General Biology Past Paper PDF

REVIEWER GENERAL BIOLOGY | Q1 __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Guide: ➔ the curator of Royal Society (London) Topi...

REVIEWER GENERAL BIOLOGY | Q1 __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Guide: ➔ the curator of Royal Society (London) Topic 1674 Subtopic Anton Van Leeuwenhoek ➔ observed tiny living organisms in drops of L1: CELL THEORY TIMELINE pond water through his simple microscope Late 1500s in 1674 ➔ discovered bacteria in 1683 1. Zacharias Janssen ➔ first to invent microscope with the highest ➔ son of Hans Janssen magnification with the use of small lenses ➔ spectacle-maker in Middleburg, ➔ invented the term “animalcules” which Dutch refers to the microorganisms he observed ➔ associated with optical and which includes: compound telescope; initially the tiger only one who received credit for monkey compound microscope cat ➔ his invention was related to enhance dog optical capability in order to gain giraffe more traction to object ➔ father of microscopy and microbiology 2. Hans Janssen ➔ father of Zacharias Janssen 1838 ➔ soon received credit as well for inventing the compound microscope Matthias Jakob Schleiden in around 1590 for good ➔ German botanist illumination ➔ all plants are made up of cells The both are considered as Dutch lens 1839 grinders who produced the first compound microscope. Theodore Schwann ❖ First Compound Microscope ➔ German zoologist ➔ circa 1595 ➔ all animals are made up of cells ➔ the “Janssen Draw Tube ➔ the Schwann cells in the neuron were Microscope” named after him ➔ credited to Zacharias Janssen in late sixteenth century 1855 ➔ eyeglasses were beginning to enjoy widespread use at that time and this Rudolf Virchow focused a great deal of attention on ➔ German physician who studied cell optics and lenses reproduction ➔ believed that “where a cell exists, there 1665 must have been pre-existing cells” Robert Hooke ➔ omnis cellula e cellula ➔ used light microscope to look at thin slices ➔ father of oncology of plant tissues ─ cork ➔ looked empty like a monk’s chamber Summary of Cell Theory ➔ coined the word “cells” which are the tiny chambers 1. All living things are composed of one or ➔ the author of Micrographia (little notes) more cells. which contains his drawings of a section of 2. Cells are the basic unit of life in all living cork (oak tree) as seen through one of the things. first microscopes 3. All cells came from pre-existing cells. _________________________________________________________________________________________________ FARADAY SY. 2024 - 2025 REVIEWER GENERAL BIOLOGY | Q1 __________________________________________________________________________________________________ ➔ located below the stage and is L2: PARTS OF A MICROSCOPE usually controlled by a round dial ➔ how to set the diaphragm is determined by the magnification, the transparency of the specimen, and the degree of contrast you wish to have in your image ➔ condenser diaphragm 9. Illuminator ➔ most light microscopes use a low voltage bulb which supplies light through the stage and onto the 1. Eyepiece or Ocular Lens specimen ➔ magnifies the image of the ➔ mirrors are sometimes used instead specimen of built-in lights ➔ also known as ocular lens ➔ provide light reflected from ambient ➔ most school microscopes have an light sources eyepiece with 10x magnification 10. Coarse Focus 2. Eyepiece Tube or Body Tube ➔ moves the stage in larger ➔ holds the eyepiece increments to provide general focus on the specimen 3. Nosepiece ➔ when bringing a specimen into ➔ holds the objective lenses and is focus, the coarse dial is the first one sometimes called a revolving turret used ➔ choose the objective lens by rotating the specific lens you want 11. Fine Focus to use ➔ moves the stage in smaller increments to provide a clear view 4. Objective Lens of the specimen ➔ most compound microscopes come ➔ when bringing a specimen into with 3 or 4 objective lenses that focus, the fine focus dial is the revolve on the nosepiece second one used ➔ the most common objective lenses have power of 4x, 10x, and 40x 12. Base ➔ combined with the magnification of ➔ main support of the microscope the eyepiece the resulting ➔ the bottom where all the other parts magnification is 40x, 100x, and 