Lifespan Development PDF

LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT  Introducing Human Development refers to systematic continuities and changes in the individual that occur WHAT IS between conception (when the father’s DEVELOPMENT sperm penetrates the mother’s ovum, creati...

LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT  Introducing Human Development refers to systematic continuities and changes in the individual that occur WHAT IS between conception (when the father’s DEVELOPMENT sperm penetrates the mother’s ovum, creating a new organism) and death. 0rderly, patterned, and relatively enduring  Systemic 0rderly, patterned, and relatively enduring Continuities in development or ways in which we remain the same or continue to reflect our past (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010).  also known as Human Development or Lifespan Development, is the What is Human scientific study of ways in Development which people change, as well as stay the same, from conception to death.  If humans are always changing, how do we get a baseline? Every psychological study has the confounding variable of age  How our crystallized and fluid intelligence differ as we age? On average, fluid abilities decline throughout adulthood, whereas crystallized abilities show gains into old age. These diverging age trends, along with marked individual differences in rates of change, have led to the proposition that individuals might compensate for fluid declines with crystallized gains. Peb 2, 2022 https://www.verywellmind.com/fluid-intelligence-vs-crystallized-intelligence-2 795004  Domains in Human Development: Physical Physical Domain Includes: Height Weight Fine and gross motor skills Brain development Puberty Sexual health Fertility and menopause Changes in our senses Primary and secondary aging  Domains in Human Development: Cognitive Cognitive Domain Includes: Language development Thinking (e.g., logical thinking, abstract reasoning) Learning and understanding Memory abilities Moral reasoning Practical intelligence Wisdom  Domains in Human Development: Psychosocial Psychosocial Domain Includes: Psychological and social development Temperament and attachment Emotions Personality Self-esteem Relationships Identity development Dating, romance, cohabitation, marriage, and having children Finding work or a career Caregiving, retirement, coping with losses, and death and dying  Maturation What causes us to develop? Learning  Maturation refers to the to become capable of biological walking and uttering our unfolding of the first meaningful words at individual about one year of age, to according to reach sexual maturity species-typical between ages 11 and 15, biological and then to age and die on inheritance. roughly similar schedules  Maturation is partly responsible for psychological changes increasing ability to concentrate, solve problems, and understand another person’s thoughts or feelings heredity guides all of us through many of the same developmental changes at about the same points in our lives.  Maturational theory (Arnold Gessel) Focused on the physical and mental development of children. Children will go through the same stages of development, in the same sequence but each child will go through the stages at their own rate. The patterns of development are determined by the individual’s heredity  Maturation alone shapes motor development; development is controlled by a maturational timetable linked particularly to the central nervous system and muscular development Each has its Own sequence Experience has little effect on motor development  Motor development proceeded from the global to the specific in two directions.  1. Cephalocaudal trend and is from head to foot along the length of the body – that is, control of the head is first, then the arms and trunk, and finally control of the legs.  2. Proximodistal trend, which is that motor control is from the center of the body outwards to more peripheral segments – that is, the head, trunk, and pelvic girdle are brought under control before the elbow, wrist, knee, and ankle joints, which in turn lead to finger control over hands and fingers.  A relatively permanent Learning change in behavior (or behavioral potential) that results from one’s experiences or practice. Let’s consider a very simple example. Although a certain degree of physical maturation is necessary before a grade-school child can become reasonably proficient at dribbling a basketball, careful instruction and many, many hours of practice are essential if this child is ever to approximate the ball-handling skills of a professional basketball player. Many of our abilities and habits do not simply unfold as part of maturation; we often learn to feel, think, and behave in new ways from our observations of and interactions with parents, teachers, and other important people in our lives, as well as from events that we experience.  