portion of the Neuroplasticity and the Brain cortex, with the occipital lobes lying behind -Neuroplasticity refers to changes in the them. These four sets of lobes are physically brain that occur throughout the life span separated by deep grooves called sulci. relating to the addition of new neurons, new interconnections between neurons, and the Three major areas are known: the motor reorganization of information-processing areas, the sensory areas, and the areas association areas. -new neurons are also created in certain areas of the brain during adulthood—a THE MOTOR AREA OF THE CORTEX -This process called neurogenesis. part of the cortex is largely responsible for The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two the body’s voluntary movement. The motor area is so well mapped that researchers Brains or One? have identified the amount and relative The brain is divided into two roughly mirror- location of cortical image halves. symmetrical left and right tissue used to produce movement in specific halves, called hemispheres, control motion parts of the human body. in—and receive sensation from— the side of the body opposite their location. The left hemisphere of the brain, then, generally controls the right side of the body, and the -the left hemisphere concentrates more on right hemisphere controls the left side of the tasks that require verbal competence, such body. lateralized. Lateralization is the as speaking, reading, thinking, and dominance of one hemisphere of the brain in reasoning. In addition, the left hemisphere specific functions, such as language. tends to process information sequentially, one bit at a time -right hemisphere has its own strengths, Absolute Thresholds: Detecting What’s Out particularly in nonverbal areas such as the There understanding of spatial relationships, An absolute threshold is the smallest recognition of patterns and drawings, music, Intensity of a stimulus that must be present and emotional expression. The right for it to be detected (Aazh & Moore, 2007) hemisphere tends to process information globally, considering it as a whole Difference Thresholds: Noticing Distinctions -if you are among the 10% of people who Between Stimuli are left-handed or are ambidextrous (you Psychologists have discussed this use both hands interchangeably. comparison problem in terms of the difference threshold, the smallest level of The Split Brain: Exploring the Two added or reduced stimulation required to Hemispheres sense that a change in stimulation has People whose corpus collosums have been occurred. Thus, the difference threshold is cut or injured, are called split-brain patients. the minimum change in stimulation required They offer a rare opportunity for researchers to detect the difference between two stimuli, investigating the independent functioning of and so it also is called a just noticeable the two hemispheres of the brain. difference Weber’s law states that a just noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the intensity of an initial stimulus (rather than a Week 5: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION constant amount). SENSING THE WORLD AROUND US Sensory Adaptation: Turning Down Our ⚫ Sensation is the activation of the sense Responses organs by a source of physical energy. Adaptation is an adjustment in sensory ⚫ Perception is the sorting out, capacity after prolonged exposure to interpretation, analysis, and integration unchanging stimuli. Adaptation occurs as of stimuli carried out by the sense people become accustomed to a stimulus organs and brain. and change their frame of reference. ⚫ Stimulus is any passing source of physical energy that produces a VISION: SHEDDING LIGHT ON THE EYE response in a sense organ. Stimuli vary Vision starts with light, the physical energy in both type and intensity. that stimulates the eye. Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation waves that are Psychophysics is the study of the measured in wavelengths. The sizes of relationship between the physical aspects of stimuli and our psychological experience of wavelengths correspond to different types of them. energy. The visual spectrum is the range of wavelengths that the human eye can detect. The visible spectrum—the range of Illuminating the Structure of the Eye wavelengths to which people are sensitive— cornea, a transparent, protective window. is only a small part of the kinds of After moving through the cornea, the light wavelengths present in our environment. traverses the pupil. The pupil is a dark hole in the center of the iris, the colored part of the eye, which in humans ranges from a light blue to a dark brown. The size of the pupil opening depends on the amount of light in the environment. REACHING THE RETINA The retina consists of a thin layer of nerve Stimulation of the nerve cells in the eye cells at the back of the eyeball. There are triggers a neural response that is transmitted two kinds of lightsensitive receptor cells in to other nerve cells in the retina called the retina. The names they have been given bipolar cells and ganglion cells. describe their shapes: rods and cones. Bipolar cells receive information directly Rods are thin, cylindrical receptor cells that from the rods and cones and communicate are highly sensitive to light. Cones are that information to the ganglion cells. The typically cone-shaped, light-sensitive ganglion cells collect and summarize visual receptor cells that are responsible for sharp information, which is then moved out the focus and color perception, particularly in back of the eyeball