Ethics and Morality - Introduction to Philosophy PDF

**Ethics and Morality** ======================= **Introduction to Philosophy** - Derived from Greek *philo* (love) and *sophia* (wisdom), meaning love of wisdom. **Major Branches of Philosophy** 1. **Metaphysics** -- Study of existence and reality. - **Ontology**: Study of being....

**Ethics and Morality** ======================= **Introduction to Philosophy** - Derived from Greek *philo* (love) and *sophia* (wisdom), meaning love of wisdom. **Major Branches of Philosophy** 1. **Metaphysics** -- Study of existence and reality. - **Ontology**: Study of being. - **Cosmology**: Study of the universe\'s origin. 2. **Epistemology** -- Study of knowledge and how it is acquired. 3. **Axiology** -- Study of values, including ethics and aesthetics. 4. **Aesthetics** -- Study of beauty and taste. 5. **Logic** -- Study of reasoning. - **Deductive Logic**: From general to specific. - **Inductive Logic**: From specific to general. **Ethics** - Branch of philosophy focused on right and wrong actions **3 Major Areas of Ethics** 1. **Meta-Ethics** -- Study of the nature of ethics. 2. **Normative Ethics** -- Study of ethical actions. 3. **Applied Ethics** -- Application of ethics to real-world issues. **Philosophical approaches that influence ethics** 1. **Idealism** -- Focus on ideas and the mind. 2. **Realism** -- Belief in an objective reality. 3. **Pragmatism** -- Focus on practical consequences. 4. **Existentialism** -- Emphasizes freedom and choice. 5. **Naturalism** -- All things arise from natural causes. 6. **Perennialism** -- Focus on timeless truths. 7. **Progressivism** -- Belief in social progress. **Ethics vs. Morality: Definitions and Nature** - In philosophy, the terms \"ethics\" and \"morality\" are often used interchangeably. Although some claim there is a difference, there is no clear consensus on what that distinction might be. - **Ethics**: Systematic study of right actions, often guided by external principles (e.g., societal rules). - Derived from the Greek word \"ethos,\" meaning \"character\" or \"moral nature.\" - **Morality**: Personal practice of ethical principles, based on internal beliefs. - Derived from the Latin word \"mos\" (plural: \"mores\"), meaning \"manner\" or \"custom.\" **Moral Theory** - Ethics seeks to develop a moral theory or system of principles that explain why certain actions are considered morally valid. This includes concepts like: - **Beneficence**: Promoting well-being. - **Non-maleficence**: Avoiding harm. - **Truthfulness and Confidentiality**: Honesty and privacy. - **Autonomy**: Respect for individual decision-making. - **Justice**: Fairness in treatment. - **Respect for Persons**: Acknowledging the dignity of every individual **Perspective: Ethics vs. Morality** - **Ethics**: - **Example**: Killing is considered wrong because it violates moral principles such as respect for persons or non-maleficence (not harming others). Ethics provides a rational framework for why such actions are considered wrong based on societal or professional standards. - **Morality**: - **Example**: Killing is wrong because it is inherently a morally bad action. This perspective is more personal, reflecting an individual\'s internal belief system about what constitutes good or bad behavior. **Moral and Non-moral standards** **Key Concepts** - **Moral Standards**: Norms that define what actions are morally right or wrong. - Concern serious matters, independent of authority, and are overriding. - **Non-Moral Standards**: Norms related to personal preferences or societal rules (e.g., etiquette, law, aesthetics). - Relate to preferences, etiquette, and social norms. **Importance of Understanding Differences** - **Cultural Influence**: Moral beliefs differ across cultures; what matters morally in one may not in another. - **Avoiding Cultural Imposition**: Separating moral from non-moral standards helps avoid imposing values, reducing conflict risks like religious violence. **Role of Social Beings: Key Moral Roles** 1. **Honesty** -- Promotes trust and transparency. 2. **Empathy** -- Sharing others\' feelings. 3. **Accountability** -- Taking responsibility for actions. 4. **Reciprocity** -- Mutual exchanges in relationships. 5. **Social Learning** -- Learning morality through observation. 6. **Justice** -- Fair treatment of others. 7. **Cooperation** -- Working ethically with others **Dilemmas and Moral Dilemmas** - **Dilemma** -- situation where an individual is forced to choose between two or more **conflicting options**, none of which are fully acceptable. - **Moral dilemma** -- occurs when one must choose between conflicting moral principles, neither of which solves the situation in a morally acceptable way. **Three Conditions of a Moral Dilemma:** 1. Decide on the best course of action. 2. Different courses of action to choose from. 3. Some **moral principles** will be compromised. **Levels of Moral Dilemmas** 1. **Personal Dilemma:** Resolved individually using personal moral reasoning. 2. **Organizational Dilemma:** Occurs at the company level, with ethics in policies and procedures. 3. **Structural Dilemma:** Involves institutions and affects broader societal structures. **Morality, Freedom, Reason, and Impartiality** - **Morality**: Code of conduct distinguishing right from wrong. - **Freedom**: Power to exercise one's will. - **Reason**: Ability to think logically and draw conclusions. - **Impartiality**: Treating all individuals fairly. **Types of Morality** 1. **Descriptive Morality:** A culture's beliefs about moral behavior, relative to specific cultures and individuals. 