Ethics PDF

What is Philosophy? teaches us what distinguishes good from bad reasoning and thereby enables us to think Philosophy [from the Greek philos (love) and...

What is Philosophy? teaches us what distinguishes good from bad reasoning and thereby enables us to think Philosophy [from the Greek philos (love) and critically. sophos (wisdom), "love of wisdom"] is the study of fundamental issues and problems concerning History of Philosophy matters such as existence, knowledge, values, we learn how the greatest thinkers in the history of reason, mind, and language among others. humankind answered these and similar The earliest beginnings of philosophy are traced questions. back to the sixth century B.C.E., when the first scientists of Western history, the Pre-Socratics – All of these areas of interest are grounded in facts among them Thales, Heraclitus and Parmenides – and responsive to the theories put forth by experts in a advanced revolutionary theories concerning the myriad of disciplines, such as physics and psychology. natural world, human knowledge and humanism To study Philosophy is to see the connection relationship with the gods. between ideas, and to explicate that connection in a The pillars of philosophy include theoretical reasoned and logical way. In Ethics, an ethicist, for philosophy (metaphysics and epistemology), example, might draw upon behavioral psychology to practical philosophy (ethics, social and political argue that humans should lead a certain kind of life. philosophy, aesthetics), logic, and history of This argument could have further implications about philosophy. how government should legislate in order to ensure What do we study in Philosophy? people can lead the lives they want to lead. A metaphysician or philosopher of science might help Popularly, Philosophy is associated with stargazing provide conceptual clarity and reason through the and asking questions that areas vague as they are implications of competing quantum mechanical irrelevant, and to which there are no answers. theories. All fields of inquiry are open to the However, Philosophy deals in a clear and precise philosopher’s refinement. manner with the real world, its complex social and material nature, and our place in it. Because of this, What is Ethics? philosophical fields of studies are diverse. the branch of philosophy that examines right and Philosophy – the love of wisdom – is an activity of wrong moral behavior, moral concepts (such as attempting to understand the world, in all its justice, virtue, duty) and moral language. aspects. There are four pillars of philosophy: Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of theoretical philosophy(metaphysics and philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, epistemology), practical philosophy (ethics, and recommending concepts of right and wrong social and political philosophy, aesthetics), logic, behavior" and history of philosophy study of questions of morality, the search to Theoretical philosophy understand what is right, wrong, good, and bad. The branch of philosophy that systematically Asks questions about knowledge such as “Is studies moral ideals and goals, motives of choice, anything absolutely certain?” and “What grounds and patterns of good and bad conduct. our belief that the past is a good indicator of the refers to well-founded standards of right and future?” and questions about the world such as wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do, “What is the world like independently of human usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to perception?” and “Does God exist?” society, fairness, or specific virtues Practical Philosophy traditionally subdivided into descriptive ethics, normative ethics, metaethics, and applied ethics. exposes us to such questions as: Howought we to live our lives? Which social and political Descriptive Ethics arrangements are just or legitimate? study of people’s beliefs about morality. It involves empirical investigation. gives us a general pattern or a way of life of people indifferent types of communities. Logic  studies the history and evolution of Ethics. It gives the nature of moral judgments?’, ‘How may moral a record of certain taboos, customs or conventions judgments be supported or defended? For example, it states the history of various Applied Ethics institutions like family or marriage. Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral consciousness is an In recent years the branch of Applied Ethics is example of Descriptive Ethics. developed. It deals with the problems confronted investigates people’s ethical ideals or what actions in our life. are condemned in a society. It attempts to apply ethical theory to real life It aims to find out people’s beliefs about values, situations. which actions are right and wrong and which It helps to use knowledge of moral principles to characteristics of a moral agent are virtuous. present dilemmas. seeks the explanation of actual choices made by There are certain issues which arise due to newly moral agents in practice. It tries to examine the adopted lifestyle. ethical codes applied by various groups deals with the questions such as, “Is getting an s is a value-free approach to ethics. It is empirical abortion immoral?” “Is euthanasia immoral?” “Is investigation of people’s moral beliefs. affirmative action right or wrong?” “What are human rights, and how do we determine them?” Normative Ethics “Do animals have rights as well?” and “Do called as prescriptive ethics individuals have