and sent to the brain bright light. The rods and cones are through a bundle of ganglion axons called distributed unevenly throughout the retina. the optic nerve Cones are concentrated on the part of the The optic nerves from each eye meet at a retina called the fovea. The fovea is a point roughly between the two eyes—called particularly sensitive region of the retina. the optic chiasm The basic cells of the eye. Light entering the eye travels through the ganglion and bipolar cells PROCESSING THE VISUAL MESSAGE and strikes the light-sensitive rods and cones Feature detectors are extraordinarily located at the back of the eye. The rods and specialized neurons that are activated only cones then transmit nerve impulses to the brain by visual stimuli having particular features, via the bipolar and ganglion cells. such as a particular shape or pattern. Color Vision and Color Blindness: The 7- The rods play a key role in peripheral Million-Color Spectrum vision—seeing objects that are outside the A person with normal color vision is capable of main center of focus—and in night vision. distinguishing no less than 7 million different Rods and cones also are involved in dark colors (Bruce, Green, & Georgeson, 1997;Rabin, adaptation, the phenomenon of adjusting to 2004). dim light after being in brighter light. The there are certain individuals whose ability to opposite phenomenon—light adaptation, or perceive color is quite limited—the color blind. the process of adjusting to bright light after in the most common form of color-blindness, all exposure to dim light red and green objects are seen as yellow. In other SENDING THE MESSAGE FROM THE EYE forms of color-blindness, people are unable to TO THE BRAIN tell the difference between yellow and blue. Rods contain rhodopsin, a complex reddish- purple protein whose composition changes EXPLAINING COLOR VISION chemically when energized by light. The first process is explained by the According to the opponent-process theory of trichromatic theory of color vision, which was color vision, first proposed by German first proposed by Thomas Young and physiologist Ewald Hering in the 19th extended by Hermann von Helmholtz in the century, receptor cells are linked in pairs, first half of the 1800s. This theory suggests working in opposition to each other. that there are three kinds of cones in the retina, each of which responds primarily to a HEARING AND THE OTHER SENSES specific range of wavelengths. Sensing Sound - The location of the outer ears on different afterimage. It occurs because activity in the sides of the head helps with sound retina continues even when you are no localization, the process by which we identify longer staring at the original picture the direction from which a sound is coming. Sorting Out Theories of Sound Sounds, arriving at the outer ear in the form place theory of hearing, which states that of wavelike vibrations, are funneled into the different areas of the basilar membrane auditory canal, a tube-like passage that respond to different frequencies. leads to the eardrum. The eardrum is the part of the ear that vibrates when sound The frequency theory of hearing suggests waves hit it. These vibrations are then that the entire basilar membrane acts as a transferred into the middle ear, a tiny microphone, vibrating as a whole in chamber containing three bones (the response to a sound hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup) that transmit vibrations to the oval window, a thin Balance: The Ups and Downs of Life membrane leading to the inner ear. The Several structures of the ear are related inner ear is the portion of the ear that more to our sense of balance than to our changes the sound vibrations into a form in hearing.Collectively, these structures are which they can be transmitted to the brain. known as the vestibular system, which Inside the cochlea is the basilar membrane, responds to the pull of gravity and allows a structure that runs through the center of us to maintain our balance,The main the cochlea, dividing it into an upper structure of the vestibular system is formed chamber and a lower chamber. The basilar by the semicircular canals of the inner ear, membrane is covered with hair cells. which consist of three tubes containing fluid THE PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF SOUND that sloshes through them when the head Frequency is the number of wave cycles moves, signaling rotational or angular that occur in a second. At very low movement to the brain. The constant pull of frequencies there are relatively few wave gravity, is sensed by the otoliths, tiny, cycles per second. These cycles are visible motion-sensitive crystals in the semicircular to the naked eye as vibrations in the canals. speaker. Low frequencies are translated into a sound that is very low in pitch. (Pitch is SMELL -Although many animals have the characteristic that makes sound seem keener abilities to detect odors than we do, “high” or “low.”) the human sense of smell (olfaction) Amplitude is a feature of wave patterns that permits us to detect more than 10,000 allows us to distinguish between loud and separate smells. The sense of smell is soft sounds. Amplitude is the spread sparked when the molecules of a substance between the up-and-down peaks and valleys enter the nasal passages and meet of air pressure in a sound wave as it travels olfactory cells, the receptor neurons of the through the air.This range is measured in nose, which are spread across the nasal decibels. When sounds get higher than 120 cavity.It has long been known