Week 2 Lecture Notes PDF

Lecture:6 EL PT N  Major Learning Theories in Psychology During the first half of the twentieth century, the school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominate psychology and sought to explain the learning process....

Lecture:6 EL PT N  Major Learning Theories in Psychology During the first half of the twentieth century, the school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominate psychology and sought to explain the learning process. EL The three major types of learning described by behavioral psychology are classical conditioning, operant conditioning and observational learning. PT N  What is Behaviorism? Behaviorism was the school of thought in psychology that sought to measure only observable behaviors. Founded by John B. Watson and outlined in his seminal 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist View It, EL the behaviorist standpoint held that psychology was an experimental and objective science and that internal PT mental processes should not be considered because they could not be directly observed and measured. N  Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable and measurable aspects of human behavior Behavior is directed by stimuli; changes in behavior that EL result from stimulus-response associations Only behaviors worthy of study are those that can be directly observed; does not explain abnormal behavior PT All behaviors can also be unlearned, and replaced by new behaviors N  J.B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov are the pioneers of Behaviorism EL PT N N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL Expanding on Watson's basic stimulus-response model, Skinner developed operant conditioning based on the premise that satisfying responses are conditioned EL PT N N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL Skinner believed the habits that each of us develops result from our unique operant learning experiences EL PT N Extinction decreases the probability of a response by contingent withdrawal of a previously reinforced stimulus Modeling , Shaping, and Cueing:  Modeling also known as observational learning EL Shaping is the process of gradually changing the quality of a response PT Cueing is providing a child with a verbal / non-verbal cue for the appropriateness of behaviour N Behaviour Modification: has six basic components 1. Specification of the desired outcome: increased student participation in class discussions 2. Development of a positive, nurturing environment 3. Identification and use of appropriate reinforces (intrinsic and extrinsic rewards) 4. Reinforcement of behaviour patterns develop until the student has established a pattern of success 5. Reduction in the frequency of rewards-a gradual decrease the EL amount of one-on-one review 6. Evaluation and assessment of the effectiveness of the approach: based on teacher expectations and student results PT Criticisms: 1. Oversimplifies the complexity of human behaviour N 2. Ignores the internal psychological and mental processes 3.The principles of conditioning are not universal Educational Implications: 1. Students work for things that bring them positive feelings, and for approval from people they admire 2. Behaviours can be learned, unlearned or relearned EL 3. Ignoring an undesirable behaviour will go far toward eliminating it 4. Organizing the time and duration of learning: studying intermittently or intensely; PT Exmpl.- Students who learn in an overall manner by means of studying intensely just before an exam N are more successful at the exams; 5.The structure of the subject to be learnt: learning, as a whole is superior to learning by parts; learning by parts is more efficient in case of a lengthy topic Lecture:7 EL PT N 6. Participation: attention, motivation and readiness 7. Feedback: Knowledge of the results for improvements. Classical Conditioning -is when an unconditioned stimulus and response is manipulated with a conditioned stimulus to create a conditioned response EL Operant Conditioning- is a controlled response with a reward/ punishment system according to the behavior The learner needs reinforcements to keep interest PT  Stimuli are effective in controlling behavior The behaviors can be measured to record learning success N overall learning may fade away after a short time, can be forgotten if the exam is delayed; Intermittent study is more efficient for those who want to achieve a permanent learning N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL  Psychology  The study of Human Behavior  Derived from two Greek words: Psyche (mind/soul) & Logos (study)  Founders: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, EL  The father of modern Psychology: Wilhelm Wundt  He established the first psychological laboratory at the PT University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879  Q.1. Are we creative when we think more on it or think less on it? N Q2. Why some students do well in studies and whereas some do well in sports?  Learning can be defined as an observable change in the behavior of a specific organism as a consequence of regularities in the environment of that organism.  