400x of the microscope stand 5. Arm ➔ connects the base to the nosepiece L3: PARTS OF THE ANIMAL CELL and eyepiece ➔ structural part used to carry the microscope The cell contains different parts which act as small organs, called organelles that need to execute 6. Stage specific functions and processes. ➔ where the specimen is placed ➔ place for observation Cell is made up of a communication network of organelles, These organelles communicate with 7. Stage Clips each other in order to carry out cellular activities. ➔ supports that hold the slides in place on the stage 8. Diaphragm or Iris ➔ controls the amount of light passing through the slide _________________________________________________________________________________________________ FARADAY SY. 2024 - 2025 REVIEWER GENERAL BIOLOGY | Q1 __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Nucleolus ➔ creates ribosomes ➔ site of rRNA transcription and processing, and of ribosome assembly Chromatin ➔ combination of DNA and protein ➔ each strand further condenses to form chromosomes during cell division ➔ single strand with centromere in the center Nuclear Envelope Plasma Membrane ➔ boundary of the nucleus ➔ composed of outer and inner nuclear ➔ can also be called as cytoplasmic membranes membrane, plasmalemma, or cell membrane Nuclear Pore ➔ phospholipid bilayer ➔ passage of the substances that move in ➔ separates cell from external environment and out of the nucleus ➔ controls passage of organic molecules, ions, water, oxygen, and wastes into and Ribosomes out of the cell ➔ assembly of proteins for synthesis ➔ attaches to the RER during protein Structure: double-layered fat (phospholipid bilayer); synthesis receptor molecules (proteins that receive signals) Structure: some free in cytoplasm, some attached Head: phosphate, water-loving, hydrophilic, to endoplasmic reticulum negatively charged, polar Tail: lipid (semi-permeable), water-fearing, Lysosomes hydrophobic, uncharged, nonpolar ➔ digests food ➔ recycles old components of the cell and Amphiphatic: carries one water-loving and one kills invading microorganisms water-fearing characteristic ➔ suicide bag of the cell ➔ acidic and low pH environment Cytoplasm ➔ digestive hydrolytic enzymes are ➔ enclosed within the cell membrane responsible for breaking down of larger ➔ provides structure to cell molecules ➔ site of many metabolic reactions ➔ contains cytosol where organelles are ➔ Structure: membrane sac of digestive suspended enzymes Structure: jelly-like material holding the organelles Apoptosis: programmed cell death in place Mitochondria Nucleus ➔ make ATP energy from cellular respiration ➔ cell organelle that houses the DNA sugar + O2 → ATP ➔ directs synthesis of ribosomes and proteins fuels the work of life ➔ where genetic processes take place Structure: double membrane Structure: nuclear membrane, nucleolus (ribosome factory), chromosomes (DNA) _________________________________________________________________________________________________ FARADAY SY. 2024 - 2025 REVIEWER GENERAL BIOLOGY | Q1 __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Vesicles and Vacuoles ➔ moving material around cell storage ➔ vacuoles are large vesicles Vesicles: smaller; has the capacity to attach; digestive nutrients (already converted) Vacuoles: larger; no affinity to attach to neighboring membranes; transport; digestive enzymes; no need to maintain acid and low pH environment Centrioles ➔ help in the separation and transfer of the Cilia and Flagella replicated genetic materials in the cells ➔ structural support of cells ➔ appendages responsible for the locomotion ➔ 9 sets of triplets microtubules of the cell ➔ surrounded by dense mass, making up a ➔ filters dust and harmful microorganisms structure called centromere Structure: made up of microtubules, motile Structure: one pair in each cell Microvilli: expands or increases the surface area Endoplasmic Reticulum as it is smaller; responsible for absorption Cilia: longer and thicker than microvilli; responsible ➔ factory for protein synthesis to filter dust and pollen ➔ works on proteins ➔ helps complete the proteins after ribosome Flagella: mostly seen in sperm cell; responsible for builds them faster movement ➔ makes membranes Centrosomes Structure: RER (ribosomes attached