that decibels, they become painful to human ear. nonhumans release pheromones, The receptor cells for taste are located in roughly chemicals they secrete into the environment 10,000 taste buds, which are distributed across that produce a social response in other the tongue and other parts of the mouth and members of the same species. Pheromones throat. The taste buds wear out and are replaced transmit messages such as alarm every 10 days. (“danger—predators are close by!”) The sense of taste differs significantly from one person to another, largely as a result of genetic TASTE - The sense of taste (gustation) factors. Some people, dubbed “supertasters,” involves receptor cells that respond to four are highly sensitive to taste; they have twice as basic stimulus qualities: sweet, sour, salty, many taste receptors as “nontasters,” who are and bitter. A fifth category also exists, a relatively insensitive to taste flavor called umami, although there is controversy about whether it qualifies as a THE SKIN SENSES: TOUCH, PRESSURE, fundamental taste TEMPERATURE, AND PAIN (such as the auditory system) involuntarily The source of Darling’s pain turned out to be leads a person to experience an additional a rare condition known as reflex sensory response in a different sensory sympathetic dystrophy syndrome, or system (such as vision). RSDS. a stimulus as mild as a gentle breeze or the touch of a feather can produce PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION: agony. Even bright sunlight or a loud noise CONSTRUCTING OUR VIEW OF THE can trigger intense pain WORLD We turn now from a focus on the initial response Skin sensitivity in various areas of the body. The to a stimulus (sensation) to what our minds lower the average threshold is, the more make of that stimulus (perception). Perception is sensitive a body part is. The fingers and thumb, a constructive process by which we go beyond lips, nose, cheeks, and big toe are the most the stimuli that are presented to us and attempt to sensitive. construct a meaningful situation when a cell is damaged, regardless of the source of damage, it releases a chemical The Gestalt Laws of Organization - called substance P that transmits pain - Some of the most basic perceptual messages to the brain. processes can be described by a series of According to the gate-control theory of principles that focus on the ways we pain, particular nerve receptors in the organize bits and pieces of information into spinal cord lead to specific areas of the meaningful wholes. Known as gestalt laws brain related to pain. ate-control theory also of organization, these principles were set may explain the effectiveness of forth in the early 1900s by a group of acupuncture, an ancient Chinese German psychologists who studied patterns, technique in which sharp needles are or gestalts (Wertheimer, 1923) inserted into various parts of the body. It is also possible that the body’s own closure: We usually group elements to form painkillers—called endorphins—as well as enclosed or complete figures rather than positive and negative emotions, play a open ones. We tend to ignore the breaks role in opening and closing the gate How Our Senses Interact The explanation? Both of these people have an unusual condition known as principle of proximity: We perceive elements synesthesia, in which the stimulation of that are closer together as grouped together. one sensory system As a result, we tend to see pairs of dots principle is simplicity: When we observe a rather than a row of single dots pattern, we perceive it in the most basic, straightforward manner that we can. Elements that are similar in appearance we perceive as grouped together. Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing - In top-down processing, perception is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations.--illustrated by The monocular cue of texture gradient the importance of context in determining provides information about distance, how we perceive objects. --top-down because the details of things that are far processing cannot occur on its own away are less distinct (Proffitt, 2006). Bottom-up processing consists of the progression of recognizing and processing distant objects appear to be closer information from individual components of a together than are nearer ones, a stimuli and moving to the perception of the phenomenon called linear perspective. whole.Bottom-up processing permits us to Linear perspective is a type of perspective process the fundamental characteristics of in which objects in the distance appear to stimuli, whereas top-down processing allows converge. us to bring our experience to bear on perception. Perceptual Constancy Perceptual constancy is the recognition Depth Perception: Translating 2-D to 3-D - that physical objects are unvarying and The ability to view the world in three consistent even though our sensory input dimensions and to perceive distance—a skill about them varies. Perceptual constancy known as depth perception—is due largely allows us to view objects as having an to the fact that we have two eyes. The unchanging size, shape, color, and difference in the images seen by the left brightness, even if the image on our retina eye and the right eye is known as changes. binocular disparity Motion Perception: As the World Turns certain cues permit us to obtain a sense of Apparent movement is the perception that depth and distance with just one eye. These a stationary object is moving. It occurs cues are known as monocular cues. One when different areas of the retina are quickly monocular