Introduction to Adolescent Development and Learning PDF

LEARNING UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE ADOLESCENT: DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING 1.2 PERIOD OF ADOLESCENCE The term ‘adolescence’ comes from the Latin verb adolescere, meaning ‘growing up’ or ‘to grow to adulthood’ (Berk, 2010; Gouws, 2019), and has no universally accepted definition (Pringle et al., 2016). In literature, you will come across the different stages of human development, which are often described using developmental milestones. As you recall from unit 0 (see page 1) we described ‘‘adolescent’’ also in terms of their educational development, thus meaning school- going learners in the Intermediate (Grades 4-6), Senior Phase (Grades 7–9,) and learners in the Further Education and Training Band (Grades 10–12). There is, however, a widespread agreement that adolescence starts at puberty and ends with the uptake of mature social roles, such as employment and child rearing (Pringle, et al.2016). 1.3 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION? According to Woolfolk, Hughes and Walkup (2013:4), Psychology of Education has been defined as “… the study of how psychological theories and research inform and support the work of educational professionals working across the whole range of teaching and learning settings, including child development”. O’Donnell and Levin (2001:73) define Psychology of Education as “the development and application of psychological principles to education, as well as the adoption of psychological perspectives on education”. From the above, it is evident that Psychology of Education focuses on human development and more specifically how individuals learn. The nature and scope of Psychology of Education are as follows: the application of psychological findings to understand and improve education practices. enabler to help teachers to perform their role effectively and to make the learning and teaching processes learners experience more productive. a rigorous scientific study of the individual’s life stages from birth to death. the key component/foundation in the teaching and learning processes of humans. (Source: Chauhan 2010; Woolfolk, Hughes, Walkup 2013) Psychology of Education should not be seen as a subject field that continuously “borrows” content from Psychology. We are a discipline in our own right. A large amount of evidence and content is generated within Psychology of Education by researchers in an educational environment. The South African National Qualifications Framework Act (67/2008): Revised policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications, also known as MRTEQ, (Government Gazette, 2015:10) requires teachers to know their learners (in their holistic development) and knowledge of how they learn. The development of learners and school learning falls clearly within the boundaries of Psychology of Education. Education forms a large part of most humans’ lifespans. Specific requirements for teachers such as a sensitivity to the needs of learners and an awareness of differences amongst learners emphasise the importance of psychological knowledge of the learners whom they will teach. It is not only the South African policy on teacher education that requires you as a student to know about human development and learning but similar recommendations for psychological content knowledge in teacher education can also be found in countries all over the world. The German Psychological Society, for example, proposes a core curriculum for teacher education in four areas, namely: learning and instruction, child development in social contexts, educational assessment, and intervention and counselling. In England teachers are trained to inspire, motivate, and challenge learners; promote good progress and outcomes amongst learners; adapt teaching to respond to the strengths and needs of all learners; make accurate and productive use of assessment and manage behaviour effectively to ensure a good and safe learning environment. In the United States of America, the National Academy of Education considers learning and development in social contexts and assessment as important aspects relevant to teacher training programmes. These requirements of The National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education in America are very similar to South Africa’s MRTEQ. They expect prospective teachers to know about human development, learning, school and family contexts, assessment, language acquisition, and cultural influences on learning (Lohse- Bossenz, Kunina-Habenicht & Kunter; 2013:1545–1546). Several scientific articles have appeared on the development and the content of Psychology of Education. Nolen (2009: 279–289) selected Psychology of Education journals with a high impact factor. Selecting quality scientific sources is crucial for you as a prospective teacher when selecting literature for your assignments. One way to identify quality scientific information is to look at a journal’s impact factor score. This is a measure scholars use to “judge” the relative importance of a journal within the science and social science literature. In other words, how many times experts in this field read the journal’s publishing. The score consists of the number of citations received in the current year to articles published in the two preceding years divided by the number of articles published in the same two years. For example, if a journal has an impact score of 9 in 2008, it means that articles published in that journal during 2006–2007 were cited on average 9 times during 2008. To assist you in your own search for scientific and trustworthy readings, the following six journals have scored the highest impact within the field of discipline. These journals were: Educational Psychologist à impact score 26.31 Journal of Psychology of Education à impact score 18.32 The Journal of the Learning Sciences à impact score 17.77 Psychology of Education Review à impact score 16.21 Contemporary Psychology of Education à impact score 11.55 Learning and Individual Differences à impact score 5.50 Looking at the articles published across these journals (in total 758 articles) helped us to determine what are the most prominent content areas associated with Psychology of Education. They are: Let us take the inquiry of Mitchell and McConnell (2012:136–147) as an example. They focused on only one journal in their research, namely, Educational Psychology Review. All of the articles published in this journal from 1995 to 2010 were reviewed. In total there were 440 articles. For each article, the title, topic, abstract, keywords, theoretical base, characteristics of participants and the central issue(s) were recorded. From this systematic review they came to realise the following themes: The most prevalent theoretical perspectives of the articles were cognitive and social- cognitive in nature. Within the topic category, the trends studied by researchers are about: o Most frequently individual differences (e.g., academic achievement, creativity, gender differences, motivation, self-efficacy and test anxiety) of which motivation was researched. According to the authors, this is not surprising, as motivation has been a much-studied topic in Psychology of Education. o The second most frequently occurring topic category was academic subjects, especially Reading and Mathematics. Also sometimes referred to as the 3 R’s, reading, writing and arithmetic. o The third most common topic category was cognitive processes such as attention, comprehension, memory, reasoning, metacognition and transfer. Another source that can shed light on the content of Psychology of Education is textbooks. The reason for having textbooks is because it contains a comprehensive compilation of the content of a specific field of discipline intending to explain it. Lecturers often prescribe textbooks to serve the needs of students to learn about a topic via chapters and opportunities to engage with the text. Different textbooks accentuate different aspects of human development and learning, but a broad overview of the subject can be obtained by studying the content of prominent textbooks such as those by Eggen and Kauchak (2013), Slavin (2018), Woolfolk and Hoy (2016) to name a few. 1.4 STRUCTURE OF THE SUBJECT FIELD PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION Teachers cannot teach effectively without knowing the holistic domains and associated human characteristics of the learners in their class and how they learn. Teachers will not be able to explain content effectively if they are not knowledgeable of how learners think and reason when they are confronted with new learning material. Here is an example of how Ball, Thames and Phelps (2008) visualise the types of knowledge teachers should have in order to teach. Without going into much detail, it means teachers should be experts on the subject they teach (e.g., mathematics, history, economics etc.) and have the pedagogical knowledge of how they will best teach a subject to a specific group of learners. They emphasise that teachers should be more knowledgeable than any layperson on the content; but also have adept knowledge of their learners (e.g., childhood, early childhood, adolescents etc.), ways of teaching the content to their learners that are appropriate (e.g., teacher-centred, learner-centred, content-focused etc.) and know the curriculum (e.g., CAPS). 1.4.1 Childhood and adolescent: developmental stages The Lifespan of a human is divided into stages, for example, infancy, toddler, childhood, adolescence (teenager), and adult. In every stage, different aspects of development can be identified using for example developmental milestones, characteristic traits etc. These different domains can be distinguished but obviously, they cannot be separated from one another. The human being is more/greater than the sum of its parts -- the “whole” or “entire” person is better than their individual parts because the way these parts (domains) combine adds a different quality to what it means to be human. Studying each of the domains separately is important as it will enhance our understanding of the growth and development of the learner, specifically in our study of the adolescent. But in reality, these domains are linked and interwoven and they function as a whole. Development in one domain influences development in others, and the same applies to problems. For example, an unwanted pregnancy (physical) can cause scholastic problems for a girl (cognitive), which may lead to serious social and emotional problems (affective) and rejection from her family and community (religion, culture, morals). It is therefore pedagogically unsound to, for example, treat the physical or cognitive development of the adolescent as an independent entity on the assumption that it is unrelated to other domains. In studying one domain, one must never lose sight of its close ties with other domains (Gouws, 2019). Figure 1.2 shows the different domains of holistic development. Physical development Not only do boys and girls experience their bodies differently, but each gender differs amongst themselves with regard to their body image and how they experience their physical development. For example, think of the social and emotional consequences learners experience with early and late physical development; or changes