In order to say that learning has occurred, two conditions must be met: An observable change in behavior must occur during the EL lifetime of the organism. The change in behavior must be due to regularities in the PT environment. Learning is thus seen as an effect—that is, as an observable change in behavior that is attributed to an element in the N environment (a regularity in the environment). Learning takes place whenever experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential (Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2008).  Cognitivism Cognitivism is a learning theory that focusses on how information is received, organized, stored and retrieved by the mind. It uses the mind as an information processer, like a computer. Therefore, cognitivism looks beyond observable behavior, viewing learning as internal mental processes. EL According to this perspective, learners are actively involved in the way they process information. PT Knowledge, memory, thinking, and problem solving are areas for development. Cognitivists objected to behaviorists because they felt that N behaviorists thought learning was simply a reaction to a stimulus and ignored the idea that thinking plays an important role. Knowledge is an internal process rather than a product. (J. Bruner)  Cognitivist learning states - the way we learn is determined by the way our mind takes in, stores, processes, and then accesses information. When we learn new things, our brains are able to EL transfer the information we have learned and apply the information to new situations or problems. Even when a student is trying to learn something new, PT there is usually some sort of prior knowledge that he can use to anchor that new information and connect the new knowledge to it; this is the basis of cognitivism. N The mind is basically an internal processor that uses our internally stored information and connects it to external factors in order to create new learning.  Cognitivists believe that their theory is the primary foundation for explaining how we learn things. Cognitivism is viewed as the mainstream for all research on learning designs. Cognitivism is the theory that focuses on how we receive, organize, store, and recall information in our EL minds. Cognitivism theory of learning uses the concept that our mind is like a computer and explains how it accesses PT schema (file folders) and then uses the stored information to create new learning and store it in a practical place. N If the new information is stored properly and permanently, then learning has taken place.  Cognitivism holds that a person's behavior is more dependent on insight into the relationships that exist in a situation.  The whole is more than the sum of its parts. They put pressure on the organization of observations for stimuli in the environment as well as on the factors that influence EL consideration.  Mental life encompasses cognitive, affective, conative PT symptoms to some degree, namely psychosomatics that cannot be separated from each other. N  Thus, cognitive psychology not only explores the basis of typical cognitive symptoms but also from the affective (interpretation and consideration that accompanies the reaction of feelings), conative (will ,passion, decisions).  The works of Edward C. Tolman, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, and German Gestalt psychologists were instrumental in engendering the dramatic shift from behaviorism to cognitive theories. Tolman is usually considered a pioneer in initiating the cognitive movement; saw motivation as the key to EL transmuting expectations into behavior; often treated as a precursor of contemporary cognitive psychology. From a cognitive learning perspective, learning PT involves the transformation of information in the environment into knowledge that is stored in the mind. N Learning occurs when new knowledge is acquired or existing knowledge is modified by experience.  Gestalt Psychology EL PT N Lecture:8 EL PT N N PT EL N PT EL The information processing theory offers detail descriptions of cognitive processes. EL PT N  Intelligence  Intelligence Individual’s abilities to understand complex ideas to adapt effectively to the environment , to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by Careful thought EL  “Intelligence is the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.“-Wechsler PT  Intelligence is typically measured as Intelligence Quotient (IQ) N  Standardized tests of intelligence usually measure so- called underlying cognitive ability: things like memory, speed of reactions and attention, as opposed to people’s knowledge of facts. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence EL PT N  Howard Gardner identified seven intelligences in his studies in psychology, human cognition, and human potential. These intelligences were named by Gardner as linguistic intelligence, logical–mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, bodily−kinesthetic intelligence, musical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence. EL Linguistic intelligence is the capacity to use words effectively, whether orally or in writing. It involves the mastery of spoken and written language to express oneself or remember things. PT Logical–mathematical intelligence is the capacity to use numbers effectively, detect patterns, think logically, reason deductively, and carry out mathematical operations. N These two kinds of intelligences are typically the abilities that are expected by the traditional school environments to support and assess most IQ measures or tests of achievement.  