cue— motion parallax—is the stimulated, leading us to interpret motion change in position of an object on the retina caused by movement of your body relative Perceptual Illusions: The Deceptions of to the object. Perceptions The fact that the Parthenon appears to be The monocular cue of relative size reflects completely upright is the result of a series of the assumption that if two objects are the visual illusions. Visual illusions are physical same size, the object that makes a smaller stimuli that consistently produce errors in image on the retina is farther away than the perception. one that makes a larger image The Müller-Lyer illusion has fascinated psychologists for decades. Although the two Week 6: STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS lines are the same length, the one with the arrow tips pointing outward, away from the CONSCIOUSNESS vertical line appears to be shorter than the -is the awareness of the sensations, one with the arrow tips pointing inward thoughts, and feelings we experience at a given moment. -is our subjective understanding of both the environment around us and our private internal world, unobservable to outsiders. SLEEP AND DREAMS Stages of Sleep -People progress through a series of distinct stages of sleep during a night's rest-known as Stage 1 through Stage 4 and REM sleep- heart rate and breathing increase, moving through the stages in cycles lasting blood pressure rises, about 90 minutes. Each of these sleep the eyes move rapidly as if watching a stages is associated with a unique pattern of movie brain waves. -This period of sleep is called rapid eye -Brain-wave patterns are measured by an movement, or REM sleep, and it contrasts EEG apparatus with stages 1 through 4, which are They vary significantly during the different collectively labeled non-REM (or NREM) stages of sleep. sleep. As sleep moves from stage 1 through stage 4, brain waves become slower. Sleep is essential for normal human functioning. Our bodies need a peaceful ⚫ Stage 1 Sleep: Transition between "rest and relaxation" period to rejuvenate. wakefulness and sleep with rapid, low- Experiments with rats demonstrate that total amplitude brain waves. Brief stage; sleep deprivation can lead to death. sometimes involves fleeting images (not ⚫ According to Peterfi et al. (2010), Sleep dreams). helped our ancestors conserve energy ⚫ Stage 2 Sleep: Slower, more regular at night when food was scarce and brain waves with brief bursts of sleep improved daytime foraging. spindles. This stage makes up about ⚫ According to Stickgold (2015), the half of the sleep cycle for young adults. reasons for sleep's essentiality remain It's harder to wake someone up during speculative, but it serves multiple this stage. functions, and without it, we will ⚫ Stage 3 Sleep: Brain waves become eventually die. slower with higher peaks and deeper ⚫ According to McCarthy and Brown valleys. (2015), most people sleep between 7 ⚫ Stage 4 Sleep: The slowest and most and 8 hours per night today, regular brain wave pattern. People are ⚫ According to Monk et al. (2011) and least responsive to external stimuli. Petersen (2011), men and women sleep ⚫ differently; women tend to fall asleep REM Sleep: The Paradox of Sleep faster, sleep longer and more deeply, and wake up less often, while men worry REM sleep occurs several times a night as less about their sleep despite sleeping sleep cycles back to a lighter stage. During less. this period, ⚫ According to Mograss et al. (2009), Jackson et al. (2013), and Maturana et The Function and Meaning of Dreaming al.(2015), people in sleep deprivation experiments experience temporary Nightmares, which are frightening dreams, negative effects like fatigue, irritability, occur fairly often. and decreased concentration but typically bounce back. Students often dream about attending class, while professors dream about Overall, a lack of sleep can still lead to lecturing. feelings of edginess, slower reaction times, Dental patients may dream about getting and lower performance on academic and their teeth drilled, and dentists might dream physical tasks. about drilling the wrong tooth. DREAMS REPRESENT UNCONSCIOUS WISH FULFILLMENT? › Using psychoanalytic theory, Sigmund Freud viewed dreams as a guide to the Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering Problems unconscious (Freud, 1900). In his unconscious wish fulfillment theory, he - difficulty sleeping-a condition known as proposed that dreams represent insomnia. It could be due to particular unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to situation, such as the breakup of see fulfilled. relationship, concern about a test score. ⚫ Manifest content: The part of the Night Terrors- Sudden awakenings from dream we remember (the storyline). non-REM sleep accompanied by extreme ⚫ Latent content: The hidden meaning, fear, panic, and strong physiological arousal. often related to repressed wishes. Sleepwalking- Uncontrollable sleeping that Freud believed symbols in dreams represent occurs for short periods while a person is deeper meaning awake. Sleeptalking- A sleep disturbance that is EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATIONS OF usually harmless and occurs during stage 4 DREAMS: DREAMS-FOR-SURVIVAL sleep. THEORY -Dreams permit us to reconsider and CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS- The fact that we reprocess during sleep information that is cycle back and forth between wakefulness critical for our daily survival. and sleep is one example of the body's -Dreaming is considered an inheritance