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1 PSY10006 PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT  LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT -The study of YOU from womb to tomb. -We are going to study how we change physically, socially, The scientific study of human development:...

1 PSY10006 PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT  LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT -The study of YOU from womb to tomb. -We are going to study how we change physically, socially, The scientific study of human development: Science cognitively and morally over our lifetimes. All kinds of people -The study of the individual’s social, emotional, cognitive, and Change biological development throughout the lifespan -Branch of psychology that studies human development over the lifespan A lot of focus in the past has been in childhood and adolescence  Domains of Development Changes in Intellectual abilities Body size & proportions, appearance -Changes in thought, Emotional communication Functioning of body systems, health -Intelligence, and language Self-understanding, knowledge about Perceptual & motor capacities others Interpersonal skills & relationships Moral reasoning & behavior The Growth of Knowledge: Crash Course Psychology Periods of Development Key focus areas in developmental psychology (Burton et al.,2015): -Role of nature vs nurture -Importance of early experience -Extent to which development occurs in ‘stages’  Developmental Issues ►Nature vs. Nurture – Is development influenced by biological inheritance and/or environmental experiences ► Nature refers to an organism’s biological (evolutionary, genetic) inheritance ► Nurture refers to an organism’s environmental experiences Experience affects brain development Impoverished Rat brain Enriched Rat brain environment cell environment cell  Time Span of Research Methods Developmental psychologists have a special interest in age effects Cross-Sectional Studies Longitudinal Studies Participants of different ages studied One group of people studied over a period of time. at the same time. Studies the same individuals over a period of Simultaneously compares time individuals of different ages It examines true developmental effects ► Advantage: researcher does not ► Advantage: provides info about the aging process have to wait for individuals to ► Disadvantage: expensive and time-consuming ++ grow older ► Disadvantage: does not give information about the aging process Cross-Sectional: study groups of people of Longitudinal: study the same group of different ages at a single point in time people over time  Critical / Sensitive Periods The timing of experiences and an individual’s reactions to them are crucial in development. At different times in our lives, are certain experiences more meaningful than similar events at other times (sensitive periods)? Or does each experience have the same chance to be meaningful (equal potential)? at certain times in the lifespan, a particular experience has greater and more lasting impact than other times. These are called sensitive periods. – Example: if bonding and attachment are omitted during the early days of life but comes at a later age (e.g. 5 yrs. of age), doe it produce the same results? Most do not agree that “once missed, never catch up.” No child or adult, can withstand sever deprivation, either physical or psychological, indefinitely. We all have our limits.  Evidence for Goslings and attachment (Lorenz, 1935) critical periods – Discovery of imprinting in animal behaviour – Lorenz’s (1952) gosling study – A: to investigate if goslings attach to the first thing they see – P: Divided gosling eggs in 2 groups; half saw mother first, half saw Lorenz first at birth – F: When put back with mother, half followed her and half followed Lorenz – C: goslings have an innate drive to attach and imprint on to the first living object they see – Lorenz found that goslings, when separated from their mother, imprinted and attached to the first object they saw. – This shows that, as Bowlby stated, there is a biological readiness to develop a strong bond with a caregiver present from birth.  Prenatal Development Conception—when a sperm penetrates the ovum Zygote—a fertilized egg Normal gestation/growth period 280 days (40 weeks); from date of fertilization 266 days ++ Divided into three periods 1. Germinal stage (Weeks 0 - 2): first two weeks after conception 2. Embryonic stage (Weeks 3 - 8): weeks three through eight after conception 3. Fetal stage (Weeks 9 - Birth): two months after conception until birth  Periods of Prenatal Development Period Length Key Events Fertilization Implantation Zygote 2 weeks fertilised egg implanted in the uterus Start of Placenta Arms, legs, face, organs, muscles all develop Embryo 6 weeks Heart begins beating development of CNS and organs muscular development Fetus 30 weeks “Growth and finishing” Once the sperm penetrates the egg- we Conception and Implantation have a fertilized egg called…….. The Zygote- fertilized egg -The first stage of prenatal development. Zygotes -Less than half of all zygotes survive first two weeks and consists of rapid cell division. About 10 days after