Meaning We change in response to our environments—particularly in response to the actions and reactions of the people around us. Of course, most developmental changes are the product of both maturation and learning (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). Goals of describe, to explain, and to Developmentalist optimize development (Baltes et al., 1980). Carefully observe the behavior of people of different ages, seeking to specify how people change over time. Although there are typical pathways of development that virtually all people follow, no two persons are exactly alike. Focus on normative and ideographic developments(pattern of change) describe, to explain, and to optimize development (Baltes et al., 1980). explain the changes they have observed determine why people develop as they typically do and why some develop differently than others Explanation centers both on normative changes within individuals and variations in development between individuals.  Normative development. The developmental changes that characterize most or all members of a species; typical patterns of development. For example, a baby that hits developmental milestones consistently within the expected range is experiencing normative development  Ideographic Development- Individual variations in the rate, extent, or direction of development. describes individual variations outside of the range of normative development. a psychologist might use ideographic development to study the unique factors that shape an individual's personality or to examine the ways in which an individual's experiences or circumstances have influenced their development over time. describe, to explain, and to optimize development (Baltes et al., 1980). by applying what they have learned in attempts to help people develop in positive directions. promote strong affectional ties between fussy, unresponsive infants and their frustrated parents; assist children with learning difficulties to succeed at school; and help socially unskilled children and adolescents to prevent the emotional difficulties that could result from having no close friends and being reject. The Lifespan Perspective  Baltes’ Lifespan Perspective Lifespan development: the biological, cognitive, and psychosocial changes and constancies that occur throughout the entire course of life(Lifespan theorists believe that development is life-long, and change is apparent across the lifespan. No single age period is more crucial, characterizes, or dominates human development). Lifespan Perspective: an approach to studying lifespan development attributed to Paul Baltes, a German psychologist and leading expert on lifespan development and aging.  Baltes’ Lifespan Perspective: Key Principles Development occurs across one’s entire life or is lifelong Development is multidimensional(physical, cognitive, psychosocial domains) a change in one domain may cascade and prompt changes in the other domains. Development is multidirectional and results in gains and losses throughout life Development is plastic, meaning that characteristics are malleable or changeable. Ex.brain’s ability to learn from experience and how it can recover from injury. Development is influenced by contextual and socio-cultural influences Development is multidisciplinary-vast topics,knowledges from may disciplines  1. Development is Lifelong Development occurs across one’s entire life or is lifelong Development encompasses the entire lifespan, from conception to death Traditional view: focused on conception to adolescence and the gradual decline in old age It was believed that the five or six decades after adolescence yielded little to no developmental change at all Current view: changes in development can occur later in life, without having been established at birth Each period has its own agenda; Change occurs in 3 major domains: No age period is supreme, in its unique demands that yielded physical; cognitive; emotional- impact in life course similarities across many individuals social  2. Development is Multidimensional Development is multidimensional A complex interaction of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes influence development across the lifespan Example of puberty in adolescence: Physiological/physical changes in hormone levels, primary and secondary sex characteristics, changes in height and weight Cognitive changes in terms of the ability to think abstractly Emotional and social changes involving regulating emotions, interacting with peers, and possibly dating For instance, an infant who has started to crawl or walk a change in one domain may will encounter more objects and people, thus fostering All three domains cascade and influence each other. developmental change in the child’s prompt changes in the other understanding of the physical and social world domains  3. Development is Multidirectional Development is multidirectional and results in gains and losses throughout life Every change, whether it is finishing high school, getting married, or becoming a parent, entails both growth and loss We have the capacity for both an increase and decrease in the efficacy of certain traits over the course of the lifespan Selective optimization with compensation: prioritizing and improving the efficacy of particular functions, thereby reducing the adaptive capacity of other functions Example: Childhood: difficulty with regulating emotions and impulsive actions Adolescence: increased ability to regulate emotions and impulses, but they may sacrifice spontaneity, creativity, or fast responding