works on proteins), SER (makes membranes; no ribosomes; ➔ ensuring the organization of microtubules has a detoxification function through steroid during mitosis hormones; abundant in liver) ➔ ensure that sister chromatids are duplicated in an orderly manner Golgi Apparatus Peroxisome ➔ prepares proteins for specific jobs and packages them into vesicles ➔ responsible for oxidative process, lipid ➔ protein packaging center synthesis, and synthesis of bile acids ➔ found in plant and animal cells ➔ also abundant in liver Cis face: entry point or entrance Trans face: exit point L4: PARTS OF THE PLANT CELL The organelles of a plant cell and their functions are almost similar to those found in the animal cell. There are only a few organelles that can be exclusively seen in a plant cell for they have specialized functions. _________________________________________________________________________________________________ FARADAY SY. 2024 - 2025 REVIEWER GENERAL BIOLOGY | Q1 __________________________________________________________________________________________________ ➔ stacked like poker chips Granum ➔ stack of thylakoid discs Cell Wall Central Vacuole ➔ located outside the cell membrane and is ➔ storage primarily made of cellulose ➔ maintains the turgor pressure to keep the ➔ maintains the shape and protects the plant plant cell from wilting cell ➔ water, carbohydrates, and protein Structure: structural layer of a cell which can be Structure: surrounded by a membrane called tough, flexible, and sometimes, rigid tonoplast Layers or Compartments of Cell Wall Cell Sap: the fluid inside the vacuole, containing 1. Middle Lamella/e: next to plasma water, enzymes, and nutrients membrane (seen in all types of plant cells) Tonoplast: membrane 2. Primary Cell Wall: flexible for expansion and growth (seen in all types of plant cells) Turgor Pressure: water pressure that presses or 3. Secondary Cell Wall: seen in bulky plants pushes all membrane to cell wall; hydrostatic 4. Tertiary Cell Wall: seen in bulky plants pressure Other Substances in the Cell Wall Turgid State (Rigid): healthy state ➔ hemicellulose Flaccid State (Wilter): unhealthy state ➔ chitin ↑ turgor pressure, ↑ volume of cell sap ➔ pectin ↑ volume of cell sap, ↑ growth of central v. Chloroplast ↑ growth of central v., ↑ storage for nutrients ➔ substances inside the chloroplast help a Plasmodesmata green plant cell trap the sun’s energy and ➔ can only be seen in plant cells then produce food ➔ bridge of communication between ➔ contains chlorophyll, the green pigment exchange of nutrients among organelles in responsible for capturing light during the cell photosynthesis ➔ traverse the cell walls of plant cells and Chloroplast: green organelle in a plant some algal cells, enabling transport and Chlorophyll: green pigment in Chloroplast communication between them Stroma Structure: contains a narrow tube-like structure ➔ the compartment interior (desmotubule) ➔ the inmost membrane holds a tenacious Peroxisome fluid ➔ converts fatty acids to sugar and assisting Thylakoid chloroplasts in photorespiration ➔ network of interconnected sacs inside the Structure: contains a single membrane which chloroplast surrounds digestive enzymes _________________________________________________________________________________________________ FARADAY SY. 2024 - 2025 REVIEWER GENERAL BIOLOGY | Q1 __________________________________________________________________________________________________ ➔ boundary or outer lining L5: PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES 9. Cytoplasm Bacteria and archaea consist of prokaryotic cells, ➔ responsible for cell growth and whereas all other forms of life (protists, fungi, metabolism animals, and plants) are composed of eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes vs. Prokaryotes Eukaryotic cells are distinguished by having a membrane-enclosed nucleus, which houses most of their DNA. The word prokaryote means before nucleus, reflecting the fact that prokaryotic cells evolved before eukaryotic cells. Unicellular: composed of a single cell Parts of Prokaryotes Cell 1. Fimbriae ➔ attachment structure on the surface ➔ a.k.a. pilli ➔ hair-like structure 2. Capsule ➔ jelly-like outer coating ➔ holds the organelles in place and makes sure they are in position All bacteria are prokaryotes. 