conception, the zygote will attach itself to the uterine wall. The outer part of the zygote becomes the placenta (which filters nutrients). After two weeks, the zygote develops into an Embryo -developing human up to 8 weeks after conception Development follows cephalocaudal (head to tail) and proximodistal (near to far). Growth of the head takes precedence over growth of the lower parts of the body. Head and blood vessels form third week after conception Relatively early maturation of the brain and organs that lie near the spine -Ectoderm -Outer layer of cells -Develops into nervous system, sensory organs, nails, hair, teeth, and outer layer of skin -Endoderm -Forms digestive and respiratory system, liver, and pancreas -Mesoderm -Develops into excretory, reproductive, and circulatory systems, the skeleton, and the inner layer of skin Lasts about 6 weeks. Heart begins to beat and the organs begin to develop.  Embryo: 8 Weeks Embryo and fetus develop within protective amniotic sac; sac is surrounded by clear membrane and contains amniotic fluid Amniotic fluid acts as natural air bag allowing embryo and fetus to move Embryo in Amniotic sac 8 wks without injury. Placenta- Nutrition and releasing waste ; Placenta permits oxygen and nutrients to reach the embryo from the mother, and permits carbon dioxide and waste products to pass to the mother from the embryo. Mother eliminates waste through her lungs and kidneys. Drugs such as aspirin, narcotics, alcohol, tranquilizers, and others cross the placenta and affect the fetus. Placenta during prenatal  The Fetal Stage By nine weeks we have…A Fetus - developing human from 8 weeks to birth Lasts from beginning of third month until birth Major organ systems formed at end of first trimester Between 9th and 10th, week fetus responds to external stimulation 12 week fetus 18 week fetus  The Fetal Stage (cont’d) By 13th week, fetus responds to sound waves Experiment by DeCasper and Fifer (1980) demonstrated that a fetus is learning while in uterus DeCasper and Fifer (1980) provided evidence that babies recognize their mothers' voices shortly after birth. Using a nonnutritive nipple attached to a sensing apparatus, DeCasper and Fifer showed that newborns would suck more to hear a tape of their mother's voice compared to a tape of a stranger's voice. Because they were newborns, they must have become familiar with the mother's voice while still in the womb. In a follow-up study, DeCasper and Spence had 16 pregnant mothers read a three minute long passage from the Dr. Seuss book The Cat in the Hat to their fetuses twice a day for the last 6.5 weeks of pregnancy. The mothers were also recorded reading three minute excerpts from two other stories. – By the time the babies were born, the researchers calculated, they had heard The Cat in the Hat for about 5 hours. DeCasper and Spence used their sucking test again. The babies sucked more to hear The Cat in the Relationship of Birth Order Hat, regardless of whether it was in their mother's voice or another woman's voice, if that was the story to Intelligence they heard in the womb. (Kolata, 1984)  Prenatal Environmental Influences: Teratogens Teratogen—any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period. Dose Heredity Other negative influences Age Drugs (Prescription, Nonprescription,Illegal), Tobacco, Alcohol, Radiation, Pollution, Infectious Disease During the embryo stage, infants become susceptible/vulnerable to teratogens  LO-1 Other teratogens Crack cocaine is an increasingly Maternal stress prevalent teratogen Prenatal exposure carries many risks Problems with attention and motor development ‘Crack babies’ also tend to receive more neglectful First trimester is a sensitive period parenting and tend to be exposed to poverty Caffeine Research regarding caffeine consumption is inconsistent -Several studies have found that pregnant women who take in a good deal of caffeine are more likely than nonusers to have a miscarriage or a low-birth-weight baby.  Environmental Hazards Environmental hazards consist of heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and zinc. Exposure to lead related to delayed mental development at 1 and 2 years of age Consumption of PCB-contaminated fish from Lake Michigan resulted in babies that were smaller and showed poorer motor functioning and memory defects. Exposure to radiation has been linked to mental retardation and physical deformity; suggestion to avoid unnecessary x-rays  Drugs Taken by the Parents Alcohol (FAS) Heavy alcohol consumption during pregnancy can result in fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). FAS babies -often smaller, with smaller brains -facial features include widely spaced eyes, underdeveloped upper jaw, flattened nose Psychological characteristics appear to reflect dysfunction of the brain. Maladaptive behaviors such as poor judgment, distractibility, and difficulty perceiving social cues are common..  