in their bodies through the development of breasts, deepening of the voice and hair growth. Teachers need to be informed on how to support learners through these changes which can also include sexual maturation, motor development and psychomotor abilities. Cognitive development Cognitive development refers to the mental processes of learners and how they give meaning to their world. Intelligence, aptitude, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving and memory are typical cognitive aspects which are relevant to the teaching profession. Social development Parents, siblings, extended family, the community, teachers and their peers constitute the social life of the individuals to a large extent. At first, the parents are very important but as they become more independent of the family unit and search for new connections (during the adolescent years), relationships with the peer group become more important. At this stage, peer influence becomes more evident. Emotional, moral and spiritual development Adolescents are faced with many complex emotions and might have a heightened emotionality that could be presented with mood swings, outbursts, and meltdowns. But during this period they become more mature and develop better recognise, regulate and manage their emotional experiences and expressions. Moral development deals with their ability to distinguish between right and wrong and to behave appropriately (and ethically) in a particular situation. For each individual “right and wrong” is measured against their own family, communal, societal and cultural values. Right and wrong can therefore not be prescribed (given) to adolescents. Adolescents then develop their own belief system and their own set of values. This newly acquired set of norms and values may or may not differ from that of the parents. Moral development also focuses on how individuals should be educated to make responsible choices. Spiritual development relates to fundamental questions that all humans ask about the meaning and purpose of life. This affects everyone and becomes more evident during adolescence. Spiritual development is not dependent on religious affiliation, nor is it about becoming more spiritual, rather it is about raising one’s awareness of one's natural, innate spirituality. Some people even describe it as an ongoing, and dynamic interplay between one's outward and inward journey to find purpose and meaning. 1.4.2 Learning Learning is a lifelong process and does not only happen in a school’s classroom. It occurs throughout a human’s lifespan. Therefore, learning does not only start in infancy and end or become completed by the end of adolescence. Learning is about assigning new meaning to reality, and even “unlearning” where wrong assumptions have been made. As you know, we all continue to learn new things throughout our life. To obtain an overview of learning, it might be helpful to distinguish between the conditions of learning, the actual learning event and the outcomes of the learning event. These aspects are shown in figure 1.3. The conditions of learning There are mainly three conditions of learning, namely cognitive, affective and psychomotor conditions. Menix (1996) describes these domains as follows. The above-named cognitive, affective and psychomotor functions are also conditions of learning. These conditions of learning are directly related to the domains of learning as described by Bloom’s taxonomy (1956; Peak Performance Center n.d). With regard to these domains, it is important to note that learning is not only an intellectual or mental (cognitive) process, but it also involves affective processes that are expressed and experienced through one’s body. Cognitive conditions à refer to the learner’s ability to attain knowledge using mental/intellectual processes. These mental/intellectual processes should be in place for learning to occur. Typical conditions discussed in textbooks are aspects such as: attention and observation; intelligence; aptitude; sensory integration, thinking and reasoning; memory (working, short and- long-term) and previous knowledge for meaningful learning to take place. Affective conditions à characterise the emotional arena (scene) reflected by learners' beliefs, values and interests. Not all learners enter a learning situation with the same emotional preparedness, awareness, interest, or attention, nor are they as able to listen and respond in interactions. For this reason, teachers need knowledge and skills to optimise aspects such as involvement, motivation, interest, attitude and self-concept. Also, Bloom (1956:7) maintained that the concealed feelings that teachers do not always know about are as important as those that are openly visible. Psychomotor conditions à reflects learning behaviour achieved through neuromuscular motor activities. By interpreting the sensory information received from the environment through your sensory organs (perception) learners’ can perform motor activities. Understanding how the body responds to the immediate learning environment enables teachers to apply strategies for example to minimise aspects such as stress and anxiety. The interplay between these three domains leads to how an individual learns according to the theoretical viewpoint of Bloom (Peak Performance Center n.d.). These levels of learning are: The actual learning event The actual learning event takes place in phases/stages/levels and involves the learner who is learning, the teacher who teaches, the learning environment and the teaching-learning material. All four components are always present during learning – there is someone who teaches, someone who learns, there is a place where this happens, and information that is learnt. To understand the learning event, we will now look at the levels of learning and provide examples. Levels of learning In referring to Bloom’s taxonomy earlier, we explained that learning takes place according to levels, also known as a taxonomy/hierarchy. Although the learner moves from the lowest to the highest during the learning event, all the levels of learning are of equal importance. In other words, the lowest level (memorisation) is not less important than the highest level (evaluation). That is because we need to have memorised information so that it is ready for use when we need to solve a problem (a higher level of learning). But merely memorising information is also not enough. Here are the three taxonomies Bloom and other scholars co-designed for each of the domains. All three works on the same principle of hierarchy, moving from the lowest to the highest levels. In the following picture, you can see how these taxonomies are compared. Below we elaborate on the cognitive domain specifically, as cognitive skills play a vital role in a learner’s overall development. Cognitive skills include some of the brain’s core functions such as thinking, reading, learning, remembering information, and paying attention which are used to solve problems, remember tasks and make decisions. LEARNING PHASE 1 Knowledge (Memorisation): Example of Knowledge: Memorising involves recognising or Name three common varieties of apples. remembering facts, terms, basic concepts or answers without necessarily understanding what they mean. Memorising facts is often incorrectly considered a low level of learning and one that we can do without. On the contrary, keeping the information in our memory lets us have knowledge and skills readily available when we need to solve a problem or make sense of a situation. Memorisation belongs in the learning process and it forms the foundation of all learning. At this level the student obtains (a) knowledge of facts; (b) the knowledge to classify and categorise and sequence, and (c) gains knowledge of a principle or rule or theory. LEARNING PHASE 2 Comprehension: Example of Comprehension: Comprehension involves demonstrating an Compare the identifying characteristics of a understanding of facts and ideas by Golden Delicious with a Granny Smith apple. organising, comparing, categorising, translating, interpreting, giving descriptions and stating the main ideas. LEARNING PHASE 3 Application: Example of Application: Application involves using acquired Would apples prevent scurvy, a disease knowledge, and solving problems in new caused by a deficiency in Vitamin C? situations by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules. Use prior knowledge to solve problems, identify connections and relationships and how they apply in new situations. LEARNING PHASE 4 Analysis: Example of Analysis: In the analysis phase, information is broken List four ways of serving foods made with up into component parts. The student needs apples and explain which ones have the to examine how the parts relate to one highest health benefits. Provide references to another, identify motives or causes, making support your statements. inferences, and finding evidence to support generalisations. Analysis, therefore, includes to understand the different elements of a concept, to understand the relationships between the elements, to understand how the elements are organised. LEARNING PHASE 5 Synthesis: Example of Synthesis: Synthesis entails to create a structure or Convert an unhealthy recipe for apple pie to a pattern from diverse elements; it may also healthy recipe by replacing your choice of refer to reorganise elements into a new whole ingredients. Explain the health benefits of or putting parts together to form a known using the ingredients you chose versus the whole (in other words, putting is back the way original ones. it was). You will notice here that synthesis is not possible without having mastered all the previous levels of learning. It requires of one to separate elements, understand what their functions are, and putting them together into a new, functional whole. LEARNING PHASE 6 Evaluation: Example of Evaluation: Evaluation involves presenting and defending Which kind of apples are best for baking a opinions by making judgements about pie, and why? information, the validity of ideas, or quality of work based on a set of criteria. To be able to make a judgement, all the previous levels of learning are required. To support the different learning activities, teachers have to create a favourable learning environment and offer quality instruction. For this reason, instruction is often discussed in Psychology of Education textbooks under the following headings: o Teaching styles (e.g., lecturing, coaching, facilitator, delegator, hybrid/blended etc.) o Classroom organisation, classroom management and classroom atmosphere o Instructional objectives (e.g., knowledge, skills, attitudes) o Teaching approaches (e.g. learner-centred, teacher-centred, subject-centred, guided etc.) o Effective communication and interaction with learners o Regular monitoring (e.g., formative assessment, summative assessment etc.) o Quality comment (feedUP, feedBACK and feedFORWARD) Outcomes of the learning event If the learning event was successful, learners will remember what they have learnt, their behaviour would change, and they will be able to apply it. Memory and transfer are thus important. Reasons why learners forget or make mistakes can be because of difficulty to recall information according to several Psychology of Education textbooks. If learners remember the content, can perform a learned skill, they will