2. **Normative Morality:** Seeks objective moral truths beyond subjective cultural standards. **Ethical Reasoning** - Involves the ability to reflect on moral issues, assess different ethical perspectives, and develop ethical arguments. **Culture and Morality** ======================== **Culture and Morality** - **Culture**: The accumulated knowledge, values, and beliefs passed through generations, shaping social norms and behaviors. - **Morality**: A set of values guiding right conduct, varying across cultures. **Differentiating Moral Terms:** - **Immoral**: Knowing what is right but acting against it. - **Nonmoral**: Situations where morality doesn't apply. - **Amoral**: Indifferent to moral principles. **Culture\'s Role in Moral Behavior** - **Morality** is learned through culture, starting in childhood via social learning (parents, teachers, media, etc.). - **Social Learning**: Individuals learn moral knowledge from their groups, often starting in childhood. - **Enculturation**: The process of learning moral values and norms from one's culture. **Moral Standards as Social Convention & Social Conditioning Theory** - **Moral Standards**: Social conventions defining right and wrong, shaped by history and authority. - **Social Conditioning**: Learning societal norms through conditioning: - **Classical (Pavlov)**: Associating stimuli with outcomes. - **Operant (Skinner)**: Learning through rewards and punishments. - **Social Learning (Bandura)**: Imitating others. - **Cognitive**: Adjusting beliefs through reasoning. **Cultural Relativism** - **Morality:** varies by culture and must be understood within its context. - **Absolute:** Full acceptance of all cultural practices**.** - **Critical:** Evaluating practices based on human rights. **Asian Moral Understanding** - **Eastern Ethics**: Emphasizes family, respect, and societal roles. - **Confucianism**: Focuses on virtues like filial piety and benevolence. - **Taoism**: Advocates simplicity and harmony with nature. - **Buddhism**: Guides behavior to reduce suffering. - **Hinduism**: Teaches duty (Dharma) and actions (Karma). - **Islam**: Emphasizes justice and charity. - **Shintoism**: Reverence for nature and purity. **Filipino Moral Character** - **Pakikisama**: Maintaining good relations. - **Hiya**: Avoiding shame. - **Amor Propio**: Preserving self-respect. - **Familial Values**: Central importance of family. - **Pagmamano**: Respect toward elders. - **Hospitality**: Warmth towards guests. **Universal Values** - Despite cultural variations, some values are regarded as **universal**, such as **kindness, fairness, and respect for human dignity**. **Kohlberg's Moral Development Stages** - **Lawrence Kohlberg's theory**: Describes how individuals progress through stages of moral reasoning. 1. **Preconventional Morality** - **Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment**: Behavior driven by avoiding punishment; rules seen as fixed. - **Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange**: Recognizing multiple viewpoints; not just one right view from authorities. 2. **Conventional Morality** - **Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships**: Behavior driven by social approval; being seen as good by others. - **Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order**: Focus on obeying laws, respecting authority, and maintaining order. 3. **Postconventional Morality** - **Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights**: Laws as social contracts; should change if not promoting welfare. - **Stage 6: Universal Principles**: Moral reasoning based on universal ethical principles; laws valid if grounded in justice **Egoism, Altruism, and Morality** - **Egoism:** Self-interest guides moral decisions. - **Individual Egoism:** Focus on personal interests. - **Universal Egoism:** Everyone acts in their own interest. - **Altruism:** Acting for the benefit of others. **Feelings and morality** ========================= **Feelings & Morality** - **Feelings**: Emotional responses (joy, anger, guilt, empathy) that affect decisions. - **Morality**: Principles distinguishing right from wrong, guiding actions. **Feelings as Instinctive Response to Moral Dilemmas** Feelings serve as an internal compass during moral dilemmas, offering intuitive reactions. - **Gut Reactions**: Immediate emotions like anger or disgust when moral beliefs are violated. - **Empathy**: Guides moral decisions by connecting emotionally with others. - **Examples**: Fear causes hesitation, excitement can lead to bold decisions, and love influences choices that protect relationships. **Feelings as Obstacles to Making the Right Decisions** - Emotions can hinder logical decision-making, leading to impulsiveness and bias. - The emotional brain reacts faster than the rational brain, causing spontaneous decisions. - **Hindrances:** Impulsiveness, cognitive bias, self-centered thinking, and unfair judgments. **Feelings Can Help in Making the Right Decision** - **Positive emotions** like **empathy** and **compassion** often guide individuals to make ethical choices. - **Sympathy** and **gratitude** lead us to act ethically towards others. - Observing acts of compassion can inspire us to behave similarly. **How Emotions Help**: - **Emotional Guidance**: Emotions can signal the ethical path. - **Enhancing Empathy**: Allows us to connect with others and act in ways that benefit them. - **Emotional Intuition**: Provides quick insights into ethical dilemmas. - **Emotional Commitment**: Strengthens our resolve to follow through on ethical decisions. **Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirements for Morality** - **Reason**: Logical and rational thinking for consistent and coherent moral judgments. - **Consistency**: Treats similar cases similarly, supporting fairness. - **Justification**: Moral claims need rational justification. - **Criticism**: May overlook emotional and intuitive aspects. - **Impartiality**: Treating all individuals equally and without bias. - **Equality**: Considers everyone's interests equally. - **Moral Universalism**: Moral principles should apply universally. - **Criticism**: Can ignore personal relationships or specific contexts. **Moral Courage** - Acting ethically despite fear or difficulty - Moral courage helps individuals stand up for what's right, supported by virtues like faith, hope, and love.