Aging. Physical decrease; wisdom Cognitive decline in old age- increase use materials  4. Development is Plastic Development is plastic, meaning that characteristics are malleable or changeable The nature of human development is more pluralistic than originally thought; there is no single pathway in development Consider the example of cognitive decline in aging Dimensions of cognitive decline are partially reversible because the brain retains the lifelong capacity for plasticity and reorganization of cortical tissue Research suggests that cognitive function, such as memory, can be improved in mature adults with age-related cognitive decline by using brain plasticity-based training methods older adult responds to training with substantial, not limited gain in mental abilities  5. Development is Contextual Development is influenced by contextual and socio-cultural influences Development varies from person to person, depending on factors such as a person’s biology, family, school, church, profession, nationality, and ethnicity Three types of contextual influences operate across the lifespan: normative age-graded influences normative history-graded influences nonnormative influences  5a.Normative Age-Graded Influences Biological and environmental factors that have a strong correlation with chronological age, such as puberty or menopause Age-based social practices such as beginning school or entering retirement An age grade is a specific age group, such as toddler, adolescent, or senior. Humans in a specific age grade share particular experiences and developmental changes  5b. Normative History-Graded Influences Associated with a specific time period that defines the broader environmental and cultural context in which an individual develops Development and identity are influenced by historical events that people experience. For example, Great Depression WWII The Vietnam War The Cold War Pandemic COHORT  5c. Nonnormative Influences Unpredictable and not tied to a certain time in a person’s development or to a historical period The unique experiences of an individual, whether biological or environmental, that shape the development process Examples of nonnormative influences: Earning a master’s degree Getting a certain job offer Going through a divorce Coping with the death of a child Despite sharing an age and history with our peers, each of us also has unique experiences that may shape our development. A child who loses his/her parent at a young age has experienced a life event that is not typical of the age group.  5d. Other Contextual Influences: Cohort Cohort: a group of people who are born at roughly the same time period in a particular society Members of a cohort experience the same historical events and cultural climates which influence their values, priorities, and goals  A cohort is a group of people who are born at roughly the same period in a particular society. These people travel through life often experiencing similar circumstances. Born 1901-1924 The Greatest Generation Born 1925-1945 The Silent Generation Born 1946-1964 The Baby Boomer Generation Born 1965-1979 Generation X Born 1980-1994 Millennials Born 1995-2012 Generation Z Born 20132025 Gen Alpha 5e. Other Contextual Influences: Socioeconomic Status Socioeconomic Status or Social Class: a way to identify families and households based on their shared levels of education, income, and occupation Members of a social class tend to share similar lifestyles, patterns of consumption, parenting styles, stressors, religious preferences, and other aspects of daily life (although there are individual variations) Occupations –pay better; Occupations-routinary, Higher has a degree of autonomy= Lower heavily supervised, require income= satisfaction; personal income= less education=job happiness and well-being disruptions; lay offs; lower wages  Socioeconomic status 5f.Poverty (SES) Divina, 2024 level difficult to sustain a household; poorer health and a lower life expectancy due to poorer diet, less healthcare, greater stress, working in more dangerous occupations, higher infant mortality rates, poorer prenatal care, greater iron deficiencies, greater difficulty in school, and many other problems. Members of higher income status may fear losing that status, but the poor may have greater concerns over losing housing.  5g.Other Contextual Influences: Culture Often referred to as a blueprint shared by a group of people that specifies how to live Culture includes ideas about the following: what is right and wrong what to strive for what to eat how to speak what is valued what kinds of emotions are called for in certain situations Culture is learned from parents, schools, churches, media, friends, and others throughout a lifetime 5h.Other Contextual Influences: Culture continued Ethnocentrism: the belief that our own culture’s practices and expectations are the right ones or are superior This is a normal byproduct of growing up in a culture It becomes a roadblock when it inhibits understanding of cultural practices from other societies Cultural relativity: an appreciation for cultural differences and the understanding that cultural practices are best understood from the standpoint of that particular culture  6. Development is Multidisciplinary