Drugs Taken by the Parents (cont’d) Tobacco / Cigarettes -reduces oxygen and nutrients to fetus Increase in rates of miscarriages and risk of SIDS - Consist of nicotine, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons (tars) -Nicotine and carbon monoxide pass through placenta and reach the fetus -Nicotine stimulates the fetus; long-term effects unknown -Carbon monoxide decreases amount of oxygen available to the fetus -Connected with impaired motor development academic delays, learning disabilities, mental retardation, and hyperactivity Smokers’ babies likely to be smaller than those of nonsmokers -Babies of smokers more likely to be stillborn or to die soon after birth Men who smoke are more likely to produce abnormal sperm. -Babies of fathers who smoke have higher rates of birth defects, infant mortality, lower birth weights, and cardiovascular problems. Sensitive Periods in Prenatal Development  Developmental Issues ►Nature vs. Nurture – Is development influenced by biological inheritance and/or environmental experiences ► Nature refers to an organism’s biological (evolutionary, genetic) inheritance ► Nurture refers to an organism’s environmental experiences Experience affects brain development Impoverished Rat brain Enriched Rat brain environment cell environment cell NATURE–NURTURE INTERSECTIONS DEFINITIONS Gene-Environment Interactions The impact of genes on behavior depends on the environment in which the behavior develops. Nature via Nurture Genetic predispositions can drive us to select and create particular environments, leading to the mistaken appearance of a pure effect of nature. Gene Expression Some genes “turn on” only in response to specific environmental events. Epigenetics Whether genes are active is regulated by day to day and moment to moment environmental conditions.  LO-1 Motor development Motor development follows a universal sequence, but environmental stimulation can affect the pace Ethnic background has an influence: environment is cited as the reason Western children are walking later than 25 years ago  Healthy Newborn Reflexes: grasp.jpg babinski.jpg Eye Blink: Stimulation:Shine bright light at eyes or clap hand near head, Response:Infant quickly closes eyelids Babinski reflex- Rooting; Lightly touch the infant’s cheek and he’ll turn toward the Grasping moro.jpg object and attempt to nurse; helps infant find bottle or breast. root.jpg – turning the head and opening the mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheek / when touched on the cheek, a baby will turn toward the touch and try to eat Sucking; Touch an object or nipple to the infant’s mouth and she’ll make rhythmic sucking movements. Rooting; Moro reflex; – sucking rhythmically in response to oral stimulation – touch roof of baby’s mouth and she will suck Babinski reflex- Will spread their toes when their foot is Moro reflex; If a baby’s position is abruptly changed or if he is startled by a stroked loud noise, he will make a hugging motion. Toe curling reflex – stroke outer sole – when startled, baby will throw arms and legs out and head back and then pull and baby spreads toes, stroke inner them into body sole and baby curls toes. Grasping—curling the fingers around an object – put finger in baby’s palm and baby will grab Tonic Neck Reflex – if baby’s head is – baby will try to grasp any object placed in the their palm or foot pad turned to side, baby makes “on guard” move with arms Newborn Reflexes Assessment (Infant) Nursing Pediatric NCLEX Review https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rHYk1sYsge0 Name Stimulus Response Significance Rooting reflex The baby’s cheek is stroked. The baby turns its head toward the Ensures the infant’s feeding will be a stroking, opens its mouth, and tries reflexive habit to suck. Blink reflex A light is flashed in the baby’s eyes. The baby closes both eyes. Protects eyes from strong and potentially dangerous stimuli Withdrawal reflex A soft pinprick is applied to the sole The baby flexes the leg. Keeps the exploring infant away of the baby’s foot. from painful stimuli Tonic neck reflex The baby is laid down on its back. The baby turns its head to one side Helps develop hand-eye and extends the arm on the same coordination side. Grasp reflex An object is pressed into the palm of The baby grasps the object pressed Helps in exploratory learning the baby and can even hold its own weight for a brief period. Moro reflex Loud noises or a sudden drop in The baby extends arms and legs and Protects from falling; could have height while holding the baby. quickly brings them in as if trying to assisted infants in holding on to grasp something. their mothers during rough travelling Stepping reflex The baby is suspended with bare Baby makes stepping motions as if Helps encourage motor feet just above a surface and is trying to walk development moved forward  Motor Development Gross motor skills -Involve large muscles used in locomotion/movement -ex.: balancing on one foot, walking up stairs, pedaling a bike - Infants begin to roll over first followed by sitting unsupported, crawling, and finally walking. Experience has little effect on this sequence.  