most probably be able to transfer their knowledge – which is an indication of the ability to apply newly acquired knowledge in different situations. The outcomes and success of any learning event cannot be determined without proper assessment and evaluation – therefore you will find a chapter on assessment in many textbooks. Aspects such as the following are covered: o Types of assessment o Developing questions for classroom tests o Reliability, validity and transparency o Preparing learners for tests and helping them deal with test anxiety o Administering tests o Analysing test results 1.4.3 Individual differences The teacher is supposed to mediate or facilitate learning in a manner which is sensitive to the diverse needs of learners – including those with barriers to learning – and to construct learning environments that are appropriately contextualised, physically accessible and safe, and inspirational. It is of crucial importance that teachers must be aware of learners who have serious delays in their physical and cognitive development. Suitable care should be taken for each individual learner who may need some special assistance or therapy. Not all children develop in the same way, nor do they learn in the same way. Learners’ behaviour varies from good behaviour to behaviour which is a concern for parents and teachers. Also, learners’ academic abilities and achievement also vary. Not only should teachers be aware of these differences; they should adequately plan for it in their teaching, and also be prepared to deal with them or refer when necessary. According to Mitchell and McConnell (2012:136–147) research in educational psychology used to emphasise individual differences in learners, with little attention to the influence of the social context. With the emergence of theoretical frameworks of constructivist and social learning, researchers are beginning to place greater emphasis on contextual variables in the learning process. Such an approach will certainly benefit the South African situation. The rule of inclusion is to focus on similarities, and overlap and make learning accessible to all. It is therefore crucial to emphasise similarities than only focusing on differences when you are teaching. But with this said, it is important as a professional to understand differences so you can plan and prepare for it in your teaching. You will need to know about the domains of differences which fall within the field of Psychology of Education are: o Gender differences o Sexual orientation/ preference o Learners with physical impairments such as seeing or hearing o Learning challenges o Language barriers o Psychological wellbeing o Behavioural challenges in class o Oppositional defiant disorder, Conduct disorder and delinquency o Cultural diversity o Giftedness o Creativity and divergent thinking 1.5 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT IN PSYCHOLOGY There are many theorists in the field of Psychology. Presently, it will be impossible to predict who the most important psychologists of the 21st century are. However, Haggbloom, Warnick, Warnick et al (2002:139–152) did research and provided a rank-order list of the 100 most eminent psychologists of the previous (20th) century. Can you guess who? Let’s look at what this 20-year-old research indicated. The research done in one study considered a theorist’s reputation. This reputation was measured using the frequency of citations in professional journals as well as psychologists most frequently cited in introductory psychology textbooks (see pages 4 & 5). They also surveyed, by e-mail, approximately 1,725 members of the American Psychological Society. These members were asked who they considered the greatest psychologists of the 20th century in general and in their specialisation field. Certain qualitative measures were also applied. A final rank-order list of 100 psychologists worldwide was drawn up. These individuals were not only some of the best-known thinkers in psychology, but they also played an important role in the history of psychology and made important contributions to the understanding of human behaviour. But, the research focused on only psychologists and does not differentiate between Psychology in general and Psychology of Education (which is our focus). 1.6 RESEARCH METHODS New knowledge is generated daily within the psychology of the subject field, mainly as a result of dedicated researchers who investigate different aspects of human development, learning and individual differences within an educational environment. This does not exclude teachers. There is an increasing need for teachers to get involved in classroom research. Such research will assist teachers to improve their instruction and offering better support for learners in their class who might experience learning or behavioural challenges. Before moving on to scientific methods, you as a teacher can use the following resource to help you improve your own teaching based on the feedback you receive and observe in your classroom – it is called the formative assessment cycle. This is a deliberate (intentional) process used by teachers during their teaching which provides feedback that they can use to adjust/improve their lessons. Observing learners’ behaviour and their responses to the lesson offers information to teachers on how well the lesson is going. Teachers can use different strategies for teaching, make activities more active, change the assessment or reintroduce the content to improve the chances of students achieving the outcome. The discussions (page 7, 13 to 15) is important to consider in terms of scientific research, all basic research methods are practised in all sciences (for example, in the social and educational sciences) and these methods have therefore also become an important component of Psychology of Education. Two main research approaches can be distinguished namely quantitative (numbers) and qualitative (words) research. Quantitative research is done with large groups. Psychological constructs such as motivation or achievement are measured with tests or questionnaires and the information is then statistically analysed. Qualitative research is done with small groups or individuals with the aim of doing an in- depth investigation on a particular topic. Interviews or observation are often used to collect data in qualitative research projects. 1.7 THE TEACHER'S ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES The success of the teaching-learning activity depends entirely on the teacher’s ability (or lack of it) to create a classroom climate that encourages active participative learning. The teacher’s overall aim is to involve the learner in active participation in the learning process. To achieve this aim, the teacher needs to know the learner (his or her level of development) and how the learner learns. This was quickly touched on in the oval (egg) visual on page 7. The teacher further needs to be able to engage the learner in a critical thinking exercise about the subject content. Subject content should not be presented as a given, or as an absolute. Instead, it should be presented and accepted simply for what it really is, that is, information that may be applied to one’s own reality to act confidently in one’s own life world. This presents a greater challenge to the teacher, who has the responsibility to create a classroom situation that invites each and every learner to view new content critically, against the background of his or her own existing knowledge. This way of presenting subject content encourages learners to construct a deeper and richer form of knowledge that widens their experience of the life world. In this kind of teaching-learning situation, the learner personally grapples with the content and tries to reconcile it with his or her own existing knowledge. It is clear that teachers play a vital role in the lives of adolescents in their learning environments. The most important role fulfilled by teachers is that of educating the learners who are placed in their care. In addition to teaching, teachers have many other roles in the classroom. They set the atmosphere in classrooms, create a warm environment, nurture and mentor learners, become role models, and listen and look for signs of trouble. For many years, communities have looked up to teachers as respected role models. For teachers to be able to fulfil the role expected from them they need to have a sound knowledge of adolescent development and learning. 1.8 CONCLUSION In this unit, you were introduced to what the whole module is about: the period of adolescence, how adolescents develop and the challenges in the environment of adolescents in South Africa. You were introduced to the subject field of Psychology of Education. You have learnt that the two main concepts to define Psychology of Education are development and learning. In addition, you now know that the understanding of human development (and particularly, of learners’ specific level of development) is essential for teachers. Teachers also need to know how learning takes place. Furthermore, you were reminded of the important roles and responsibilities of teachers in the schooling context. In learning unit 2 we shall discuss the physical development of the adolescent. As a teacher, you should be familiar with the physical changes that take place during adolescence in order to help the learners in your class to cope with these changes. LEARNING UNIT 2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ADOLESCENT 2.1 INTRODUCTION From the previous unit, we can conclude that a teacher works holistically with the adolescent. What this means is that they must have appropriate knowledge and understanding of all the human domains of development of the adolescent and apply it to their teaching practice. In this learning unit, we will zoom in on one of the domains, namely the physical development of the adolescent. We will look at the characteristics of normal physical development, with special attention to the effect of physical changes on the daily functioning of the adolescent. We will also look at the importance of a healthy lifestyle and what a healthy lifestyle entails. This unit will enable you to: describe the changes and the milestones that are reached during the healthy physical development of an adolescent; understand the effect of physical changes on the emotional and social well-being of the adolescent; elaborate on the influence of culture and community on the way certain milestones are perceived and handled; understand the side effects of unhealthy habits. For you to be successful regarding the physical development of the adolescent you will actively participate in: all online discussions; log into myUnisa to access your reading material; complete and submit activities; and summarize the unit for yourself (e.g., mind map) to help you prepare for the exam. It is of utmost importance that you ask for support if concepts are unclear to you via myUnisa. It is important for you as a teacher to understand the physical development of the adolescent, as the physical growth and motor development have an important effect on the behaviour of the adolescent learner. 