Development is multidisciplinary Any one discipline would not be able to account for all aspects of lifespan development Lifespan researchers state that it takes a combination of disciplines to understand development: Psychologists Sociologists Neuroscientists Anthropologists Educators Economists Historians Medical researchers  Lifespan vs. Life expectancy Lifespan, or longevity, refers to the length of time a species can exist under the most optimal conditions. For instance, the grey wolf can live up to 20 years in captivity, the bald eagle up to 50 years, and the Galapagos tortoise over 150 years (Smithsonian National Zoo, 2016). The longest recorded lifespan for a human was Jean Calment who died in 1994 at the age of 122 years, 5 months, and 14 days (Guinness World Records, 2016). Life expectancy is the predicted number of years a person born in a particular time period can reasonably expect to live (Vogt & Johnson, 2016). lifespan is about the theoretical maximum age a person can live, life expectancy is a statistical measure reflecting average expected longevity given current conditions.  71.79 years According to the UN, the average life expectancy in the Philippines is 71.79 years in 2024, slightly up compared to 71.41 years in 2021.  Key Issues in Lifespan (Human Development) 1. Nature and Nurture: Why are you the way you are most scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between the two forces. It is difficult to isolate the root of any single behavior as a result solely of nature or nurture Nature: the hereditary information we receive from our parents at the moment of conception Nurture: the complex forces of the physical, and social world that influence our biological make-up and psychological experiences before and after birth  All theories agree the roles of nature and nurture But, vary on emphasis: Example: IS THE DEVELOPING PERSON’S ABILITY TO THINK IN MORE COMPLEX WAYS LARGELY THE RESULT OF A BUILT-IN TIMETABLE OF GROWTH? Or IS IT PRIMARILY INFLUENCED BY STIMULATION FROM PARENTS AND TEACHERS? DO CHILDREN ACQUIRE LANGUAGE RAPIDLY BECAUSE THEY ARE GENETICALLY PREDISPOSED TO DO SO? OR BECAUSE PARENTS TEACH FROM AN EARLY AGE? WHAT ACCOUNTS FOR THE VAST INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AMONG PEOPLE IN HEIGHT, WEIGHT, PHYSICAL COORDINATION, INTELLIGENCE, PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL SKILLS IS NATURE AND NURTURE MORE RESPONSIBLE?  2. Continuity versus Discontinuity: Is human development best characterized as a slow, gradual process, or is it best viewed as one of more The answer to that question often depends on which developmental theorist you ask and what topic is being studied. Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg are called stage theories Stage theories or discontinuous development assume that developmental change often occurs in distinct stages that are qualitatively different from each other, and in a set, universal sequence. At each stage of development, children and adults have different qualities and characteristics.  behaviorists, Vygotsky, and information processing theorists, assume development is a more slow and gradual process known as continuous development. Is similar to walking up a slope and there is no sudden jump in the process. For example, as children grow up, they gradually start crawling, then sitting, then standing, and then finally walking. Brain development and environmental experiences contribute to the acquisition of more developed skills. Example: Cognitive development theories like those proposed by Jean Piaget have aspects of continuity, where skills in thinking and reasoning develop progressively and incrementally. Key Human Development Issues: Continuous or Discontinuous Continuous Development is a cumulative process Gradually improve on existing skills (there is gradual change. Consider, for example, a child’s physical growth: adding inches to her height year by year. Discontinuous Development occurs in unique stages Development at specific times or ages smooth Concrete; slope of specific progressi on Gradual, cumulative Like climbing a staircase Similar to waking a slope, no sudden jump in the process Each step/stage corresponds to a more mature , For example, as children grow up, they gradually start reorganized way of functioning. crawling, then sitting, then standing, and then finally People undergo rapid development as they step up from walking one stage to the next Meaning. CHANGE IS SUDDEN, AND NOT GRADUAL AND ON GOING  3. Active versus Passive: How much do you play a role in your own developmental path? Are you at the whim of your genetic inheritance or the environment that surrounds you? Some theorists see humans as playing a much more active role in their own development. Passive- sees individuals as having less control with behaviors. One might see development as more a product of the environment or social influences or due to biological changes. Child explores & learns about dolphins due to their interest Active children are directly engaged in their development Piaget, for instance believed that children actively explore their world and construct new ways of thinking to explain the things they experience. In contrast, many behaviorists