3. Cell Wall ➔ rigid structure outside the cell Escherichia coli, which resides in your intestines, is membrane an example of prokaryotes. 4. Nucleoid Staphylococcus aureus, which can be a source of ➔ region where the DNA is located skin infection. 5. Plasmid ➔ facilitates the process of replication Prokaryotes are in participation in every activity and duplication associated with life. They develop, replicate, and 6. Ribosomes respond to changes in the environment. ➔ synthesizes proteins 7. Flagella ➔ responsible for locomotion and faster movement 8. Plasma Membrane ➔ membrane enclosing the cytoplasm _________________________________________________________________________________________________ FARADAY SY. 2024 - 2025 REVIEWER GENERAL BIOLOGY | Q1 __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Summary of the Parts of the Cell Lesson 6: Microscope Slides Cells and Tissue Samples Organelles Pro A P Cell Wall ✓ ✓ Simple columnar epithelium sec. - Cell Membrane ✓ ✓ ✓ Central Vacuoles ✓ Lysosomes ✓ ✓ Golgi Apparatus ✓ ✓ Stratified squamous Nucleus ✓ ✓ epithelium sec. - Cytoplasm ✓ ✓ ✓ Flagella ✓ ✓ Chromosomes ✓ ✓ ✓ Mitochondria ✓ ✓ Dense connective tissue (Tendon L.S.) - ER ✓ ✓ Ribosomes ✓ ✓ ✓ Chloroplast ✓ Note: Lysosomes can also be seen in plant cells (aquatic plants) but not all plant cells have Blood of Human smear lysosomes. - Skeletal Muscle L.S. - Smooth muscle isolated W.M. - _________________________________________________________________________________________________ FARADAY SY. 2024 - 2025 REVIEWER GENERAL BIOLOGY | Q1 __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Cardiac muscle sec - Epithelial Tissue Tightly-joined closely packed cells Covers outside of the body Absorption, excretion, transport of molecules a. Cell Shape Squamous Description Neurocytes isolated Thin, scaly, W.M. - flattened on the surface. Fried-egg appearance with rounded nucleus. Location Kidney glomeruli, airs Epithelium cells of sacs, lining of cavitas oris of Human heart, blood W.M. - vessels, lymphatic vessels, and lining of the ventral body cavities Function Diffusion Ciliated epithelium of Filtration gill T.S. - Secretion Protection Cuboidal Description Dice shape, square like shape with large and spherical nuclei Location Kidney tubules, ducts and Cell Types secretory, Cell is the lowest level structure capable of position of performing all activities of life. small glands, Most organisms are made up of thousands egg and sperm cells. or millions of cells and referred to as Function “MULTICELLULAR”. Secretion Cells grouped together to form “TISSUE” Absorption and fulfill similar functions. Tissues are then grouped to form “ORGAN”, which perform Columnar Description Taller rather a particular function. than wide, Animal organs are composed of many cells column in and tissues like epithelial tissue, connective shape, long, tissue, muscle tissue, nerve tissue rectangular shape with oblong nuclei or elongated nucleus contain _________________________________________________________________________________________________ FARADAY SY. 2024 - 2025 REVIEWER GENERAL BIOLOGY | Q1 __________________________________________________________________________________________________ goblet cells. Location Digestive tubes, gall bladder, excretory ducts, some glands, bronchi, uterine tubes, uterus, nose, ears, and tongue. Function Absorption Secretion Reception Sensory b. Number of Cell Layers Simple = single-layer Ciliated columnar cell Description Fine hair-like projection Location Nose, uterus, fallopian tubes, and egg cells Stratified = doubled or multiple layer Function Move mucus and other substances across the cell, ciliary action Pseudostratified Description Pseudostratified = (false) False columnar cell appeared to be arranged, stratification or but there's actually just appearances, one layer of cells free surfaces with hair-like projection. Nuclei seen at different levels c. Relate Structure to Function that contain goblet cells Stratified Squamous (Esophagus) Location Simple Squamous (Respiratory Ducts of large System) glands, ductus Simple Columnar (stomach; deferens, digestive system) trachea, throat, Pseudostratified Ciliated and mouth Function Columnar (upper respiratory tract) Filtration