2.2 ADOLESCENT GROWTH SPURT Early adolescence is characterised by rapid and extensive physical growth (also known as a growth spurt or accelerated growth) and the development of sexual maturity (Louw & Louw, 2020). An important physical change is the onset of puberty, the process that leads to sexual maturity, or fertility – the ability to reproduce (Papalia et al., 2010). Puberty typically starts around 10-11 years for girls and 11-12 years for boys. This can also be earlier or later. In puberty, boys and girls have distinct differences, but in general, they get taller, heavier and stronger. There are also changes in their sexual organs, the shape of their bodies, brains, skin, hair (pubic, chest and armpits), teeth, breasts, voice pitch and sweatiness. This process stems from the release of certain hormones (chemicals) in the brain. These hormones released are the same in all adolescents, but differences in hormone levels lead to different results in males and females. As a teacher, you need to be aware of the changes that take place in your learners’ bodies. Always keep in mind that these rapid changes also affect cognition, emotions, self-image and the behaviour of the learner. 2.3 BRAIN DEVELOPMENT The brain undergoes important changes during adolescence, but higher cognitive functions are still being developed. The advances in brain development lead to growth in certain areas of mental competencies, and immaturity in some other areas can lead to behavioural problems. Brain maturity is a physiological process in which the human brain grows and changes. Studies of neuro-imaging show that the adolescent brain continues to mature well into the 20s (Johnson, Blum & Giedd, 2009:216) – as opposed to earlier views that the human brain is fully developed between 10 and 12 years. Many factors influence the development of the adolescent brain. These are factors such as: Heredity Environment Prenatal and postnatal conditions Nutrition Sleep patterns Medication Surgical interventions Stress (physical, economic, psychological) Drug abuse Hormones such as oestrogen, progesterone, and testosterone Some of the above-named factors are beyond the adolescent’s control, for instance, heredity (genetics), intensity and type of parental care, certain health conditions or even the environment they find themselves in. They can, however, be aware of the dangers of drug abuse, unprotected sexual activities, undisciplined sleep patterns and eating unhealthy foods, and they can decide to avoid dangerous or unhealthy habits, such as over-using social media. Some studies indicate that the mere use of cell phones has effects on cognitive performance, as described in the following article. Understanding the changes and challenges that adolescents face, will enable you as a teacher to effectively help them learn and grow. Adolescent thinks differently than a grown-up, as they are more likely to take risks, be sleepy, misread emotions, give in to peer pressure and lack self- control. 2.4 SEXUAL MATURATION The onset of menstruation (girls) and nocturnal/night-time semen emissions (boys) indicates that the adolescent is now capable of reproduction. Still, although biologically capable to have children, these adolescents are not necessarily emotionally, cognitively or financially fit to have a baby. The female adolescent is extremely vulnerable during the adolescent period. Early pregnancy has major health consequences for the adolescent mother and her baby. Teenage pregnancy is discussed later in this unit, but we can at this stage keep in mind that sexual maturation comes with the obligation to make responsible life choices. Different cultures have different ways of handling the transition from child to adult. “Rite of passage” is a term that the ethnographer Arnold van Gennep (1908) coined. A rite of passage refers to a ceremony/ritual that marks an important social transition. It rids a person of an old role and helps them to accept and adapt to a new role. It involves rituals and teachings that groom the person for their new roles and responsibilities within the family unit or community. Typical transition periods are birth, puberty, marriage and death. Rituals and ceremonies differ between cultures and it also serves to reinforce the values and beliefs of the culture. Early pregnancies among adolescents have major health consequences for adolescent mothers and their babies. Pregnancy and childbirth complications are the leading cause of death among girls aged 15–19 years globally. low- and middle-income countries account for 99% of global maternal deaths of women aged 15–49 years.3 Adolescent mothers aged 10–19 years face higher risks of eclampsia (seizures), puerperal endometritis (bacteria infecting the uterus and surrounding areas) and systemic infections (contaminating the entire body) than women aged 20–24 years. 4 Additionally, some 3.9 million unsafe abortions among girls aged 15–19 years occur each year, contributing to maternal mortality, morbidity and lasting health problems. Unsafe sex could potentially lead to being infected with HIV/Aids by the mother. This virus can be transferred to the baby during childbirth, or when breastfeeding. Only blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk carries this virus. Early childbearing can increase risks for new-borns as well as young mothers. Babies born to mothers under 20 years of age face higher risks of low birth weight, preterm delivery and severe neonatal conditions. Because it is not commonly discussed, sexual behaviour is often viewed as a problem rather than a normal part of development. As previously stated, adolescence is associated with physical, emotional and psychological development, and during this time decisions about relationship formation and sexual debut occur (Smith & Harrison, 2013). As a result, this is an important time in the learner’s life to address issues of sexuality and HIV prevention. It is important to provide information that is non-judgemental, and accurate and provide strategies that will empower the learners to make responsible decisions about their sexual and reproductive health. According to UNESCO (2022), sex education is most effective and has the most impact when school-based programmes involve parents, teachers, training institutes and youth-friendly services. Furthermore, school-based programmes focused on sex education must address the different contexts and life experiences of each adolescent or learner and should be seen as a normal part of life. 2.5 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL CHANGES Adolescents are acutely aware of the physical changes they experience. The effects of early and late maturation vary in boys and girls, and the timing of maturation tends to predict adolescent mental health and health-related behaviours in adulthood (Papalia et al., 2010). For many boys, the lowering of their voice may cause embarrassment, when in the midst of a serious conversation, their voices suddenly squeak and crackle. Girls are usually concerned about their sudden weight increase, although an increase in weight during adolescence is considered differently by different cultures (Gouws, 2019). One cannot generalise about the psychological effects of puberty timing because it depends on how the adolescent and other people in his or her world interpret the accompanying changes (Papalia et al., 2010). The changes in an adolescent’s physical development and hormone levels often result in risky behaviour and decisions. However, this time is often also associated with creativity, intensive emotionality, and social engagement (Oxford University Press, 2018). Complete the activity below that is focused on how you as a teacher can best use this to your advantage when teaching the adolescent learner. 2.6 BODY IMAGE AND EATING DISORDERS Getting used to the changes in the body and developing a positive feeling about one’s body is a very important developmental task in adolescence. Attitude towards one’s body is influenced by factors such as cultural preferences, the media and peer opinions. Body image is a crucial part of adolescent development, and negative body image can impact many aspects of adolescents' physical and psychological health and well-being. It has been found that parental attitudes and media images play a greater part than peer influences in encouraging weight concerns (Hartman, Munick, Gordon & Guss, 2020). Eating disorders might be more common among girls, but boys should not be overlooked. Excessive concerns with weight and body image may be early signs of anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa. While there are many similarities when it comes to how body image concerns develop in girls and boys, it has been found that there are a few differences including the appearance that adolescents pursue. Body image concerns often develop later in adolescence for boys. Boys are more likely to drive for muscularity, and this often contributes to body concerns in boys, and negatively influences the exercise and eating behaviours they engage in (The Educator, 2019). As a teacher you can promote positive body image by doing the following: Be a positive role model: Research has shown that having a role model who is older can motivate, encourage and empower young people. Introduce learners to diversity: introduce learners to different images that reflect different physical abilities, body sizes and appearances. Shift the focus from appearance to attributes: teaching learners to think positively about themselves can help develop a positive self-image that doesn’t focus entirely on appearance. Encourage students to appreciate their bodies and take care of it (Bodywhys, 2022). When it comes to eating disorders, it is important that you as a teacher take it seriously. Eating disorders are illnesses that have biological and psychological components. The symptoms can be life threatening, as every organ system of the body can be damages (including the brain, heart, kidney, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, endocrine, skin and bones). It is your responsibility as a teacher to create a safe environment where learners are able to discuss matters privately and confidentially (Golisano Chilren’s Hospital, 2023). 