view humans as being more passive in the developmental process. Ex: the child learns violin from her teacher  4. Stability versus Change: How similar are you to how you were as a child? Were you always as out-going or reserved as you are now? Some theorists argue that the personality traits of adults are rooted in the behavioral and emotional tendencies of the infant and young child. Others disagree and believe that these initial tendencies are modified by social and cultural forces over time. EMPIRICAL VIEW-JOHN LOCKE NATIVIST-RENE DESCARTE  ON STABILITY INDIVIDUALS WHO ARE LOW OR HIGH IN VERBAL ABILITY; ANXIETY, SOCIABILITY WILL REMAIN SO, IN LATER STAGES –HEREDITY EARLY CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES – ESTABLISH LIFELONG PATTERN OF BEHAVIOR-ENVIRONMENT –CONDITIONED REFLEX/RESPONSE CRYSTALLLIZED VS FLUID INTELLIGENCE POSITIVIST: Development as having substantial plasticity throughout life-as open to change in response to influential experience  Two seminal meta-analyses have shown that personality traits are relatively stable, but they also change, and they do so actually across the lifespan, meaning that there is no upper boundary. In fact, people aged 70 and older can still undergo pretty remarkable changes in their personality traits. https://www.apa.org/pubs/highlights/podcasts/episode-30  Stage theories hold that the sequence of development is universal. For example, in cross-cultural studies of language development, children from around the world reach language milestones in a similar sequence (Gleitman & Newport, 1995). Infants in all cultures coo before they babble. They begin babbling at about the same age and utter their first word around 12 months old. Yet we live in diverse contexts that have a unique effect on each of us. For example, researchers once believed that motor development follows one course for all children regardless of culture. However, child care practices vary by culture, and different practices have been found to accelerate or inhibit achievement of developmental milestones such as sitting, crawling, and walking (Karasik, Adolph, Tamis-LeMonda, & Bornstein, 2010). Human Growth and Development - A Matter of Principles (Ruffin, N. J., 2023) PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT Pattern of growth and development Predictable, orderly Universal  1. Development proceeds from the head downward. This is called the cephalocaudal principle. This principle describes the direction of growth and development. According to this principle, the child gains control of the head first, then the arms, and then the legs. Infants develop control of the head and face movements within the first two months after birth. In the next few months, they will be able to lift themselves up by using their arms. By 6 to 12 months of age, infants start to gain leg control and may be able to crawl, stand, or walk. Coordination of arms always precedes coordination of legs. Control of head Then arms Then legs First 2 months Next few months- lift themselves up using arms 6 to 12 months –start to gain leg control Crawl, stand, walk  2. Development proceeds from the center of the body outward. This is the principle of proximodistal development that also describes the direction of development. This means that the spinal cord develops before the outer parts of the body. The child’s arms develop before the hands and the hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes. Finger and toe muscles (used in fine motor dexterity) are the last to develop in physical development. Spinal cord Arms hands and feet Fingers and toes  3. Development depends on maturation and learning. Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and development. The biological changes occur in sequential order and give children new abilities. Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for maturation. These changes in the brain and nervous system help children to improve in thinking (cognitive) and motor (physical) skills. Also, children must mature to a certain point before they can progress to new skills (Readiness). For example, a four-month-old cannot use language because the infant’s brain has not matured enough to allow the child to talk. By two years old, the brain has developed further and with help from others, the child will have the capacity to say and understand words. Also, a child can’t write or draw until he has developed the motor control to hold a pencil or crayon. Maturational patterns are innate, that is, genetically programmed. The child’s environment and the learning that occurs as a result of the child’s experiences largely determine whether the child will reach optimal development. A stimulating environment and varied experiences allow a child to develop to his or her potential. Biological Changes in Improve Maturation-se changes-se New brain & thinking & Environme Optimal quential-biolo nt & developme quential abilities NS= physical gical growth learning order Maturation skills nt  4. Development proceeds from the simple (concrete) to the more complex. Children use their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems. For example, learning relationships between things (how things are similar), or classification, is an important