the right of self-determination? the study of ethical theories that prescribe how guides the individuals facing conflicting situation. people ought to act. Some critical moral issues arise due to the It examines standards for the rightness and insensible and irresponsible attitude of human wrongness of actions. beings without any concern to other children of suggests punishment when a person deviates Mother Nature. from the path of ideals. It provides justification for Provides guidance in determining public policy punishing a person who disturbs social and moral and laws. order. Develops into Environmental Ethics, Media Ethics, It tries to establish certain theories on the Business Ethics, Ethics of Legal Profession and guidelines of some norms. Ethics of Care. offer the moral principles to use to resolve difficult ethical questions never have answer in ‘yes’/ ‘no’ moral decisions. or ‘right’/’wrong’ format. Ethical issues are Aristotle’s virtue ethics, Kant’s deontological ethics, multifaceted. Their satisfactory solutions are Mill’s Consequentialism(Utilitarianism) and the possible through consideration of different areas Bhagwad Gita’s Nishkam Karmayoga are the of life. theories in Normative Ethic. Ethics and Morality Meta Ethics Similarities of the terms study of what ethical terms and theories actually Ethics is from the Greek word “ethos”, meaning refer to. It determines the validity of theories character or custom and morality/morals from the advanced in Normative Ethics. Greek word “mores”, meaning custom or manner; We use certain moral concepts such as right, both words deal with the customs or manner in wrong, good or bad to evaluate human actions. which people do things; meanings related to the These moral concepts are used as tools in passing way people act – either good or bad. So, the two moral judgments. have very similar, if not synonymous, meanings analyzes ethical concepts. It studies the meaning originally. of moral language and the metaphysics of moral Both the terms are used to indicate a fine line facts. between what activities should be considered seeks to understand the nature of ethical good and what should be considered bad. Both properties and evaluations. work side by side to make the learning of good deals with the questions such as ‘What is the activities faster. It helps any individual to be a meaning of moral terms or judgments?’, ‘What is better person.  Both loosely have to do with distinguishing the patient, even at the patient's request, as per ethical difference between “good and bad” or “right and standards for health professionals. However, the same wrong. doctor may personally believe in a patient's right to die, as per the doctor's own morality. Differences of the terms Importance of Ethics (with Morality) in One’s Daily Many people think of morality as something that's Life personal and normative(individual system) whereas ethics is the standards of “good and bad Ethics (with Morality) asks us to consider whether our ”distinguished by a certain community or social actions are right or wrong. It also asks us how those setting (social system); one therefore may say character traits that help humans flourish (such as that Ethics is objective. integrity, honesty, faithfulness, and compassion) play Ethics refers to rules provided by an external out in everyday living. source, e.g., codes of conduct in workplaces or principles in religions. Morals refer to an individual’s own principles regarding right and wrong (internal source) Ethics are external standards that are provided by institutions, groups, or culture to which an individual belongs. For example, lawyers, policemen, and doctors all have to follow an ethical code laid down by their profession, regardless of their own feelings or preferences. Ethics can also be considered a social system or a framework for acceptable behavior. Morals are also influenced by culture or society, but they are personal principles created and upheld by individuals themselves. Ethics is based on the dictates of the society (culture) on what is the right thing to do whereas morals is based on the belief (faith) of the individual in something is right or wrong. Ethics is dependent on others for definition. It tends to be consistent within a certain context but can vary between contexts. Morals usually is consistent, although can change if an individual’s beliefs change. Ethics are governed by professional and legal guidelines within a particular time and place. Morality transcends cultural norms. Conflicts between Ethics and Morality One professional example of ethics conflicting with morals is the work of a defense attorney. A lawyer’s morals may tell her that murder is reprehensible and that murderers should be punished, but her ethics as a professional lawyer, requires her to defend her client to the best of her abilities, even if she knows that the client is guilty. Another example can be found in the medical field. In most parts of the world, a doctor may not euthanize a  Moral Argument & Reasoning One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in What is moral reasoning/argument? Europe. A moral argument is a reasoning in which the Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type conclusion is a moral statement. A moral statement is of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save her. The a statement/premise asserting that an action is right drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the or wrong (moral or immoral) or that a person or Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist motive is good or bad. In a moral argument, we cannot was charging ten times the money it cost to make the establish the conclusion without a moral premise. A drug, and this was much more than the Heinz could standard moral argument has (a) at least one afford. premise that asserts a general moral principle, (b) at least one premise that is a nonmoral claim, and (c) a Heinz could only raise half the money, even conclusion that is a moral statement. after help from family and friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could Examples of a Moral Argument have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money Valid Moral Argument: later. 