Walking Walking- in US 25% learn by 11 months, 50% within a week of 1st birthday, 90% by 15 months. Varies by culture- if the culture emphasizes walking then babies can walk at younger ages (NURTURE). But identical twins tend to learn to walk on the same day (NATURE). Motor development. Most infants follow an orderly pattern of motor Developmental norms (there is variation in the development. Although the order in which children progress is similar, there are times, but not the sequence) large individual differences in the ages at which each ability appears. -The ages listed are averages for American children. Critical period- stage or point in development during which - It is not unusual for many of the skills to appear 1 or 2 months earlier than a person or animal is best suited to learn a particular skill. average or several months later (Frankenberg & Dodds, 1967; Harris & Liebert, 1991). - Parents should not be alarmed if a child’s behavior differs some from the average.  Cognitive HEARING: development in Hearing is well developed even before birth, vision is less well developed; Can hear a wide variety of sounds at birth infancy: Learn sound patterns within days Sensitive to voices and biologically prepared to learn language infant Infants show a preference for their mom’s voice perception They showed this preference on the day of their birth, suggesting that they have some memory of her voice from before birth. (Cat in the Hat) In general, infants suck more vigorously when they hear sounds that they find stimulating. After 5 minutes of hearing a ba sound, the infant’s sucking habituates. When a new sound, pa, follows, the sucking rate increases, an indication that infants do hear a difference between the two sounds. (Based on results of Eimas, Siqueland, Juscyk, & Vigorito, 1971) Baby Sensory, Baby Development classes - Sensory Development Assessing Newborns’ Hearing Capabilities via Habituation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ao5bdkHwGh4&feature=youtu.be https://youtu.be/ao5bdkHwGh4  Cognitive Sense of Vision Least developed of senses at birth development in Unable to see long distances, focus clearly Turn head towards voices. infancy: Scan environment and try to track interesting objects infant See 8 to 12 inches from their faces. Gaze longer at human like objects right from birth. perception Color vision improves in first two months Imitation capabilities very early Infants pay more attention to faces than to other patterns. These results suggest that infants are born with certain visual preferences. (Based on Fantz, 1963)  Cognitive Infantile amnesia development An inability to remember the events of early childhood (memories of situations or events episodic memories). Most people (adults) unable to remember in infancy: events that happened before they were 3 years old – But some forms of implicit memory are present from birth memory Implicit memory influences your thoughts or behaviour, but does not enter consciousness Turning toward the sound of mother’s voice (Recognition memory very early) Memory for events may start later due to the usefulness of them in social interactions (language!)  LO-2 Models of development Information Piaget Vygotsky Processing approach  LO-2 Assimilation – interpreting actions or events in terms of one’s present schemas A schema is a repeatedly exercised pattern of thought or behaviour Accommodation is the modification of schemas to fit reality Equilibration – balancing Piaget: Assimilation assimilation and accommodation and accommodation to adapt to the world  Schemas (“schemata”) Concepts or mental frameworks that people use to organize and interpret information Sometimes called schemes A person’s “picture of the world” Perceptual set, expectancy set Concepts or mental frameworks that people use to organize and interpret information Sometimes called schemes A person’s “picture of the world” Perceptual set, expectancy set What is your schema of “Dog”  Equilibrium A state of cognitive balance between individuals’ IN OTHER WORDS: The understanding understanding of the world and you have explains, the experience you their experiences. are having. Schemas and equilibrium: A person is experiencing Example of disequilibrium: equilibrium when his or her theory (or scheme) of -When Galileo looked at the sky with his new telescope, what something explains past he observed was different from what he understood. experiences successfully and -He understood the sun to revolve around the earth. He predicts new events observed that the movement of the stars did not support this successfully. idea. -He had to figure out a new understanding to support his observations. If I teach my 3 year that an animal with 4 legs and a tail is a dog…. Assimilation -Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas. - ASSIMILATION is when people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and Or this? way of thinking. – Sucking on every toy the same way What – calling all animals “dogs” would he call this? -Interpreting a new experience within the context of existing schemas The new experience is similar to other previous experiences  ACCOMMODATION It is change in existing ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli or events. – Sucking on things based on shape, – calling only flying animals “birds” – All things in the air are birds. Then they learn the difference between bird and plane  Another Example Logical Thinking The pre-schooler knew that apples were red. When he saw a red tomato he assumed that is was an apple too. These are all Children are actively construct their own apples because understanding of concepts and “operations” (such as they are red cause and effect, number, classification, and logical reasoning)  using schemes in an effort to understand how the world works is organization. Schemes and organization 2 ears Child says: A child’s scheme about “dog”: Child sees: Doggie!!! 