Spatial intelligence is the ability to perceive the visual– spatial world accurately and involves sensitivity to color, line, shape, form, space, and the potential for recognizing and manipulating the patterns of spaces. Bodily−Kinesthetic intelligence includes an expertise in using one’s whole body or parts of the body to express ideas and feelings; and solve problems or create products. EL Musical intelligence is the capacity to perceive, discriminate, transform, and express musical forms, and use them for performance or composition. PT Interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to perceive and make distinctions in the moods, intentions, motivations, and feelings of other people. N The last intelligence is the intrapersonal intelligence, and this intelligence is about self-knowledge and the ability to act adaptively on the basis of that knowledge.(Gardner,1991)  Later on Gardner also proposed that one more intelligence, naturalistic intelligence, met the criteria for identification as an intelligence as well. Naturalistic intelligence involves high expertise in recognition and classification of the numerous species— the flora and fauna—of the environment. More recently, Gardner has added an additional EL intelligence, the existential intelligence. He defines this intelligence as- PT “The capacity to locate oneself with respect to the furthest reaches of the cosmos—the infinite and the infinitesimal—and the related capacity to locate oneself N with respect to such existential features of the human condition as the significance of life, the meaning of death, the ultimate fate of the physical and the psychological worlds, and such profound experiences as love of another person or total immersion in a work of art”(Gardner,1999). Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of Intelligence EL PT N  Robert J. Sternberg, a well-known psychologist whose research often focuses on human intelligence and creativity. Sternberg proposed his theory in 1985 as an alternative to the idea of the general intelligence factor. The general intelligence factor, also known as g, is what EL intelligence tests typically measure; refers only to “academic intelligence.” Sternberg argued that practical intelligence—a person’s PT ability to react and adapt to the world around them—as well as creativity are equally important when measuring an individual's overall intelligence. He also argued that intelligence isn’t fixed, but rather N comprises a set of abilities that can be developed. Sternberg's assertions led to the creation of his theory.  The Triarchic theory of intelligence proposes that there are three distinct types of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical. Sternberg broke his theory down into the following three sub- theories: Contextual sub-theory: The contextual sub-theory says that intelligence is intertwined with the individual’s environment. Thus, intelligence is based on the way one functions in their everyday EL circumstances, including one’s ability to a) adapt to one’s environment, b) select the best environment for oneself, or PT c) shape the environment to better fit one’s needs and desires. Experiential sub-theory: The experiential sub-theory proposes that there is a continuum of experience from novel to automation to N which intelligence can be applied. It’s at the extremes of this continuum that intelligence is best demonstrated.  At the novel end of the spectrum, an individual is confronted with an unfamiliar task or situation and must come up with a way to deal with it. At the automation end of the spectrum, one has become familiar with a given task or situation and can now handle it with minimal thought. Componential sub-theory: The componential theory outlines the EL various mechanisms that result in intelligence. This sub-theory is comprised of three kinds of mental processes or components: PT Meta-components enable us to monitor, control, and evaluate our mental processing, so that we can make decisions, solve problems, and create plans. N Performance components are what enable us to take action on the plans and decisions arrived at by the meta-components. Knowledge-acquisition components enable us to learn new information that will help us carry out our plans.  Kinds of Intelligence- Practical intelligence: Sternberg called one’s ability to successfully interact with the everyday world practical intelligence. Practical intelligence is related to the contextual sub-theory. EL Practically intelligent people are especially adept at behaving in successful ways in their external environment. Creative intelligence: The experiential sub-theory is related PT to creative intelligence, which is one’s ability to use existing knowledge to create new ways to handle new problems or cope in new situations. N Analytical intelligence: The componential sub-theory is related to analytical intelligence, which is essentially academic intelligence. Analytical intelligence is used to solve problems and is the kind of intelligence that is measured by a standard IQ test Sternberg observed that all three kinds of intelligence are necessary for successful