2.7 TEENAGE PREGNANCY Even in the best of circumstances, adolescence can be a period charged with tension. Young people face the impact of puberty; they have to develop a personal and career identity and establish and maintain social relationships. They are moving out of the family circle into what is frequently a strange world of work and studies where they feel unwelcome and often apprehensive. They must learn skills to equip them to cope in the adult world. Under normal circumstances, pregnancy has implications for an adult person. For a teenager who is still trying to form her identity, an unplanned pregnancy could assume the proportions of a crisis. Physical implications of teenage pregnancy Although the teenage mother is biologically able to have a baby, her body is not yet mature enough to cope with the physical changes brought about by pregnancy. As discussed previously (see pages 5 & 6) pregnancy and childbirth complications are the leading cause of death among girls aged 15-19 years globally (Neal, Matthews & Frost, 2012; Darroch, Woog, Bankole, & Ashford, 2016). In addition to teenagers finding medical examinations associated with pregnancy traumatic, adolescent mothers aged 10–19 years face higher risks of eclampsia, puerperal endometritis and systemic infections than women aged 20–24 years (WHO 2016). Career possibilities If a teenager unexpectedly falls pregnant, it changes her career possibilities. Some teenagers are not even able to return and complete their schooling. Because it is necessary to make financial provisions for the baby, these teenagers may revert to short-term plans such as working as a part-time employee for a very low salary, while their long-term career plans are, of necessity, moved into the background. Opting for an abortion Some 3.9 million unsafe abortions among girls aged 15–19 years occur each year, contributing to maternal mortality, morbidity and lasting health problems (Darroch, Woog, Bankole & Ashford 2016). Generally speaking, abortion is not sufficiently understood and could be traumatic for a young expectant mother. There might well be post-abortion psychological consequences. These might include clinical depression, suicide attempts and psychosis. Because of their ignorance, teenagers who wish to undergo abortions, tend to do so later than they should, instead of in the earlier, relatively safer weeks of pregnancy. Relationship between the teenager and her parents A teenage girl would normally like to become independent of her parents without undue negativity or feelings of rebellion. This transition from a symbiosis between child and parents to a relationship where the child is able to assume the position of an adult in a mutual relationship with her parents could take years. Along the way, the teenager achieves her developmental milestones, acquiring greater independence, and her parents gradually begin to leave more and more decisions to her as they relinquish their control. Although normally, a teenager's process of becoming independent has its problems, this period forms a continuous phase of growth and change in both the teenager and her parents. An early pregnancy could thwart this process. The teenager may withdraw from her parents because she feels ashamed and guilty and her parents may reject her because they feel frustrated, angry and disappointed. If at this stage, when the parents are still helping to make some of the decisions for the teenager, a decision regarding adoption or abortion has to be made, the teenager is usually overwhelmed by feelings of anxiety and is incapable of thinking clearly. Some of these girls are in such a state of denial that they are quite incapable of thinking about the future. This is usually when the mother or both parents take over the decision-making process. If parents do this, it is not necessarily parental overcontrol but a vital intervention precisely because an early pregnancy places such an unreasonable burden on a young person. Although it is viewed as necessary for the parents to intervene, it nevertheless has huge implications if, for example, they take the lead in the matter of abortion or adoption and it could compromise the girl's eventual autonomy. Educational implications of teenage pregnancy. The prevalence of teenage pregnancies in South Africa is a cause for concern. The causes range from circumstances in the home to peer pressure and cultural expectations. The consequences are problematic for the girl and her whole family and her education. The researchers Pettifor, Stoner, Pike and Bekker (2018) suggest that the health of a community will lead to young women’s sexual health. Where there is poverty and dysfunctional family norms, girls are exposed to sex inequity and violence – with a greater risk of unprotected and forced sex. However, these researchers are of the opinion that schools can protect adolescents from risky sexual behaviour, preventing pregnancies and HIV infection. They say that if adolescent girls stay in school, they can be protected by a “safe space” (Pettifor et al., 2018:269) where girls can support each other and have a strong social network. They found that girls attending school also have fewer older partners and exhibit overall safer sexual behaviour. They also suggest that in HIV prevention programmes, the interventions must be adapted to the specific adolescent population. Adolescents should be made aware that irresponsible sexual behaviour may have serious consequences with regard to infections and HIV/AIDS. Teachers can inform learners of the facts about HIV and motivate them to have a cautious lifestyle. 2.8 CONCLUSION We have come to the end of this learning unit. Apart from recognising the difficulties of the physical development of the adolescent, the teacher must also understand and accept cultural differences between learners. Feelings and behaviour of learners may vary due to diverse cultural views and expectations and the teacher must be sensitive to these differences. In learning unit 3 we shall discuss the cognitive development of the adolescent. Bear in mind that all the domains are interlinked and that development in one domain influences development in another domain. When learning about adolescents’ abstract and hypothetical thoughts, their idealistic rebellion, egocentrism and personal fable, try to link these with what you have just learnt about things such as their self-image, their experience of the physical changes of puberty and their feelings about sexual maturation. LEARNING UNIT 3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 3.1 INTRODUCTION In learning unit 2, we studied the physical development of the adolescent. We realized that rapid physical growth has a considerable impact on the general well-being of the adolescent. It also became clear that a healthy lifestyle is crucial for the development of the adolescent. In this learning unit, we will explore the cognitive or intellectual development of the adolescent. Apart from numerous physical changes, several (mostly unseen) cognitive changes also take place during adolescence. To understand these changes, we will have to consider different theories on cognitive development. These theories will show us how various experts think about the development of cognition. Together we will also explore the brain and the development of the brain during adolescence. Intelligence is a concept that is usually used within the context or discussions about cognition. Thus, we will also explore how intelligence has always been highly valued and we know that it is an important factor in the functioning and development of all children. We will therefore look at different views regarding intelligence and how it can be enhanced. In conclusion, we will learn more about creativity and how it can be stimulated. Cognition is concerned with the process of “getting to know”. It has to do with thinking and learning. Intelligence is one’s “ability to learn or understand” or to deal with new or trying situations. This ability to is often measured by objective criteria (as tests). Cognitive development, therefore, involves “thinking” functions such as attention, comprehension, memory, problem-solving and decision-making. Cognitive development is a product of both nature and nurture: Nature refers to the impact of factors such as genetics and heredity on cognitive development. Nurture refers to the influence of the (learning) environment of the adolescent. It is therefore necessary to always keep the environment and cultural differences in mind when you study cognitive development. Also, note that healthy cognitive development means that a child grows mentally to the best of their ability in their unique situation. This unit will enable you to evaluate different theories and viewpoints regarding cognitive development apply different theories and viewpoints regarding cognitive development demonstrate the ability to apply your knowledge to your practical environment 3.2 THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Cognitive theories focus on how our mental processes change over time. Cognitive theories describe an interaction between humans and their environment, in which development occurs through a constant process of going back and forth between the person and the environment (Piaget, 1971). Most theorist specifically focused on the young child in their studies. We will study a few theories on cognitive development. Firstly, you will study the theory of Piaget, as his is the most widely recognized cognitive theory. Furthermore, the theories of Vygotsky, Sternberg, and Gardner will give you a wider perspective on adolescent cognitive development. 3.2.1 A constructive perspective: Jean Piaget Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist and genetic epistemologist, and to date, made the greatest single contribution to the existing knowledge of the child’s cognitive development (Gouws, 2019). Piaget called his general theoretical framework “genetic epistemology” because he was primarily interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Even though some have questioned aspects of his theory, it is still extremely influential. His thinking has presented a number of useful insights about the processes of thinking and learning (Brown, 2018). Piaget believed that the mind of a child develops through a series of set stages until they reach adulthood. He studied the thinking and learning of children, carefully observing the different ages as they performed different tasks (Brown, 2018). He saw the child as continuously creating and constructing their own reality, reaching a developmental stage by integrating easier concepts into higher-level concepts at each stage. He identified four different stages of cognitive development, namely – the sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational and formal operational stage. When humans reach adolescents, according to Piaget, they should be able to function at the highest level of cognitive development where they develop the capacity for abstract thought. This referred to as the formal operational stage. However, more recent research proposes that intellectual development takes place throughout adolescence and well into early adulthood (Kaufman, 2019). According to Nsamenang (2006), cognitive development in African culture refers to the knowledge and skills needed to be competent and responsible in one’s social environment. One should be able to cope with social interaction, cultural life, values, economic activities and demonstrative productive/efficient skills (such as in daily routines). It is important for a child to take care of others and to receive support, which is regarded as signs of cognitive and general development. 