2 ears tail fur doggie tail 1 furry 2 3... Moment of disequilibrium: Adaptation: accommodation scheme does not work! 2 ears tail 2 ears tail That’s not a doggie, doggie that’s a kitty. Kitty kitty says meow, doggie says bow wow furry bow wow furry meow 4 5. New scheme  Piaget: At each stage of development, children use a distinct structure of thought Stages of These stages occur in the same sequence for everyone, cognitive although the timing may vary development Concrete Formal Sensorimotor Preoperational operational operational stage stage stage stage  1. Sensorimotor Stage Object permanence Birth to about 2 years, rapid change is seen throughout Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be observed (seen, heard, touched, smelled or sensed in any way).... According to this view, it is through touching and handling objects that infants develop object permanence.  Sensorimotor Stage The child will: – Explore the world through senses & motor activity – Early on, baby can’t tell difference between themselves & the environment – If they can’t see something then it doesn’t exist – Begin to understand cause & effect – Can later follow something with their eyes  2. Preoperational Stage -Piaget suggested that from 2 to about 6-7 years, children are in preoperational stage — too young to perform mental operations. -Beginning of language, limited in the ways they can think about relationships between objects. Have object permanence Egocentrism: Cannot look at the world through anyone’s eyes but their own. – the inability to take another persons point of view into account. One way to help children overcome egocentrism is to help them face another person’s perspective by putting themselves in the others “shoes”.  Piaget’s three mountains task: measure of egocentrism The Three-Mountains Test. Piaget used the three-mountains test to learn whether children at certain ages are egocentric or can take the viewpoints of others. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J_bvvMbsMLU Samuel & Bryant - Egocentrism and the three mountains test Used to determine whether a child is at the preoperational stage or the concrete operational stage  Theory of Mind -Preschoolers, although still egocentric, develop the ability to understand other’s mental states when they begin forming a theory of mind. -Problem on the right probe such ability in children. -Autism The theory of mind test https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YGSj2zY2OEM Sally has not seen the ball being moved and therefore falsely believes that the ball is still in the basket.  Preoperational Stage Animism -This is the tendency of the pre schooler to attribute human like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects. -a living soul to plants, inanimate objects -Children may not be aware of what is real and what is make-believe ++ Like to engage in pretend play  Preoperational Stage Conservation They think the same amount of liquid is more when poured into a tall think glass. To them taller means more! Conservation refers to the idea that a quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance and is part of logical thinking. Preoperational Stage They have two kinds of reasoning 1. Syncretic– a break in logic, changing set of criteria Example: Mother usually makes dinner before dad comes home so making dinner causes dad to come home. 2. Intuitive reasoning—They guess!! Which line has more marbles? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu815o&feature=youtu.be Conservation task  TIME e t e y her yet? et? w Are e t here yet? – Are we there yet? (And) Five more minutes? w Are e t here yet? w ere Are t h we Are Time concepts are one of the last to develop They can not see time passing by -there are no physical changes to the days of the week Five more minutes means more time to play for a preschooler. They have no concept of how long 5 minutes will last.  2. Preoperational Stage About 2 to about 7 – Better speech communication – Can imagine the future & reflect on the past – Develop basic numerical abilities – Can’t understand conservation of matter – Has difficulty distinguishing fantasy from reality (ex: cartoon characters are real people). – Still pretty egocentric, but learning to be able to delay gratification  3. Concrete Operational Stage -From about 7 to about 11 -In concrete operational stage, given concrete materials, 6 to 7- year-olds grasp conservation problems and mentally pour liquids back and forth into glasses of different shapes conserving their quantities. – a given amount of anything remains the same even if it peng.jpg changes shape -Think more logically -Perfect understanding of reversibility– -Things can return to their original condition after being changed Children in this stage are also able to transform mathematical functions. So if, 4 + 8 = 12 then transformation 12 – 4 = 8 is also readily doable.  