intelligence, which refers to the ability to be successful in life based on one’s abilities, personal desires, and environment. EL PT N Lecture:9 EL PT N  PASS Model of Intelligence (Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive (PASS)-Das, Naglieri, & Kirby (1994)) EL PT N  PASS Theory of Intelligence The Planning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous and Successive (PASS) theory of intelligence, was developed by Das, Nagliery and Kirby (1994). PASS theory is useful to link PASS processes to the brain. This theory has taken its inspiration from the Pioneering EL neuropsychological researches of Alexander Luria. Luria described human cognitive processes within the framework of three functional units. PT The function of the first unit is cortical arousal and attention, the second unit codes information using simultaneous and successive processes and the third unit provides for planning, N self-monitoring, and structuring of cognitive activities. There are four main components of the theory, viz, Planning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous, and Successive (PASS) processing systems.  Planning is a frontal lobe function. It is, more specifically, associated with the prefrontal cortex and one of the main abilities that distinguishes humans from other primates. The prefrontal cortex plays a central role in forming goals and objectives and then in devising plans of action required to attain these goals. It selects the cognitive skills required to implement the plans, EL coordinates these skills, and applies them in a correct order. Finally, the prefrontal cortex is responsible for evaluating our actions as success or failure relative to our intentions. PT Planning, helps us achieve through the selection or development of plans or strategies needed to complete tasks for which a solution is needed and is critical to all activities N where the child or adult has to determine how to solve a problem.  This includes generation, evaluation, and execution of a plan as well as self-monitoring and impulse control. Thus, Planning allows for the solution of problems, control of attention, simultaneous, and successive processes, as well as selective utilization of knowledge and skills. EL Attention is a mental process that is closely related to the orienting response. The base of the brain allows the organism to direct PT focused selective attention toward a stimulus over time and resist loss of attention to other stimuli. N  The longer attention is required the more the activity can be one that demands vigilance. Attention is controlled by intentions and goals and involves knowledge and skills as well as the other PASS processes. Knowledge base is closely associated with the PASS model and all processes are found within this framework. EL Knowledge base of the PASS model represents all information obtained from the cultural and social background and throws light on various parts of behavior. PT Simultaneous Processing is essential for organization of information into groups or a coherent whole. N The parietal-occipital-temporal brain regions provide a critical ability to see patterns as interrelated elements.  Planning processes provide for the programming, regulation and verification of behavior and are responsible for behaviors, such as asking questions, problem solving, and the capacity for self-monitoring. Successive Processing is involved with the use of stimuli arranged in a specific serial order. Whenever information must be remembered or completed in a EL specific order successive processing will be involved. Importantly, however, the information must not be able to be organized into a pattern (like the number 9933811 organized PT into 99-33-8-11) but instead each element can only be related to those that precede it. The PASS theory is an alternative to approaches to intelligence N that have traditionally included verbal, nonverbal, and quantitative tests.  PASS theory puts emphasis on basic psychological processes and precludes verbal achievement like tests such as vocabulary. The functions of the brain are considered the building blocks of ability conceptualized within a cognitive processing framework. PASS theory applications are spread over developmental and educational psychology. EL For the children in the age group of 8 to 17 years, Ability/achievement, Ability/reading and ability/ mathematics normative taxonomies for reading and mathematics have been developed from the PASS theory scales of the CAS (Cognitive PT Assessment System). N  Salient features of PASS theory: It tests intelligence as a set of cognitive processes. The PASS theory of intelligence examines what the major processes are and guides us in the remediation of cognitive processing difficulties. Cognition is a dynamic mechanism that works inside EL the setting of the individual’s knowledge base; it is also liable to developmental varieties. Cognitive evaluation for planning, attention, PT simultaneous, and successive processing of individuals can be done through CAS test battery based on PASS theory. N Cognitivism BRAIN-BASED LEARNING EL PT N N PT EL N PT EL BBL deals with the concept of learning in a neuro- physiological context Explains the process of learning as a bio-chemical or electro- chemical change Learning, is a