1) A human fetus has a brain wave after 25 weeks of The chemist refused, saying that he had gestation. (fact or premise) discovered the drug and was going to make money 2) A human with a brain wave is a person. from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, (connecting fact-value premise) so later that night he broke into the chemist’s and stole 3) Killing a person is morally wrong. (evaluative the drug. premise) Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as: Therefore, killing a fetus with a brain wave is morally 1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug? wrong. (evaluative) 2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his What is moral reasoning/argument? wife? 3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it Kohlberg identified three distinct levels of moral make any difference? reasoning: (a) preconventional, (b) conventional, and 4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the (c) postconventional. woman died? Kohlberg's theory proposes that there are three levels By studying the answers from children of different ages of moral development, with each level split into two to these questions, Kohlberg hoped to discover how stages. Kohlberg suggested that people move through moral reasoning changed as people grew older. The these stages in a fixed order, and that moral sample comprised 72 Chicago boys aged 10 –16 years, understanding is lb. The three levels of moral 58 of whom were followed up at three-yearly intervals reasoning include preconventional, conventional, and for 20 years (Kohlberg, 1984). postconventional. Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on the By using children's responses to a series of moral ten dilemmas. What Kohlberg was mainly interested in dilemmas, Kohlberg established that the reasoning was not whether the boys judged the action right or behind the decision was a greater indication of moral wrong, but the reasons given for the decision. He found development than the actual answer. that these reasons tended to change as the children Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) got older. theory of moral development in principle but wanted Kohlberg identified three distinct levels of moral to develop his ideas further. reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people postconventional. Each level has two sub-stages. stories involving moral dilemmas. In each case, he People can only pass through these levels in the order presented a choice to be considered, for example, listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical between the rights of some authority and the needs of of the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the some deserving individual who is being unfairly stages. treated.  Moral Argument & Reasoning Level 3 - Postconventional morality Postconventional morality is the third stage of moral Level 1 - Preconventional morality development and is characterized by an individuals’ understanding of universal ethical principles. These Preconventional morality is the first stage of moral are abstract and ill-defined but might include: the development and lasts until approximately age 9. At preservation of life at all costs, and the importance of the preconventional level children don’t have a human dignity. personal code of morality, and instead moral decisions are shaped by the standards of adults and the Individual judgment is based on self-chosen consequences of following or breaking their rules. principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of For example, if an action leads to punishment is must moral reasoning is as far as most people get. be bad, and if it leads to a reward must be good. Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking Authority is outside the individual and children often necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional make moral decisions based on the physical morality). That is to say, most people take their moral consequences of actions. views from those around them and only a minority Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The think through ethical principles for themselves. child/individual is good in order to avoid being Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The punished. If a person is punished, they must have done child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws wrong. might exist for the good of the greatest number, there Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, are times when they will work against the interest of children recognize that there is not just one right view particular individuals. that is handed down by the authorities. Different The issues are not always clear-cut. For individuals have different viewpoints. example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the protection of life