4.Formal Operational Stage -Around age 12, our reasoning ability expands from concrete thinking to abstract thinking. We can now use symbols and imagined realities to systematically reason, what Piaget called formal operational thinking. -Some people do not reach this stage in all areas of thought -Gain ability for metacognition (thinking about thinking) Can think through very complex problems, find several solutions, and choose the most logical one. – If John is in school, Mary is in school. John is in school. What can you say about Mary?  LO-2 Heavy focus on rational thinking, whilst ignoring that thinking is biased and influenced by motives or emotions Assumption of a child’s thinking being ‘at’ one stage or another – different progression in different domains Evaluation Underestimated the capabilities of infants and of Piaget’s preschool children theory: Relies on explicit knowledge criticisms Ignores the role of culture  Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development Emphasises the role of social interaction for the child as a motivation for cognitive gains and learning Children internalise socially conveyed learning through play and interactions with others, with a focus on language 1. Social interaction: Affects the learning process in an individual. Creates consciousness and awareness upon the individual. Did not focus on the individual child but on the child as a product of social interaction, especially with adults. Imitative learning  2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) -The MKO is any person who has a higher level of ability or understanding than the learner in certain topic. -Normally thought of as being a teacher, trainer, or older, adult, but MKO could also peers , a younger person, even computers. Parents Children Peers Coaches Videos Teachers Electric devices Normally, when we think of an MKO we refer to an older adult, a teacher or an expert. -The traditional MKO is an older person; however, MKOs could also refer to our friends, younger people and even electronic devices like computers and cell phones. For instance, you learn how to skate because your daughter taught you this skill. 3. ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD) Difference between what child can accomplish alone and s/he can accomplish with the guidance of another. -The zone of proximal development is the area of learning that a more knowledgeable other (MKO) assists the student in developing a higher level of learning. -The goal is for the facilitator (MKO) to be less involved as the student develops the necessary skills. ++ LO-2  LO-2 Information- Focuses on the idea that as children grow, their ability to process and respond to the information becomes more advanced processing - Continuous change rather than stage-like approach Processing speed Automatisation: executing mental Automatic processing processes with increasing efficiency so they require less attention Knowledge base Chess study Cognitive strategies Metacognition (thinking about Metamemory thinking)  LO-2 Integrative theories Neo-Piagetian theorists aim to integrate Piaget’s approach with the information- processing approach They argue that children do pass through the stages proposed by Piaget and in roughly the same order But they also pay more attention to discrete components of cognition and focus on domain-specific development  Boys Girls Phases of Adolescence 2.Growth Starts age 12 ½ Starts age 10 Spurt 11 or 12 Rapid pubertal changes Shoulders broaden Hips 1.Early to 14 Proportions Longer legs broaden years 14 to 16 Puberty nearly complete Muscle-Fat Gain more muscle, Gain more Middle aerobic efficiency fat years Makeup Achieves adult appearance Sex Differences in 16 to 18 & assumes adult roles 3. Body Growth in Adolescence Late years -Adolescence begins with puberty (sexual maturation). -Puberty occurs earlier in females (11 years) than males (13 years). ….. Early maturation in girls may be both a cause and a consequence of stress Presence of a male other than the biological father triggers physiological mechanisms Thus height in females increases before males. +++ Why is Puberty Beginning Earlier in Girls?  Sequence is way more predictable than the timing. Also secondary sexual characteristics—the nonreproductive traits such as breast and hips in girls and facial hair and deepening of voice in boys develop. Pubic hair and hair in armpit grow in both sexes.  LO-1 Menopause usually starts in the 40s or 50s Some women find menopause traumatic due to symptoms and loss of fertility Experience of negative effects of menopause may depend on culture Use of Hormone Replacement Therapy alleviates symptoms Midlife changes Males do not experience such dramatic physical change  LO-1 Later life Sensory changes Presbycusis is a common problem (inability to hear high frequency sounds) This can be very distressing May occur without Ageism conscious awareness  LO-1 Cognitive changes associated with Psychomotor speed (or psychomotor slowing) ageing Working memory (complex) – Decreased and less efficient activation of the PFC (prefrontal cortex) Long term memory – Main problem is with retrieval Everyday memory