Introduction to Psychology Fields

### Behavioral Neuroscience

• Examines the biological basis of behavior

### Clinical Psychology

• Study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders

### Clinical Neuropsychology

• Blends biopsychology and clinical psychology, focusing on the relationship between biological factors and psychological disorders

### Cognitive Psychology

• Focuses on studying higher mental processes like thinking, memory, and language

### Counseling Psychology

• Focuses on addressing educational, social, and career adjustment issues

### Cross-Cultural Psychology

• Investigates similarities and differences in psychological functioning across various cultures and ethnic groups

### Developmental Psychology

• Examines human growth and change from conception until death

### Program Evaluation

• Assesses large-scale programs effectiveness in meeting set goals

### Psychology of Women

• Focuses on issues like discrimination against women and causes of violence against women

### School Psychology

• Devoted to counseling children in elementary and secondary schools with academic or emotional difficulties

### Social Psychology

• Studies how others influence people's thoughts, feelings, and actions

### Sport Psychology

• Applies psychological principles to athletic activity and exercise

### The History of Psychology

• Wilhelm Wundt, considered the father of experimental psychology, established the first experimental laboratory in 1879.
• Wundt focused on studying conscious experiences, forming the basis of structuralism.
• Structuralists aimed to uncover fundamental mental components of perception, consciousness, and other mental processes.
• Functionalism emerged as a replacement for structuralism, emphasizing the mind's functions and the role of behavior in adaptation to the environment.

### Psychodynamic Perspective

• This perspective views behavior as driven by unconscious inner forces beyond conscious control.

### Behavioral Perspective

• Focuses on observable, measurable behavior, emphasizing the importance of external stimuli and responses.

### Cognitive Perspective

• Employs the study of how people think, understand, and perceive the world.

### The Scientific Method

• A systematic approach used by psychologists to acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and related phenomena.
• Four main steps:
  • Formulate a hypothesis.
  • Design a study.
  • Collect and analyze data.
  • Draw conclusions.
• Theories provide broad explanations and predictions about phenomena of interest, serving as frameworks for understanding relationships between facts or principles.
• Operational definitions translate hypotheses into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed in an experiment.

### Psychological Research

• Descriptive research systematically investigates an individual, group, or patterns of behavior.
• Four primary types of descriptive research methods include:
  • Archival research, analyzing existing data from sources like census records, college records, and databases.
  • Observational research, involving careful observations of naturally occurring behavior without manipulating the situation.
  • Survey research, gathering information directly from individuals through surveys and questionnaires.
  • Case studies, conducting in-depth investigations of a single individual or small group.
• The double-blind procedure ensures the participant and the experimenter are unaware of the drug's properties, minimizing bias in assessing its effects.

### Genetics and Behavior

• Genes are the biological "software" dictating the body's development, analogous to the "hardware."
• Humans possess approximately 25,000 different genes.
• Down syndrome, a cause of intellectual disability, occurs when a zygote receives an extra chromosome at conception.
• The occurrence of Down syndrome is often linked to the mother's age, with higher rates among mothers over 35 and younger than 18.

### Prenatal Environmental Influences

• Teratogens are environmental agents, including drugs, chemicals, viruses, and other factors, that can cause birth defects.
• Mother's nutrition during pregnancy can significantly impact infant health.
• Mother's illnesses, even mild ones during early pregnancy, can have severe consequences for a developing fetus.

### The Nervous System

• The nervous system is composed of specialized and interconnected cells called neurons.
• Neurons transmit messages in the form of electrochemical impulses.
• Key parts of a neuron include:
  • Dendrites, which receive messages from other neurons.
  • Axon, which transmits messages to other neurons.
  • Myelin sheath, a fatty coating that speeds up transmission.
  • Synapse, the gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

### Neurotransmitters: Chemical Couriers

• Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses.
• Different neurotransmitters fulfill specific roles:
  • Acetylcholine (ACh), the most common neurotransmitter, is associated with muscle movements, memory, and Alzheimer's disease.
  • Glutamate, a major excitatory neurotransmitter, is involved in learning and memory.
  • Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the nervous system's primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, regulates brain activity.
  • Dopamine (DA) plays a role in movement, attention, and learning.
  • Serotonin is associated with sleep, eating, mood, and pain.
  • Endorphins, a group of neurotransmitters, are similar in structure to painkilling drugs like morphine.

### The Central Nervous System

• Composed of the brain and spinal cord, the CNS is the body's control center.
• The spinal cord serves as a communication pathway between the brain and peripheral nervous system.
• The brain controls various bodily functions, including thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

### The Peripheral Nervous System

• Branches out from the spinal cord and brain, reaching extremities.
• Consists of neurons with long axons and dendrites.
• Has two divisions: Somatic and Autonomic.
• Somatic division controls voluntary movements and communicates with sense organs.
• Autonomic division regulates involuntary processes like heart rate, breathing, and digestion.
• Autonomic division has two sub-systems: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic.
• Sympathetic division prepares the body for "fight or flight" in response to stress.
• Parasympathetic division promotes relaxation and "rest and digest" functions.

### The Brain

• The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, responsible for higher-level functions like thinking, learning, and language.
• The cerebellum is located at the back of the brain, plays a crucial role in coordination, balance, and motor skills.
• The brainstem connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, regulating basic functions like heart rate, breathing, and sleep.
• The limbic system, located within the cerebrum, is involved in emotions, motivation, and memory.
• The hippocampus is essential for learning and forming new memories.
• The amygdala processes emotions, especially fear and aggression.
• The hypothalamus regulates basic bodily functions like hunger, thirst, and body temperature.

### Neuroimaging Techniques

• These techniques allow researchers to study the brain's structure and activity.
• Electroencephalography (EEG) measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp.
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides detailed images of the brain's structure by using strong magnetic fields.
• Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.
• Positron emission tomography (PET) measures brain activity by using radioactive tracers.