process of establishing a connection between brain cells and an intercellular connection; a new connection EL is established between brain cells with each new learning (Jensen, 2000) Structure and processing of brain, intercellular relations, PT brain hemispheres and lobes (parts), processes at which each part is good at and structural qualities of brain hemispheres are some of the features of BBL N Brain is a structure that is composed of a number of parallel processors that carryout a lot of processes at the same time N PT EL Brain based learning(BBL) is a new science that shapes learning process.”Eric Jensen, 2000 Brain based learning is an approach that is based on the structure and function of human brain Caine and Caine (2002);  Making sense in brain is much more important than EL receiving knowledge Brain creates meanings in line with patterns, connections and feelings PT Jensen (1998),- “How can brain learn best?” BBL focuses on- how brain perceives, operates, N interprets, establishes connection, stores (such as establishing connection, coding, structuring matrixes) and remembers messages in learning process Factors that ensure learning to be meaningful and permanent 1. Relaxed alertness: When a person is in an environment where he feels relaxed and calm, learning will be influenced by this environment positively EL 2. Orchestrated immersion: When a certain level of integrity and inter correlativity is ensured, learners PT will use memory systems in order to explore content and reach learning goals 3. Active processing: A learning brain is an active brain; N learning activity takes place by means of new connections (dendrites and synapses) established as a result of data transfer between neurons Principles of BBL: How to realize effective learning? Caine and Caine (1998; 2000)- The brain is a parallel processor; learning is also affected by psycho-social qualities of the individual & chemical structure of the organism; these interactions reflect on EL the process of learning 1. Learning engages the entire physiology 2. The search for meaning is innate PT 3. The search for meaning occurs through patterning 4. Emotions are critical to patterning N 5. The brain processes wholes and parts simultaneously 6. Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception; also affected by environmental factors, 7. Concepts such as awareness, conscious, automatization (unconscious behaviour), feeling, sense & attention are all known to originate from brain and can be called the factors of learning process 8.Learning involves both conscious and unconscious EL processes 9. We have two types of memory: STM ,LTM PT 10. We understand and remember best when facts and skills are embedded in natural, spatial memory by threat 12. Each brain is unique N 11. Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited Factors that affect BBL-  The organic / chemical structure of the brain Emotions Music Sleep Physical vitality EL Exercise Nutrition PT Genetic factors Lifestyle Stress / anxiety Motivation N Social / physical / educational environment Health  1 Memory: 2 Stress, fear and anxiety 3 Attention 4 Rewards and punishment 5 Social fluency EL 6 Individual development 7 Scientific research PT 8 Information literacy 9 Artistic expression N “Brain based learning is a new science that shapes learning process.”(Eric Jensen, 2000)  Summary Brain needs sufficient nutrition, water and rest to realize best L. Feelings can weaken or strengthen learning New learning is built upon previous learning Brain stores data in more than one place EL Brain processes the gathered data beyond the awareness of learners Reflection is an important part of learning and PT processing information Brain has got two memory systems: STM , LTM Brain can acquire information both through a holistic view and in a detailed manner N Lecture:10 EL PT N According to Guilford's Structure of Intellect (SI) theory (1955), an individual's performance on intelligence tests can be traced back to the underlying mental abilities or factors of intelligence. SI theory comprises up to 180 different intellectual abilities organized along three dimensions: operations, content, and products. EL PT N  Structure of Intellect (J.P. Guilford) In Guilford’s Structure of Intellect (SI) theory, intelligence is viewed as comprising operations, contents, and products. There are 6 kinds of operations (cognition, memory recording, memory retention, divergent production, convergent production, evaluation), 6 kinds of products (units, classes, relations, systems, EL transformations, and implications), and 5 kinds of contents (visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic, behavioral). PT Since each of these dimensions is independent, there are theoretically 180 different components of intelligence. N Guilford researched and developed a wide variety of psychometric tests to measure the specific abilities predicted by SI theory. A major impetus for Guilford’s theory was his interest in creativity (Guilford, 1950). The divergent production operation identifies a number of different types of creative abilities.  