ability in cognitive development. The cognitive process of learning how an apple and orange are alike begins with the most simplistic or concrete thought of describing the two. Seeing no relationship, a preschool child will describe the objects according to some property of the object, such as color. Such a response would be, “An apple is red (or green) and an orange is orange.” The first level of thinking about how objects are alike is to give a description or functional relationship (both concrete thoughts) between the two objects. “An apple and orange are round” and “An apple and orange are alike because you eat them” are typical responses of three, four and five year olds. As children develop further in cognitive skills, they are able to understand a higher and more complex relationship between objects and things; that is, that an apple and orange exist in a class called fruit. The child cognitively is then capable of classification. PIAGET COGNITVE DEVELOPMENT LEARNING HOW TO BIKE  5. Growth and development is a continuous process. As a child develops, he or she adds to the skills already acquired and the new skills become the basis for further achievement and mastery of skills. Most children follow a similar pattern. Also, one stage of development lays the foundation for the next stage of development. For example, in motor development, there is a predictable sequence of developments that occur before walking. The infant lifts and turns the head before he or she can turn over. Infants can move their limbs (arms and legs) before grasping an object. Mastery of climbing stairs involves increasing skills from holding on to walking alone. By the age of four, most children can walk up and down stairs with alternating feet. As in maturation, in order for children to write or draw, they must have developed the manual (hand) control to hold a pencil and crayon. Predictable sequence of development Basis for Existing further skills achievem Lift and turns Move limbs Add 1 Y.O. ent & head Grasping New Walk Mastery Turn over objects skills of skills interplay of Domains: Growth and development occur across multiple domains, including physical, cognitive, emotional, and social aspects. These domains are interconnected, and changes Maturation in one area can influence others.  6. Growth and development proceed from the general to the specific. In motor development, the infant will be able to grasp an object with the whole hand before using only the thumb and forefinger. The infant’s first motor movements are very generalized, undirected, and reflexive, waving arms or kicking before being able to reach or creep toward an object. Growth occurs from large muscle movements to more refined (smaller) muscle movements. Motor Development General Specific Grasp an object with Only the thumb and the whole hand forefinger  Lev Vygotsky’s Theory: concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) aligns with this idea. According to Vygotsky, learners first acquire general skills with the help of more knowledgeable others, and then they develop more specific competencies as they advance. Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development: Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development also reflects this pattern, where individuals address broad psychosocial issues at different stages of life and gradually develop more specific aspects of their identity and social relationships.  Social and Emotional DevelopmentSocial Skills: In social and emotional development, children start with broad concepts of interacting with others and gradually develop more nuanced and specific social skills and emotional responses. Example: A child may begin by learning to share and play cooperatively with peers in a general sense before understanding and managing more complex social dynamics and relationships.  7. There are individual rates of growth and development. Every child is different Rates Reach developmental stages Individual rates of growth and development vary widely due to a combination of genetic, environmental, health, cultural, and personal factors. Understanding and accommodating these differences is crucial for supporting each person's unique developmental journey, ensuring they receive the appropriate resources, guidance, and encouragement to thrive.  WHY? 1. Variability in Individuals do not follow a uniform timeline for developmental milestones. For example, children may Developmental start speaking their first words, walking, or reading at different ages. Timelines: Example: One child might walk at 10 months, while another may take their first steps at 14 months. Both rates are within the normal range of development. Genetics 2. Influencing Factors: Environment Health and Nutrition Cultural factors –starts go to school  Temperament 3. Individual Learning Styles Differences Cognitive vs. Physical Development: Growth and development can vary across different domains. 4. Developmental For instance, a child might excel in cognitive tasks such Domains as problem-solving but develop physical coordination at a slower pace. Example: A child may show early aptitude for reading and mathematical reasoning but might take longer to develop fine motor skills needed for writing.