from circadian rhythms. our animal ancestors -Biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycle. ACTIVATION-SYNTHESIS THEORY Proposed by psychiatrist J. Allan Hobson, Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN):Controls the activation- synthesis theory suggests our circadian rhythms, but there are a dreams result from random electrical brain number of circadian "clocks" associated activity during REM sleep. with specific parts of the body. Refined by Activation Information HYPNOSIS AND MEDITATION Modulation (AIM) theory, which explains People under hypnosis are in a trancelike that different brain areas (visual and motion state of heightened susceptibility to the centers) contribute to dream content. reflect suggestions of others. a person's emotions, fears, or concerns, but they are not entirely random or meaningless. How is someone hypnotized?  - comfortable in a quiet environment. - telling the person that he or she will THE VALUE OF HYPNOSIS experience a pleasant, relaxed state Hypnosis has been used successfully to - hypnotist may make suggestions that the solve practical human problems. person begins to experience these sensations. -Controlling pain -Reducing Smoking THE DIVIDED CONSCIOUSNESS THEORY -Treating Psychological Disorders Ernest Hilgard's Theory -Assisting in Law Enforcement › Hypnosis brings about a dissociation, or -Improving Athletic Performance division, of consciousness into two simultaneous components.- they are acting Meditation: Regulating Our Own State of as "hidden observers," aware of what is Consciousness happening to them. Causes and Nature of Addiction Meditation is a learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an Varied Effects: Different drugs (e.g., altered state of consciousness. After alcohol and cocaine) affect the brain meditation, people report feeling thoroughly differently but can both lead to addiction. relaxed. long-term practice of meditation may even improve health because of the Addiction Timeline: Some drugs take biological changes it produces. longer to cause addiction, but the consequences of addiction can be equally DRUG USE: THE HIGHS AND LOWS OF severe. CONCIOUS Drugs are a part of most people's lives, like Reasons People Use Drugs vitamins, aspirin, and cold medicine. Pleasure psychoactive drugs do cause changes in Escape emotions, perceptions, and behavior Spirituality Influences Addictive Drug Dependance Curiosity Addiction: Drugs can cause physiological Stimulants: Caffeine and Nicotine or psychological dependence (or both). 1. Caffeine ⚫ Physiological dependence: The body Effect: -common stimulant, increasing heart becomes used to the drug, making it rate, blood pressure, hard to function without it. Commonly found in coffee, tea, soft drinks, ⚫ Psychological dependence: Users and chocolate. believe they need the drug to deal with Side effects: nervousness, insomnia, stress or daily life challenges. 2. Nicotine Effect: found in cigarettes and is highly Common Addictive Substances: addictive. Mechanism: activates brain mechanisms Drugs like heroin are well-known for similar to cocaine. addiction. Dependence: experience strong cravings and withdrawal symptoms. Everyday substances like caffeine (coffee) and nicotine (cigarettes) are also addictive. Amphetamines and Related Stimulants  1. Amphetamines Examples: Dexedrine and Benzedrine, 3. Bath Salts commonly known as speed. An amphetamine-like stimulant containing -Overdose risk: Overstimulating the central chemicals similar to cathinone. nervous system can cause convulsions and Effects: Produces euphoria, increased even death. sociability, and a rise in sex drive. 2. Methamphetamine (Meth) Negative side effects: Can include -A white, crystalline drug, considered one of paranoia and agitation. the most dangerous street drugs. 4. Cocaine is inhaled or "snorted" through Addictiveness: Highly addictive, producing the nose, smoked, or injected directly into a long-lasting, intense high. the bloodstream. It is rapidly absorbed into Risks: Addiction leads to frequent use and the body and takes effect almost increased doses, which can cause brain immediately. damage. 5. The most common depressant is alcohol, learning and training. which is used by more people than is any ⚫ An unconditioned response and a other drug. One of the more disturbing conditioned response are similar (such trends is the high frequency of binge as salivation in Pavlov’s experiment), but drinking among college students. the unconditioned response occurs naturally, whereas the conditioned WEEK 7: LEARNING AND MEMORY response is learned. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus (such as the In more extreme cases, classical experimenter’s footsteps) comes to elicit a conditioning can lead to the development of response after being paired with a stimulus phobias, which are intense, irrational fears. (such as food) that naturally brings about Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), that response suffered by some war veterans and others Learning is a relatively permanent change who have had traumatic experiences, can in behavior that is brought about by also be produced by classical conditioning. experience. Extinction occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in An unconditioned response (UCR) is a frequency and eventually disappears. natural, innate response that occurs automatically and needs no training. Generalization and Discrimination A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a once- Stimulus generalization is a process in neutral stimulus that has