3.2.2 The information-processing view The information processing theory is a view of how data received from one’s senses from the environment is processed and interpreted in the brain. This theory likens learning with a computer that is capable of analysing information from the environment. By using a computer as analogy, the theory explains how individuals record, store, and retrieve information in their brains. The theory lists three stages of our memory that work together in this order: sensory memory, short-term or working memory and long-term memory. While we are for the purposes of this module simplifying the process by just referring to recording, storing and retrieval, the magnitude and scope of neural networks in the brain are quite powerful. How is information-processing theory applicable to the developing cognition of the adolescent and their learning process? If we know how the adolescent encodes information into their working memory, we can know how to prepare and present the information during the teaching process. Refer again to BF Skinner in Unit 1, whose theory posits that we react to stimuli more or less in the same way. According to the information-processing view, information processing is more complicated than merely reacting to a stimulus. Past experiences, cultural values, advancement/progress in development and differences in personality mean that human beings will process the same information in a different way. In other words, they will attribute different meanings to the same construct because they think differently. For example, a cow is seen as a source of food (e.g., milk, meat), but in the Hindu religion the cow has a sacred status because they are sacrificed/offered to the gods. According to the African view of personhood, information may be encoded (interpreted) according to the environmental and communal context of the child. This theory teaches us that to enhance academic performance, we as teachers need to link new information to what the learner already knows. This is what we call “activating learners’ prior knowledge”. Sometimes curricula also uses themes or topics to teach information, skills and values (e.g., my body; seasons of the year; fauna and flora). New information will then be more easily encoded because it is related to existing knowledge. This will also help learners to store information more easily because they associate the information with an already known concept, and consequently, retrieve it easily. Piaget would refer to this process as “assimilation” and in psychology they would call it “consolidation” because a long-lasting memory is created during an educational event. 3.2.3 Early conceptualisations of intelligence, and measuring intelligence In the early 20th century people started thinking about how to measure intelligence. Initially, it was thought that a person’s physical appearance and senses such as sight, hearing and reaction time, were related to how intelligent you were. Based on this, Galton (1822 – 1911), developed the concept of a fixed intelligence. He also created the first intelligence test, but he did not distinguish between age groups. In other words, one may have presumed that if a child’s reaction time was shorter than that of an adult, the child may be considered less intelligent (Clark 2008). 3.2.3.1 The first conceptualisation of intelligence as more than one construct We will now take a look at how Binet, Spearman, Sternberg and others started to describe intelligence as more than one construct. Binet (1857 - 1911) argued that intelligence should not be measured as a fixed ability. As a result, he developed the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ). In other words, intelligence could now be ranked in levels, for example as low, average, high or superior. Each level was linked to a number. An IQ score of 130 – 145, for example, was described as gifted (Mwamwenda, 2004: 245). Binet also developed the concept of mental age. Mental age is the age at which an average person reaches the same or a certain ability. Binet's test measured the ability to pay attention, as well as memory, judgment, reasoning and understanding. Spearman (1927) defined intelligence in two parts, which he called factors. He named the first factor a general intelligence (g-factor), which plays a role in the performance of all types of tasks. The ability to reason and solve problems is represented by the g-factor. However, Spearman believed that even the most capable people do relatively better in certain fields than others. We also see this in the classroom where some learners are better in, for example, writing and making music rather than doing mathematics. He calls it a specific intelligence (s-factor) (Willis, Dumont & Kaufman, 2011:41). This would later extend to the concepts of liquid and crystallised intelligence. Meanwhile, during the 1930s, intelligence tests gained in popularity and were specifically used by the US military, career counsellors and schools (Clark, 2008: 30). This is still, to a great extent, the case today. According to this, high intelligence became a fashion and is seen as an asset in someone's character. Although Spearman’s two factors were accepted, psychology, education and industry still place great value on the general concept of intelligence, as represented by the IQ score. According to this, intelligence is regarded as a single, particular, inherited characteristic, a fixed standard measure, much like a thermometer or scale and is based mainly on linguistic, logical and/or mathematical abilities. Ideas about intelligence continued to change. Researchers, such as Thurstone, Cattell and Guilford, identified multiple factors of intelligence. Instead of Spearman’s g- and s-factors, Thurstone identified seven different factors that include visual and spatial relations, perceptual speed, number proficiency, verbal meanings, memory, fluency, and deductive and inductive reasoning. These factors were later expanded to include creativity. During the 1960s, there was a shift from the view of intelligence as a construct focusing mainly on mathematics and language, to more general skills and talent. In 1960, Taylor developed the talent model of multiple talents. The main categories of talents identified and nurtured within his model are the following: exceptional ability in decision-making, forecasting, planning, creative thinking and academia (Feldhusen, 2003:38). 3.2.3.2 The role of environmental influence on intelligence Up to this point the traditional IQ test did not clearly allow for cultural variation in intelligence. In other words, most IQ tests were not culture friendly and not suitable for use, especially with disadvantaged learners. Cultural biases can influence IQ test results, as certain cultural experiences and knowledge are often required to answer certain questions correctly. This means that individuals from certain cultures or socio-economic backgrounds may perform better or worse on IQ tests based on their exposure to specific information or ways of thinking. Benjamin Bloom (1985), an educational psychologist, created the well-known Bloom’s taxonomy. His work built on the idea of environmental influence in intelligence. In his research that advocates talent development in schools, Bloom focused on talent developed with the support of family members and teachers. Bloom’s taxonomy seeks to promote a more inclusive and culturally sensitive approach to education. It acknowledges that knowledge and skills can be acquired through different means and that different cultures may prioritise certain types of knowledge over others. Urie Bronfenbrenner was a Russian-born American psychologist who is well known for his ecological systems theory. Although we will discuss his theory later in more detail, it is important to know that he distinguished between a child’s immediate environment (family) and the wider environment of the child. He also argued that talent is developed and lived out in social contexts. “We don't use our intelligence just in taking tests and in doing homework, but also in relation to people, in performing jobs effectively, and in managing our lives in general” (Wechsler in Sternberg et al., 2011:58). 3.2.3.3 What does this mean to South African teachers today? From this discussion, it is clear that the view of intelligence as one or a few constructs has broadened to include a variety of talents that have developed socially and which are lived out within society. This fact is emphasised by the complexity of humanity's culture and achievements. But what does this mean for teachers? Intellectual ability was previously considered a gift to the elect few. If an IQ score is over a certain number, the learner is seen as gifted. If the IQ score is lower than the “magic score”, it is seen as high or average intellectual ability. We do acknowledge that IQ tests have a function, for example in the diagnosis of challenges in certain learning areas, for example verbal intelligence. Still, the result of many IQ tests is often interpreted by parents, teachers and learners as value statements and may have a negative effect on a learner’s self-concept. For example, the results of an IQ test are often used to label someone as slow/challenged. An IQ tests do not measure motivation, emotion, attitudes. The danger of someone knowing they have a “low IQ” might lead to them not engaging to their full potential because they already believe they will not be successful in school and in life. Teachers are usually aware of “underachievers” in their classroom. Those are most probably learners that, because of language, socio-economic, emotional or learning barriers, are not performing academically as they could. An IQ test would probably not detect some underachievers, as IQ tests have a strong visual (reading a problem and understanding it) and auditory (listening to a question and understanding it) component. The learner who is not motivated and involved due to psychological, socio-economic or language challenges, may feel that they will not be able to do well in the IQ test as well. The idea of viewing intellectual ability as a series of talents rather than one or a few intellectual constructs, therefore offers the possibility that talent could be identified over a broader spectrum and since there is no cut-off score which may eliminate some, it may include and enrich more learners. 3.2.4 Multiple intelligences: Howard Gardner's theory Gardner is another influential scholar on intellect. He stated that a variety of talents could work together with morality to create a world in which a large variety of individuals would like to live together. To support his argument, he quoted Emmerson (in Gardner, 1999: 4) in saying: “Character is more important than intellect”. In 1983, Howard Gardner introduced the theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner defines intelligence as “a bio-psychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture” (Gardner 1999). Gardner’s theory differs from the original multiple factors of intelligence according to researchers such as Thurstone, Cattell, Guilford and others. Gardner (1999:3) did research with patients with organic brain disorders and through this work, discovered and provided evidence that a certain intelligence is located at a certain place in the brain. Although not the focus of this module, it is indeed so that mathematical intelligence is located at a specific place in the brain, as is musical intelligence, et cetera. This does not mean that if a child is busy with his mathematics, that only one area of the brain is active. All thinking activities require that different areas of the brain to work together. According to Gardner, there are nine kinds of intelligence (see table 3.1). As a teacher, you should make use of different teaching strategies to help activate the different types of intelligences. However, in order to address the need of different teaching strategies, one should consider the different learning styles. Gardner was aware of this when he developed his theory of multiple intelligence, as his theory requires teachers to accommodate their teaching strategies, in order to meet learners’ individual needs. In table 3.1 you will find descriptions and examples of people who possess each type of intelligence as described by Gardner. We also