SI theory is intended to be a general theory of human intelligence; its major application has been in education, personnel selection and placement. Principles Reasoning and problem-solving skills (convergent and EL divergent operations) can be subdivided into 30 distinct abilities (6 products x 5 contents). Memory operations can be subdivided into 30 different PT skills (6 products x 5 contents). Decision-making skills (evaluation operations) can be subdivided into 30 distinct abilities (6 products x 5 contents). N Language-related skills (cognitive operations) can be subdivided into 30 distinct abilities (6 products x 5 contents).  Gagne’s Conditions Of Learning Theory Gagne’s Conditions of Learning, also known as Nine Events of Instruction, is a set of instructional design principles developed by psychologist Robert Gagne. These conditions outline a sequence of events that EL enhance the learning process and promote effective instruction. Gagne’s theory of instructional learning offers a more PT rounded theory of learning and instruction that which offers far more directive advice on how the teacher should manage individual lessons. N The nine events provide a framework for designing and delivering instruction in a structured and systematic manner. Such as : Theory of Learning & Instruction: Robert Gagne GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS of Learning & Instruction: 1. Gain attention of the students 2. Inform students of the objectives -  Describe required performance  Describe criteria for standard performance EL  Learner establishes criteria for standard performance 3. Stimulate recall of prior learning PT 4. Present the content 5. Provide learning guidance N 6. Elicit performance (practice) 7. Provide feedback 8. Assess performance 9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job  Gain Attention: This event aims to capture the learners’ attention and engage them in the learning process. It can be achieved through the use of stimulating and relevant stimuli or by posing questions or problems. Inform Learners of the Objective: Learners need to be EL aware of the specific learning objectives or goals they are expected to achieve. Clear communication of these objectives helps to focus PT their attention and motivate them to learn. Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge: Activating learners’ prior knowledge helps them connect new information to existing mental frameworks. N By reviewing relevant concepts or experiences, learners can build upon what they already know.  Present the Content: The instructional content is presented to the learners in a structured and organized manner. It should be logically sequenced, chunked into manageable units, and delivered using appropriate instructional strategies such as lectures, visuals, or multimedia. Provide Guidance: Learners need guidance and support to EL understand and acquire new knowledge or skills. This event involves providing clear explanations, examples, PT demonstrations, and instructions to assist learners in grasping the content. Elicit Performance: Learners are given opportunities to N practice what they have learned. This active participation helps reinforce the newly acquired knowledge or skills and allows for feedback and correction if needed.  Provide Feedback: Learners receive feedback on their performance, indicating whether they have achieved the desired learning outcomes. Feedback helps them assess their progress, identify areas for improvement, and reinforce correct understanding or behavior. Assess Performance: This event involves assessing EL learners’ performance to determine the extent to which they have achieved the learning objectives. Various assessment methods such as quizzes, tests, or PT practical exercises, can be used to evaluate their progress. Enhance Retention and Transfer: The final event focuses N on promoting long-term retention and transfer of the learned material to real-world contexts. Strategies such as providing opportunities for review, application in different situations, and promoting transfer of knowledge to other domains are employed to solidify learning. Mastery Learning Model : (Bloom and Carroll) What Is Mastery Learning? EL PT N N PT EL 1. Cognitive Entry Behaviours: language ability, & reading comprehension 2.Affective Entry Characteristics: interests, attitudes & learning readiness EL PT N  Elements of Mastery Learning Pre-assessment- Determining students’ prior knowledge and skills Monitoring student progress Communicating expectations Focusing students’ attention on learning targets EL Checking for misconceptions Identifying students’ interests, talents, and preferred ways of learning PT Group-based initial instruction Instruction must be multifaceted, context-adapted, and student- oriented (Guskey, 2010) Regular formative assessments N The use of regular formative assessments. This could be in the form of quizzes, written assignments, oral presentations, skill demonstrations, or performances, depending on the subject area, the grade level, and the learning outcomes involved Corrective Instruction Teachers provide “high-quality corrective instructions” to mend learning problems that the assessments have identified,  CI to be versatile enough to accommodate different student learning styles, modalities, and intelligence levels EL Parallel formative assessments A second, parallel formative assessment to determine the effectiveness of the corrective instruction. PT Enrichment activities Aiming to provide challenging yet rewarding learning N experiences, these activities enable students to explore a greater depth of related topics that pick their interests. Enrichment activities could be in the form of academic games and exercises, various multimedia projects, and peer discussions.  