been paired with an which, after a stimulus has been conditioned unconditioned stimulus to bring about a to produce a particular response response formerly caused only by the Stimulus discrimination, in contrast, occurs if unconditioned stimulus two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from each ⚫ Conditioned = learned. other that one evokes a conditioned ⚫ Unconditioned = not learned response but the other does not. ⚫ An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Operant conditioning is learning in which a leads to unconditioned response voluntary response is strengthened or (UCR). weakened, depending on its favorable or ⚫ Unconditioned stimulus– unfavorable consequences. unconditioned response pairings are not learned and not trained: naturally Thorndike’s Law of Effect (cat) occurring. law of effect: Responses that lead to satisfying ⚫ conditioned stimulus (CS) leads to a consequences are more likely to be repeated. conditioned response (CR), and a  conditioned stimulus– conditioned REINFORCEMENT: THE CENTRAL response pairing is a consequence of CONCEPT OF OPERANT CONDITIONING - a secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that Skinner called the process that leads the rat becomes reinforcing because of its tocontinue pressing the key “reinforcement.” association with a primary reinforcer Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a POSITIVE REINFORCERS, NEGATIVE preceding behavior will be repeated. REINFORCERS, AND PUNISHMENT A reinforcer is any stimulus that increases A positive reinforcer is a stimulus added to the probability that a preceding behavior will the environment that brings about an occur again. A primary reinforcer satisfies increase in a preceding response. some biological need and works naturally, a negative reinforcer refers to an regardless of a person’s previous unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to experience. an increase in the probability that a remembering something. preceding response will be repeated in the Memory specialists speak of storage, the future. maintenance of material saved in memory. Memory also depends on one last process— Punishment refers to a stimulus that retrieval: decreases the probability that a prior three-system memory theory. Sensory behavior will occur again. memory refers to the initial, momentary Positive punishment weakens a response storage of information that lasts only an by applying an unpleasant stimulus. instant. Here an exact replica of the stimulus negative punishment consists of the recorded by a person’s sensory system is removal of something pleasant. stored very briefly. In a second stage, short- term memory holds information for 15 to 25 SHAPING: REINFORCING WHAT DOESN’T seconds and stores it according to its COME NATURALLY meaning rather than as mere sensory Shaping is the process of teaching a stimulation. The third type of storage system complex behavior by rewarding closer and is long-term memory. Information is stored closer approximations of the desired in long-term memory behavior on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve. COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO LEARNING rehearsal, the repetition of information that Some psychologists view learning in terms of the has entered short-term memory. thought processes, or cognitions, that underlie Working memory is the memory system that it—an approach known as cognitive learning holds information temporarily while actively theory. manipulating and rehearsing that information Declarative memory is memory for factual Latent Learning - In latent learning, a new information: names, faces, dates, and facts, behavior is learned but not demonstrated, Declarative memory can be subdivided into occurs without reinforcement. semantic memory and episodic memory. Semantic memory is memory for general Observational Learning: Learning Through knowledge and facts about the world,. Imitation episodic memory is memory for events that observational learning, which is learning by occur in a particular time, place, or context watching the behavior of another person, or procedural memory (or nondeclarative model memory) refers to memory for skills and habits,knowledge is stored in semantic THE FOUNDATIONS OF MEMORY networks, mental representations of The initial process of recording information clusters of interconnected information in a form usable to memory, a process Flashbulb memories are memories related to called encoding, is the first stage in a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid they represent a virtual snapshot of the event. Source amnesia occurs when an individual has a memory for some material but cannot recall where he or she encountered it. THE NEUROSCIENCE OF MEMORY schemas, organized bodies of The hippocampus, a part of the brain’s information stored in memory that bias the limbic system (helps to consolidate way new information is interpreted, memories, stabilizing them after they are initially acquired. The hippocampus acts as a kind of neurological e-mail system. Retrieval Cues retrieval cue is a stimulus that allows us to recall more easily information that is in long-term memory. Explicit and Implicit Memory Explicit memory refers to intentional or conscious recollection of information. implicit memory refers to memories of which people are not consciously aware but that can affect subsequent performance and behavior. AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY: WHERE PAST MEETS PRESENT Autobiographical memory is our recollections of our own life experiences.