include examples of how learners with these types of intelligences react differently to the traditional type (e.g. teacher-orientated/centred, knowledge transmission) of teaching, which is still prevalent in many schools. Multiple Description Examples of famous How learners with Intelligences people who possess this type of this type of intelligence react to intelligence teacher-orientated teaching. Verbal-linguistic Word smart – the Dalene Matthee These learners will intelligence ability to use words Nataniel have the need to effectively, abstract Steve Biko speak and reasoning, symbolic Sol Plaatje communicate and thinking, conceptual will often be writing patterning, reading and passing notes and writing. They instead of learn best through concentrating on the language. lesson Logical- Number smart – the Anton Rupert These learners will mathematical capacity to use Loyiso Nongxa quickly understand a intelligence numbers effectively Thamsanqa Kambule new concept in and to reason well. Raymond Ackerman Mathematics and Includes sensitivity other related to logical patterns subjects like and relationships, Accountancy and statements and Science, and will get propositions, irritated when the functions, and other teacher has to re- related abstractions. explain the concept They learn best or do multiple through numbers, examples. They tend reasoning and to get restless and problem solving. fidgety. Musical intelligence Music smart – Miriam Makeba These learners tend capacities such as Hugh Masekela to drum incessantly the recognition and when they are forced use of rhythmic and to sit still, or hum and tonal patterns and sing under their sensitivity to sounds breath. Without from the realising it, they often environment, the get louder. human voice, and musical instruments. They learn best through music. Spatial intelligence Picture smart – the Errol Arendz These learners think ability to perceive the Sol Kerzner and learn in visual visual-spatial world formats, such as accurately and to pictures, graphs and perform diagrams and can transformations easily get lost or upon those bored in a purely perceptions. verbal lesson. They Includes sensitivity may be constantly to colour, line, shape, drawing in their form, space, and the books and may get relationships that so caught up in exist between these designs and patterns elements. Also that they miss the includes the capacity lesson. to visualise, to graphically represent visual and spatial concepts and to orient oneself properly in a special matrix. They learn best visually and tend to organise their thinking spatially. Bodily-kinaesthetic Body smart – the Brian Habana These learners are intelligence ability to use the Ryk Neethling the most restless of body to express all. They need to emotion, to play a move, and if they are game, and to create a sitting in front of, or new product. They within the line of learn best through vision of other physical activity. learners, they are very disruptive. These are the chair- swingers or book- spinners and play with their stationery and anything else they can lay their hands on. They often ask to go to the bathroom and will be the first to volunteer for errands. Intrapersonal Self-smart – self- Charlize Theron These learners are intelligence knowledge and the Shaleen Surtie- the least disruptive in ability to act Richards the class situation. adaptively on the They are more basis of this introspective and knowledge. may daydream or be Includes possessing lost in their own an accurate self- world, rather than image, awareness of disturb others. inner moods, intentions, motivations, temperaments and desires. Also includes the capacity for self-discipline, self-understanding and self-esteem. They learn best through meta- cognitive practices. Interpersonal People smart – the Nelson Mandela These learners are intelligence ability to work Tokyo Sexwale the socialites, the cooperatively with constant talkers and others in a small the ones who cannot group, as well as the avoid becoming ability to involved in whatever communicate is happening in the verbally and class, even if it is an nonverbally with argument, they have other people. They nothing to with. Many learn best through of them also tend to interaction with other comment on others people. in class. Naturalistic Nature smart – the Dorah Marema These learners want intelligence ability to recognise Happy Khambule to be in nature, patterns in nature Mike Horn outside – not in the and classify objects; Margaret Roberts classroom. They the mastery of battle to focus their taxonomy, sensitivity attention on the here to other features of and now. the natural world, and an understanding of different species. They learn best through the environment. Existential Thinking smart – the Desmond Tutu These learners pose intelligence ability to pose (and Emily Hobhouse and ponder ponder) questions John McDowell questions. They also about life, death, and tend to be ultimate realities like daydreamers and ‘Who are we?’ and may pay little ‘What is the meaning attention in class. of life?’ They learn best through seeing the big picture. 3.2.5 Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: Robert J. Sternberg Robert J. Sternberg is a psychologist whose research focuses on human intelligence and creativity. He was among the early theorists who argued that intelligence is not just one construct. He proposed that intelligences consists of three aspects: analytical (the ability to evaluate information and solve problems), creative (the ability to come up with new ideas) and practical (the ability to get along in different contexts) intelligence – referred to as the triarchic theory of human intelligence (see figure 3.2). 3.2.6 Sociocultural theory: Lev Vygotsky Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who believed that all higher cognitive processes start with social interaction (Gouws, 2019). Although Vygotsky was influenced by Piaget’s work, he did not agree with the stages of learning as discussed by Piaget. His socio-cultural theory emphasizes that learning is an important social process in which the support of parents, caregivers, peers, more knowledgeable others (MKO), and the wider community and culture plays a vital role in the development of higher psychological functions. Vygotsky's approach to child development is a form of social constructivism, based on the idea that cognitive functions are the products of social interactions, thus emphasizing the role of the environment and historical context in development. Vygotsky emphasized the collaborative nature of learning by the construction of knowledge through social negotiation. To him, learning is a social construct. This view is closely related to the African view of personhood according to which learning is a social-collective activity. Language is important in the process of cognitive development. Children talk to themselves to guide their actions when they are playing. Vygotsky called this private speech. The child tries to control his or her own behaviour and thoughts by speaking out loud. As the child becomes more skilful, private speech becomes internal speech and it is then seen as thought. While Piaget may view private speech as egocentric or immature, Vygotsky understood the importance of self-directed speech. Vygotsky saw language as the development of thought. Piaget, however, believed that cognitive development leads to the development of language. Another important component of Vygotsky’s theory refers to psychological tools. He bridged the gap between the use of psychological/symbolic/cultural tools and cognitive development. Examples of such tools are language, numerical systems, mathematical symbols, maps, diagrams, social artifacts, books, technology, cultural traditions etc. But in Africa “language” is more than just a cognitive tool. Ngúgí wa Thiong’o, a Kenyan writer who was considered East Africa's leading novelist, said about language: “[A]ny language has a dual character: it is both a means of communication and a carrier of culture. It is inseparable from ourselves as a community of human beings with a specific form and character, a specific history, a specific relationship to the world. The very words we use are a product of a collective history Ngúgí” (1992:113). This supports Vygotsky’s notion that human activities (e.g., learning, day-to-day doings) take place in cultural settings and cannot be understood apart from the settings. Our specific mental structures and processes can be traced to our interactions with others. Piaget was a constructivist and was more interested in the level of development of the individual. Vygotsky focussed more on the processes of learning, rather than on the expected levels of development. For constructivist’s the child’s interaction with the environment is more important, whereas socio-constructivist’s believe that learning is taught through socially and culturally interaction within an environment. Vygotsky would thus belief that children from disadvantaged communities would still be able to flourish as their success does not only lie in nature (genetics), nurture (relationships), nor environment (context), but a mixture thereof. Let us again take the development of language as a medium for thinking. Due to brain development as well as social influences and formal schooling, the adolescent’s competency in language increases. Aspects of language structure and vocabulary grow. The development of language and the improvement of literacy are more and more dependent on social relations and institutions. In school, the adolescent gains the knowledge and the vocabulary that is used in different subjects. Through relations with peers, they also learn the language of the streets, of courtship, and of cell phones. They learn language from the media, other ethnic groups, and co- workers (when they enter the workplace). There is an emphasis on technical vocabulary that also includes programming languages. The adolescent does not only learn a better understanding of language structure and vocabulary but also gains the ability to use language appropriately in various social situations. The complexity of their thinking and their understanding and interpretation of the environment adapts as their language and register expands. Another important concept of Vygosky is that of “zone of proximal development (ZPD)” and more knowledgeable others (MKO)”. When teaching Mathematics to a grade 7 class the teacher should use Vygotsky’s ZDPand MKO to help all learners acquire knowledge. All learning occurs in the ZPD. This is the distance (zone) between a learner’s ability to demonstrate their learning by themselves (independent) or with guidance (dependent). As for MKO it can be anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, particularly in regards to a specific task, concept or process. Traditionally the MKO is thought of as a teacher or an older adult. However, this is not always the case. Herewith a visual to visually depict the concepts: Figure 3.3 Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development From this illustration one can clearly see the important role teachers play in offering support and guidance in learning. This is where the teacher uses scaffolding to guide the learners from where they are currently functioning to their full potential. Some learners may need more assistance than others, therefore teachers should identify where learners are in their understanding of the learning material. There is an emphasis on technical vocabulary that also includes programming languages. The adolescent does not only learn a better understanding of language structure and vocabulary but also gains the ability to use language appropriately in various social situations. Most classrooms in the world, and especially in South Africa, consist of learners who can speak more than one language. For some, the language of learning and teaching (LoLT) is their first additional language and not necessarily their home language. Furthermore, the presence of more than one language makes many classrooms bilingual or multilingual (and of course culturally diverse). According to Makelela (2014:187) learning a second language (first additional language) is one of the major learning barriers for learners who are not schooled in their mother tongue. By accepting, respecting and embracing students’ diverse linguistic resources, it enhances their learning, and also restores their identity and dignity. 