Concept of Personalization and Academic Self-Concept QUALITY OF INSTRUCTION Cues, Participation, Reinforcing Feedback and Correction EL LEARNING OUTCOMES Learning Level and Learning Speed PT Affective Outcomes POSITIVE SIDES OF MASTERY LEARNING: N 1. student learns in his own capacity and speed, 2. increases the achievements on affective and cognitive level  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=efjDq-kO7lE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GWa48XRnLh0 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tBiz04uGqA4 EL https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ej1qP8o2Sp4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N1ESb1RGZ7g PT https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sGQBbRqdaVM N Pl. Visit the sites for Better Learning  Constructivism EL Jean Piaget (1896-1983), Lev Vigotsky (1896-1934) PT N  Constructivism is ‘an approach to learning that holds that people actively construct or make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of the learner’ (Elliott et al., 2000). Constructivism is crucial to understand as an educator because it EL influences the way all of our students learn. Teachers and instructors who understand the constructivist learning theory understand that their students bring their own PT unique experiences to the classroom every day. Their background and previous knowledge impacts how they are able to learn. N  Types of constructivism- 1. Cognitive- Cognitive constructivism focuses on the idea that learning should be related to the learner’s stage of cognitive development. It comes from the work of Jean Piaget and his research on cognitive development in children. EL 2. Social- Social constructivism focuses on the collaborative nature of learning. Knowledge develops from how people interact with each other, their culture, and society at large. PT Lev Vygotsky, and is closely connected to cognitive constructivism with the added element of societal and peer influence. 3. Radical- Radical constructivism is very different from cognitive and N social constructivism. It focuses on the idea that learners and the knowledge they construct tell us nothing real, only help us function in our environment. This theory was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld in 1974. N PT EL  Constructivism: A Learning Theory Constructivism is a learning theory that says we create our own knowledge from our experiences and interactions, It challenges the idea that knowledge is fixed and objective, and that teachers can simply transfer it to students, EL Constructivists see learning as a dynamic and social process, where learners build on their prior knowledge and collaborate PT with others, Constructivism encourages learners to be active, creative, reflective, and critical thinkers who can construct their own N understanding of the world,  Basic Concepts of Constructivism  Cognition (learning) is the result of mental construction  People construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things & reflecting on those experiences EL  Human learning is constructed; learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning PT  Constructivist learning is transferable  Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn  Students in constructivist classrooms learn to question things N  Promotes social & communication skills through collaboration and exchange of ideas Cognitive constructivism is based on the work of Jean Piaget & Social constructivism is based on the work of Lev Vygotsky.  Principles of Constructivism: (Tam ,2000)  Knowledge will be shared between teachers and students  Teachers and students will share authority EL  The teacher’s role is one of a facilitator or guide  Learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students PT  To embed learning in social experience,(collaboration) & realistic context  To encourage awareness of the knowledge construction process (reflection, metacognition) N  Learning is an individual and social process. Learning is an organizational process - new knowledge is assimilated with old knowledge to construct new meanings and understandings. Learning is based on personal experiences - different people understand 'truth' differently. EL The concept of reality is based on individual interpretation. Learning is socially situated and enhanced through meaningful context - situated PT learning focuses on creating meaning from the real activities of daily life. Language plays an essential role in learning - the sharing of knowledge happens through communication. N Motivation is key to learning - individuals must want to actively engage and reflect on their prior knowledge in learning. Jean Piaget (1896-1983): Learning and Cognitive Development  Knowledge is actively constructed  In the process of constructing knowledge, children adhere to their experiences EL  Knowledge is constructed in schemas  After new learning, these schemas are organized & developed PT better and new connections