is Level 2 - Conventional morality more important than breaking the law against stealing. Conventional morality is the second stage of moral development and is characterized by an acceptance Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage of social rules concerning right and wrong. At the have developed their own set of moral guidelines conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply begin to internalize the moral standards of valued to everyone. adult role models. E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will Authority is internalized but not questioned, and be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which means going against the rest of society in the process the person belongs. and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people A social system that stresses the responsibilities of reached this stage. relationships as well as social order is seen as desirable and must, therefore, influence our view of Problems with Kohlberg's Methods what is right and wrong. A critique of Kohlberg's theory is that it emphasizes Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The justice to the exclusion of other values and so may child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a not adequately address the arguments of those good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the who value other moral aspects of actions. Carol approval of others. Gilligan, in her book In a Different Voice, has argued that Kohlberg's theory is excessively androcentric. Stage 4. Maintaining Social Order. The The point of contention is that Kohlberg's model child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of directs to inferior morality of women as compared society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in to men, which Carol Gilligan noticed and opposed. order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt. Gilligan researched and constituted her own model, which later, Kohlberg did not challenge. Overemphasizes justice: Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept of justice when making moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring, and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning. Two glaring weakness in Kohlberg's theory have largely discredited it. (1) The fact that boys and girls develop at different stages mentally and morally is problematic to his theory. (2) Also, Kohlberg does not consider that children of different cultures develop at different rates. Kohlberg is biased against women. This challenge is due to the fact that Kohlberg doesn't consider the differences between men and women. For example, women are more likely to base their explanations for moral dilemmas on concepts such as caring and personal relationships Relativism & Skepticism, Objectivism & Intuitionism Ethnocentrism is a theory opposite to cultural relativism. This idea consists of being able to judge What is Cultural Relativism? another culture. Comparing cultures to one another. - the view that ethical and social standards reflect the Decide whether one culture is better than another. cultural context from which they are derived. Cultural Cultural Relativism, as it has been called, challenges relativists uphold that cultures differ fundamentally our ordinary belief in the objectivity and universality of from one another, and so do the moral frameworks moral truth. It says, in effect, that there is not such thing that structure relations within different societies. as universal. - the ability to understand a culture on its own terms The weakness of cultural relativism is its propensity and not to make judgments using the standards of towards quietism which may compromise action to one's own culture. The goal of this is promote protect human rights. Cultural relativism requires an understanding of cultural practices that are not admission of humility and acceptance of differences typically part of one's own culture. Cultural relativism in ethical practices. refers to not judging a culture to our own standards of what is right or wrong, strange or normal. One of the strongest objections to relativism is the idea that if relativism is true, then there can be no such - attempts to counter ethnocentrism by promoting the thing as social reform or moral progress. truth in ethics; understanding of cultural practices unfamiliar to other there are only the various cultural codes, and nothing cultures. For example, it is a common practice for more. friends of the same sex in India to hold hands while walking in public. Religious beliefs and arranged Because of this, ethicists believe that the concept of marriages are also examples of cultural relativism. cultural relativism threatens the discipline of ethics There are practices in religion and marriage that are since, if values are relative to a given culture, then this acceptable in some cultures but not in others. must mean that there are no universal moral However, this does not qualify individuals to criticize absolutes by which the behavior of people can be each other's practices, and they tolerate them as they judged. are. What is Cultural Skepticism? - argues that no culture is better than any other and all - also spelled scepticism, in Western philosophy, the their beliefs are equally valid. The way that modern attitude of doubting knowledge claims set forth in society is has made it possible for almost everything to various areas. Skeptics have challenged the adequacy be justified. These arguments were made by fictional or reliability