3.3 CONCLUSION Teachers should take note of the implications of adolescents’ cognitive development, so that they can guide adolescents in a way that will promote optimal cognitive development. They should be aware of the existence of individual differences between adolescents. We cannot assume that all 15-year-olds are on the same cognitive level. We should remember at all times that the adolescent may be capable of formal-operational thought on one day, only to lapse into the concrete-operational phase the very next day. This means that, as teachers, we cannot simply sit back and wait for all the adolescents in our class to reach the formal-operational phase before we continue with our teaching. Teaching should start from concrete considerations, building up where it is applicable to more abstract reasoning. This is reflected in many teaching programmes, including some programmes devised for mathematics and science, which begin with experimental, practical aspects before deductive work is attempted (Gouws 2019:47). If you know the characteristics of children’s cognitive development, you will find it easier to determine a child’s level of cognitive development. In other words, you will know how the child thinks and what you can expect of him or her. Learning should continually be adapted to children’s level of cognitive development and knowledge. Remember, however, that there are major individual differences and that children’s development cannot simply be divided into watertight compartments or phases. In the next learning unit, we will look at the social development of the adolescent. Once again, remember that all the domains are interlinked and that development in one domain influences development in other domains. LEARNING UNIT 4 THE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ADOLESCENT 4.1 INTRODUCTION From the previous unit, it is evident that adolescents’ cognitive abilities increase and consolidate rapidly during the adolescent years, with the result that they can perform tasks more easily, quickly and efficiently. Moreover, their heightened cognitive abilities enable adolescents to answer the question “Who am I?” and to form meaningful relationships with society. In this learning unit, we discuss the social development of the adolescent. Social development may very well be the most important area of adolescent development. Adolescents not only need to manage meaningful relationships within the society, but they must also develop self- confidence, develop interpersonal skills and find their place in society. This unit will enable you to: consider recent theories on the social development of adolescents and realise the main pursuit (purpose) of this phase, namely a search for identity, and the importance of the adolescent’s context understand the social relationships of adolescents and how you as a teacher can create positive relationships with your learners realise the importance of self-concept and self-esteem and how to enhance learners’ self-esteem know about the factors that influence personality development and the role a teacher can play in this development recognise the importance of finding an identity during this stage and how teachers can add to this process For you to be successful regarding the cognitive development of the adolescent you will have to actively participate in: all online discussions; logging into myUnisa to access your reading material; complete and submit activities; and summarise the unit for yourself (e.g., mind map) to help you prepare for the exam. It is of utmost importance that you ask for support if concepts are unclear to you via myUnisa. 4.2 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADOLESCENT SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT There are various theories that explain social development in young humans. For this module, we will focus on the African perspective of human development and theories such as the psychosocial theory of Erik Erikson and the bio-ecological theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner. Erikson’s theory on adolescence is known for his view on the adolescent’s search for identity; and Bronfenbrenner’s theory for taking all contexts of the adolescent into account. In the section on identity development, we will also briefly refer to and compare Mead’s social behaviourism with the African perspective of human development. When we think about human development, we often only focus on the development of infants, the young child, and adolescents. However, development is a continuous process, in which each stage builds on the stage(s) before it, from conception to death. 4.2.1 The bio-ecological theory of Bronfenbrenner As human beings, we do not function and survive on our own, but are in constant interaction with our environment. Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological theory is of particular significance for identifying the complex influences, interactions and interrelationships that can either inhibit (prevent) or promote an individual’s psychosocial well-being. Bronfenbrenner (1986) argued that to understand the child or a learner, the environment in which the they live must be fully examined, including the home, school, community, culture, and so on. He believed that a person’s development is affected by everything in they surrounding environment. The way a person perceives and deals with their environment is therefore important for identity development. A developing human should be viewed holistically (e.g. emotional, physical, social, spiritual, cognitive). The “bio” in bio-ecological means that the individual as growing, developing, thinking person, also has an influence on their environment. A dynamic individual that progressively moves into and restructures an environment. The environment not only shapes the person, but the person in turn also shapes the environment. Educational implications of Bronfenbrenner’s theory Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory suggests that a young human’s development is influenced by multiple environmental systems that interact with each other. These systems include the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. The implications of this theory for education are as follows: Importance of the family: Bronfenbrenner emphasizes the role of the family as the primary microsystem in a young person’s development. Therefore, teachers should recognize the importance of involving families in the educational process to support the young person’s development. Importance of the school environment: The school is an important mesosystem that can significantly impact a young person’s development. Teachers should create a positive, and supportive enironemnt that fosters the young persons’ growth and development. Importancce of community resources: The exosystem refers to the broader community resources that can influence a young person’s development. Teachers should work to develop partnerships with community organisations and resources to enhance the young person’s educational experience. Importance of cultural values and beliefs: The macrosystem refers to the broader cultural context that can influence a young person’s development. Teachers should be aware of cultural diversity and respect the values and beliefs of all learners to create an inclusive educational environment. Importance of considering the timing of events: The chronosystem refers to the time- related factors that can influence a young person’s development. Teachers should recognize that the timing of events, such as chantes in family structure or community resources, can impact a young person’s educational experience. Overall, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory emphasizes the importance of considering multiple environmental factors that can influence a young person’s development. Teachers can use this theory to create a holistic approach to education that recognizes the complex interactions between the child, family, school, community, culture, and time-related factors. 4.2.2 The psychosocial theory of Erik Erikson Erik Erikson’s (1963) psychosocial theory presents a broad, multifaceted view of the typical human life span and nature/characteristics of each phase. How this euocentric theory also links to the Africanisation discourse/dialogue, will also be explored. Erikson pays little or no heed to emotional and intellectual development and is more concerned with a person’s basic attitude towards others and towards life. Even so, his theory is one of the more successful attempts to achieve a coherent and fairly complete picture of human development. His theory is an important aid which can help parents, teachers and counsellors to be aware of the central conflict areas for individuals throughout the various stages of development. This theory made an important contribution to understanding human psychosocial development as it highlights the development of a specific egostrength after each psychosocial crisis or critical developmental phase is experienced successfully. This earned Erikson the description of ego psychologist, and his theory a classification among the depth theories, such as that of Freud and Horney.Erikson’s (1963) first five stages of psychosocial development are now briefly explained. The psychosocial stage of identity formation is emphasized as it is the stage that is experienced during adolescence. The stages of early and later adulthood is not discussed as it falls outside the scope of this module. Phase 1 - Infant/baby: Basic trust versus basic mistrust During this stage babies (from birth to one year) need to develop trust in their caregivers and their environment. This is done by providing a predictable, loving, caring environment. Experiencing this psychosocial crisis in a positive way is of utmost importance, as it forms the basis for future relationships. In other words, if the baby learns to trust their environment and caregivers, it will be easier to form and maintain relationships later in life. The ego strength that the individual takes away from this stage is hope. Phase 2 - Toddler: Autonomy versus doubt and shame In this stage (around the second and third years of life) children learn an extrem

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