Simple Cuboidal (Spleen, Absorption Pancreas) Secretion Stratified Columnar (urinary Ciliary action system; bladder, sphincters) _________________________________________________________________________________________________ FARADAY SY. 2024 - 2025 REVIEWER GENERAL BIOLOGY | Q1 __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Connective Tissue Ex. chondrocytes - connect, bind, support, and hold one part Adipose Reticular collagen, lipid to another part of the body. storage and energy - the most vascularized and widely building distributed inside of the body - supporting the muscles to produce Ex. fat cells (adipose) movement, protects the internal and delicate organs, and connect tissues of the body Muscle Tissue Tissue Type Description - designed for contraction and movement - also called muscle fibers Bone hard/calcified, supports, protects, provides lever, and Cell Type Description hematopoiesis Skeletal (Voluntary) Unbranched, striated, Ex. bone cell long cylindrical shape, (osteocytes) bundle forms, many nucleus Blood Fluid matrix (plasma), Cardiac (Involuntary) Branched, striated, transport short branching, one or two nucleus Ex. RBC, WBC, and Smooth (Visceral) Branched, unstriated, platelets spindle in shape of Hyaline Cartilage Firm collagenous cells, one nucleus at fibers, support, the center cushion properties Ex. chondrocytes Nervous Tissue Fibro Cartilage Collagenous fibers, absorb compressive - is a specialized tissue in the body shocks responsible for transmitting signals and controlling bodily functions. It plays a key Ex. chondrocytes role in the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Areolar Cartilage Gel-like matrix, collagenous and elastic 1. Neurons/ Neurocyte: fibers, holds and These are the functional cells that conveys tissue fluid inflammation transmit electrical and chemical signals. Neurons have three main Ex. mast cells, WBC, parts: fibroblast, macrophages ○ Dendrites: Receive signals from other cells. Elastic Cartilage Elastic fibers, support ○ Axon: Carries signals away from the the external neuron. Ex. chondrocytes ○ Cell Body: is the central part of the neuron that contains the nucleus Cartilage Rubbery collagen, and other organelles. elastic fibrous secretion of chondroitin substance, Plant Tissue support and provide structure _________________________________________________________________________________________________ FARADAY SY. 2024 - 2025 REVIEWER GENERAL BIOLOGY | Q1 __________________________________________________________________________________________________ 1. Parenchyma Tissues and Cell - Their primary function is for - Parenchyma is a simple plant mechanical support and tissue made of living cells with protection. spaces between them. It forms a - The presence of numerous sclereids major part of ground tissues and form the cores of apples and supports functions like produce the gritty texture of guavas. photosynthesis, storage, secretion, and transport of water B. Meristem and solutes. Parenchyma also - allows plant stems and roots to combines with other cells in grow longer (primary growth) and complex tissues, such as xylem and wider (secondary growth). phloem. 2. Collenchyma Tissue and Cells - is a cellular tissue, found in the secondary phloem of plants. - It composes the bulk of plant tissues. - It has cellulose cell walls - filled with water to help the plants to keep their shape. - It contains flatter chloroplasts than parenchyma cells and they give plants elasticity and rigidity by joining together to form fibres in bundles or bundles in strips throughout the plant’s body. 3. Sclerenchyma Tissue and Cells - It is a type of simple permanent tissue found in mature parts of the plants. - They attain a definite shape, size and function. - It is a supportive tissue and is usually made up of dead cells with highly thickened lignified walls. - made up of a group of uniform cells having similar structures and perform the same function. A. Sclereids - are a reduced form of sclerenchyma cells. - highly thickened, lignified cellular walls that form small bundles of durable layers of tissue and are developed in leaves of most halophytes. _________________________________________________________________________________________________ FARADAY SY. 2024 - 2025