are established  Learning & cognitive development occurs with processes of assimilation and accommodation N  Knowledge is subjective because people construct it  Cognitive development occurs step by step N PT EL Stages of Cognitive Development EL PT N  Preoperational stage: children begin to use language; memory and imagination; Intelligence is egocentric and intuitive, not logical  Concrete operational stage: use of logical and systematic manipulation of symbols; Thinking becomes less egocentric with increased awareness of external events; EL involves concrete references Formal operational stage: use symbols related to abstract concepts, can formulate hypotheses,& think about abstract relationships PT and concepts Intellectual development is a lifelong process, adults involve developing more N complex schema through knowledge acquisition Schema Formation: Assimilation & Accommodation EL PT N N PT EL “Constructivism is a theory in education which posits that individuals or learners do not acquire knowledge and understanding by passively perceiving it within a direct process of knowledge transmission, rather they construct new understandings and knowledge through experience and social discourse, integrating new information with what they already know (prior knowledge)”. EL  Educational Implications of Constructive Learning-  Learners are active participants in their learning, and learning by doing, or experiential PT learning is central to constructivist leaning in practice (Howe et al.,2000)  Learners are self-regulated and they construct and monitor their learning, where meta- cognition plays an important role in meaningful learning. N  Social interactions is essential for meaningful learning.  Vygotsky's constructivism is a theory of child development that emphasizes the role of social interaction and collaboration in learning.  Vygotsky argued that cognitive functions are the products of social negotiations and that learning occurs in the zone of proximal development, which is the gap between what a EL learner can do independently and what they can do with the help of a more knowledgeable other.  Vygotsky also rejected the idea that learning can be separated from its social context. PT  Social constructivism shifts the responsibility of knowledge acquisition from the teacher to the student,  Transforms the student from a passive listener to an active participant and a co- N constructor of knowledge among co-learners.  Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934): Social interaction leads to continuous step-by-step changes in children's thought & behaviour that can vary greatly from culture to culture Development depends on interaction EL with people and the tools that the culture provides to help form their own view of the world PT Three ways a cultural tool can be passed from one individual to another- N  a) Imitative learning, where one person tries to imitate or copy another  b) Instructed learning which involves remembering the instructions of the teacher & then using these instructions to self-regulate the learning behaviour.  c) Cultural tools are passed on to others is through collaborative learning, which involves a group of peers who strive to understand each other and work together to learn a specific skill EL PT N  Vygotsky’s position is a form of dialectical (cognitive) constructivism because it emphasizes the interaction between persons and their environments; Mediation is the key mechanism in development and learning  A key concept is the Zone of proximal development (ZPD), EL defined as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as PT determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978). N  Schooling is important not because it is where children are Scaffolded but, because it allows them to develop greater awareness of themselves, their language, & their role in the world order  Helping students acquire cognitive mediators (e.g., signs, EL symbols) through the social environment can be accomplished in many ways  Concept of instructional scaffolding, which refers to the process PT of controlling task elements that are beyond the learners’ capabilities so that they can focus on and master those features of the task that they can grasp quickly N  Reciprocal teaching involves an interactive dialogue between a teacher and small group of students.  Peer collaboration, which reflects the notion of collective activity Apprenticeships- novices work closely with experts in joint work-related activities Many mental processes are acquired as a result of social interactions Successful people’s help let students reach difficult targets The difficulties encountered in achieving the works contribute to the highest level of cognitive development EL Games, for children, aren’t waste of time but rather they include activities that get them into adults’ world successfully, through future planning PT N N PT EL  https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/processing-the- environment/cognition/v/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2qVHU8CTIM8 EL https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hcXkp0c_q4c https://educationaltechnology.net/constructivist-learning-theory/ PT https://edpsych.pressbooks.sunycreate.cloud/chapter/social-constructivism- vygotskys-theory/ N