of these claims by asking what principles Ima Relativist created by Harry Gensler. they are based upon or what they actually establish. The concept of cultural relativism as we know and use For instance, the police officer was skeptical that the it today was established as an analytic tool by German driver, who was weaving in and out of traffic, only had American anthropologist Franz Boas in the early 20th two beers. century. - holds that one should refrain from making truth Is Cultural Relativism good? Cultural relativism is good claims and avoid the postulation of final truths. because it allows people to practice their beliefs and Types of Skepticism enjoy their cultural heritage or religious beliefs without having to fear or have fears of others for why they do Common sense skepticism - - natural and what they do. healthy form of skepticism that most of us employ on daily basis. Cultural relativism eliminates the rigidity that societies have in place regarding ethics, conduct, and Philosophical skepticism - - the view that we reasoning. It also means that there are no actual know much less than we think we do or nothing at definitions that are in place for a society. Cultural all. relativism promotes an individualistic perspective Absolute skepticism. -- this is the most extreme which governs how a person acts, thinks, and type of skepticism. responds. Are moral relativism and skepticism linked? The difference between objectivism and subjectivism Other moral skeptics endorse cultural relativism, which is the view that rather than being relative to an Objectivist individual's beliefs, morality is relative to culture. This is - can say that meaning is being studied objectively, a radical view with many serious philosophical while the subjectivist can say that a formerly difficulties. inadequate method has been improved by the addition of subjective considerations, or even that What is Moral Objectivism and Intuitionism? subjective considerations had never been entirely Objectivism eliminated from it. - derives from the idea that human knowledge and Intuitionism values are objective: they exist and are determined by - the ability to understand something immediately, the nature of reality, to be discovered by one's mind, without the need for conscious reasoning. Intuitionism and are not created by the thoughts one has. is the philosophical theory that basic truths are known intuitively. Basically, your intuition knows something - the philosophy or theory that the main objective of because it is true. Universally, objectively, true. When the human experience is to pursue personal happiness you're a philosopher, looking for the fundamental and respect other humans. An example of objectivism sources of morality, that is a major claim to make. is the philosophy made known by author Ayn Rand. In metaethics, intuitionism is a form of cognitivism that - holds that man has free will—the ability to think or not holds that moral statements can be known to be true to think, to use reason or not to use it, to go by facts or or false immediately through a kind of rational to go by feelings. A person does not have to use intuition. reason; the choice is his to make. When an intuitionist ponders a problem, the - The most essential aspects of Objectivism can be only things they must work with are their feelings, expressed in four basic values: freedom, achievement, thoughts, and attitudes. Working with these entirely individualism, and reason. To understand Objectivism subjective things the intuitionist arrives at moral as a system, one needs to grasp what these values are intuitions, which he then puts forward as objective and how they fit together. truths. Some examples of objectivism Moral intuitionism, this refers to the philosophical belief ▪ a person who works hard on a farm his entire life to that there are objective moral truths in life and that be completely self-sustaining; engaging in actions human beings can understand these truths intuitively. that will ideally lead to long-term happiness as With moral intuitionism, we mean strong, stable, opposed to short term pleasure. immediate moral beliefs. These moral beliefs are strong insofar as they are held with confidence and ▪ a person who carves out a plan for the rest of her resist counter-evidence (although strong enough life that includes the principles of reason, purpose counter evidence can sometimes overturn them). and self-esteem. A theory that aligns with intuition is said to be more Moral objectivism credible, while one that does not align is said to be less - is the position that certain acts are objectively right credible. But in other cases, philosophers suggest or wrong, independent of human opinion. discarding intuition in favor of what theory prescribes. The trouble with these practices is knowing when to -. It holds that there are objective, universal moral trust intuition and when to trust theory. principles that are valid for all people. With moral intuitionism, for instance, we might have an - Louis Pojman proposes one such moral principle that intuition that all people are to be treated fairly, that it is he believes is binding upon all human beings: “It is wrong to intentionally harm an innocent person for no morally wrong to torture people just for the fun of it.” reason or that all people are to be treated with dignity. Another example is that everyone must keep their These are beliefs that moral intuitionists claim to be promises and honor contracts in order to live in a self-evident. society.