Organizational Behavior Leadership PDF

Organizational Behavior (8) Leadership 1  Definition of Leadership Kepemimpinan adalah hubungan pengaruh antara pemimpin dan pengikut yang menginginkan perubahan dan hasil nyata yang mencerminkan tujuan bersama mereka (Leadership is an influe...

Organizational Behavior (8) Leadership 1  Definition of Leadership Kepemimpinan adalah hubungan pengaruh antara pemimpin dan pengikut yang menginginkan perubahan dan hasil nyata yang mencerminkan tujuan bersama mereka (Leadership is an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes and outcomes that reflect their shared purposes). “… the ability to influence the group toward the achievement of goals.” 2  Leadership Influence Intention Personal Followers Leader responsibility and integrity Shared purpose Change 3  Leadership Challenges OLD Paradigm NEW Paradigm  Stability  Change / crisis  Control management  Competition  Empowerment  Uniformity  Collaboration  Self-centered  Diversity (pluralism)  Hero  Higher purpose (knowledge management)  Humble 4  Seven Failures of Leadership 1. Bertindak dengan gaya intimidasi yang tidak sensitif, kasar, mengintimidasi (“Acting with an insensitive, abrasive, intimidating, bullying style”) 2. Bersikap dingin, menyendiri, sombong (“Being cold, aloof, arrogant”) 3. Mengkhianati kepercayaan pribadi (“Betraying personal trust”) 4. Menjadi terlalu ambisius, egois, memikirkan pekerjaan berikutnya, bermain politik (“Being overly ambitious, self- centered, thinking of next job, playing politics”) 5. Memiliki masalah kinerja khusus dengan bisnis (“Having specific performance problems with the business”) 6. Mengelola secara berlebihan, tidak dapat mendelegasikan atau membangun tim (“Over-managing, being unable to delegate or build a team”) 7. Tidak dapat memilih bawahan yang baik (“Being unable to select good subordinates”) 5  Leadership from a systemic and sociological perspective Leaders Followers Context Relationships 6  The leadership process 7  About “Trait”?  Refers to a variety of individual  Researches on “Traits and attributes, including: Managerial effectiveness”:  Aspects of personality: self- confidence, emotional maturity,  Energy and Stress tolerance emotional stability, energy level, stress  Self-confidence tolerance  Temperament  Internal locus of control  Needs or motives: physiological or  Emotional maturity psychological?  Power motivation  Values (internalized attitude): morality, ethical (fairness, justice,  Achievement orientation honesty, freedom, equality,  Need for affiliation humanitarianism, loyalty, patriotism, self-fulfillment, excellence, pragmatism, courtesy, politeness and cooperation) 8  Personal Characteristics of Leaders Personal Characteristics Social Characteristics  Energy  Sociability, interpersonal skills  Physical stamina  Cooperativeness Intelligence and Ability  Ability to enlist cooperation  Tact, diplomacy  Intelligence, cognitive ability Work-Related Characteristics  Knowledge  Drive, desire to excel  Judgment, decisiveness  Responsibility in pursuit of Personality goals  Self-confidence  Persistence against obstacles,  Honesty and integrity tenacity Social background  Enthusiasm  Education  Desire to lead  Mobility  Independence 9  General Douglas MacArthur: “Leadership is the projection of Personality” Nature or Nurture??? 10  Theories of Leadership  Great Man Theories  Trait Theories  Behavior Theories  Contingency Theories  Influence Theories  Relational Theories 11  Approaches to studying leadership: The Trait Approach (1)  Orang-orang tertentu dilahirkan dengan karakteristik atau kepribadian yang tepat untuk menjadikan dirinya pemimpin yang efektif (Certain people are born with the right characteristics or personalities to make them effective leaders) Pemimpin yang cerdas secara emosional adalah (Emotionally intelligent leaders are):  Menyesuaikan emosi dirinya dengan orang lain (Tuned into their own and others’ emotions)  Mampu mengendalikan dan mengarahkan emosinya sendiri (Able to control and direct their own emotions)  Mampu berempati dengan orang lain (Able to empathise with others)  Mampu membangun dan memelihara hubungan yang konstruktif (Able to build and maintain constructive relationships) 12  Approaches to studying leadership: The Trait Approach (2) Contemporary approaches  Fokus pada kompetensi kepemimpinan dan kepemimpinan yang berpusat pada prinsip, dibandingkan dengan ciri-ciri kepribadian tertentu (Focus on leadership competencies and principle-centred leadership, compared to specific personality traits) Effective leaders possess the following competencies:  Kompetensi pribadi, sosial dan kognitif (Personal, social and cognitive competencies)  Kepemimpinan yang berpusat pada prinsip – misalnya kejujuran, integritas, dll (Principle-centred leadership – e.g. honesty, integrity etc.) 13  Approaches to studying leadership: The Behavioral Approach University of Michigan studies  Job-centred behaviour Focuses on task and job procedure  Employee-centred behaviour  Focuses more on relationships, motivation, employee satisfaction  Tuned into their own and others’ emotions Ohio State studies  Struktur awal (Initiating structure) Peran pemimpin dalam mendefinisikan perannya dan peran anggota kelompok (The role of the leader in defining his or her role and the roles of group members)  Consideration Pemimpin saling percaya dan menghormati ide-ide dan perasaan anggota kelompok (The leader’s mutual trust and respect for group members’ ideas and feelings). 14  The Behavioral approach: Schematic representation of behavioural approaches Initiating structure Ohio State Consideration Employee-orientation University of Michigan Production-orientation 15  The Behavioural Approach: Five types of power Legitimate power Referent power Pemimpin diharapkan untuk Pemimpin memiliki karakteristik memimpin dan membimbing yang dikagumi orang lain (Leader (Leader expected to lead and guide) has characteristics which other admire) Reward power Expert power Kemampuan pemimpin untuk Kekuasaan didasarkan pada memimpin dan menghukum pengetahuan dan keahlian (Power is (Ability of the leader to lead and based on knowledge and expertise) punish) Additional types Coercive power Kekuatan posisi dan kekuatan Kekuasaan dilakukan melalui pribadi (Position power and personal memunculkan ketakutan power). psikologis (Power exercised through psychological fear) 16  The Managerial Grid  Kisi Manajerial (Managerial Grid)  Menilai gaya kepemimpinan menggunakan dua dimensi (Appraises leadership styles using two dimensions):  Kepedulian terhadap orang-orang (Concern for people)  Kepedulian terhadap produksi (Concern for production)  Menempatkan gaya manajerial dalam lima kategori (Places managerial styles in five categories):  Meminimalisir manajemen (Impoverished management)  Manajemen tugas (Task management)  Manajemen lini---poros tengah (Middle-of-the-road management)  Manajemen country club (Country club management)  Manajemen tim (Team management) 17  Country club management Team management Perhatian yang cermat pekerjaan yang dicapai terhadap kebutuhan orang- berasal dari orang-orang yang orang untuk hubungan yang berkomitmen; saling memuaskan mengarah pada ketergantungan melalui suasana organisasi dan "kepentingan bersama" dalam tempo kerja yang nyaman tujuan organisasi mengarah dan cepat pada hubungan kepercayaan dan rasa hormat Middle – of the – road management The managerial grid kinerja organisasi yang Pengerahan upaya minimum memadai dimungkinkan untuk menyelesaikan pekerjaan melalui penyeimbangan yang diperlukan adalah tepat kebutuhan untuk keluar dari untuk mempertahankan pekerjaan dengan keanggotaan organisasi mempertahankan moral orang pada tingkat yang memuaskan Impoverished management Task management Pengerahan upaya minimum efisiensi dalam operasi untuk menyelesaikan dihasilkan dari pengaturan pekerjaan yang diperlukan kondisi kerja sedemikian rupa adalah tepat untuk sehingga elemen manusia mempertahankan keanggotaan dapat mengganggu hingga organisasi tingkat minimum 13. Leadership  The Managerial Grid Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from “Breakthrough in Organization Development” by Robert R. Blake, Jane S. Mouton, Louis B. Barnes, and Larry E. Greiner, November– December 1964, p. 136. Copyright © 1964 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. All rights reserved. Exhibit 17.3 19  Key dimensions of leadership behaviour 20  The Contingency Approach: Fiedler’s model Menurut Model Fiedler, efektivitas seorang pemimpin dihasilkan dari kecocokan yang tepat antara gaya pemimpin berinteraksi dengan pengikut dan sejauh mana situasi memungkinkan pemimpin untuk mengendalikan dan mempengaruhi. (According to Fiedler’s Model, a leader’s effectiveness results from a proper match between the leader’s style of interacting with followers and the degree to which the situation allows the leader to control and influence). Assumptions Gaya kepemimpinan tertentu seharusnya paling efektif dalam berbagai jenis situasi (A certain leadership style should be most effective in different types of situations). Pemimpin tidak mudah mengubah gaya kepemimpinan (Leaders do not readily change leadership styles) Mencocokkan pemimpin dengan situasi atau mengubah situasi untuk membuatnya menguntungkan bagi pemimpin (Matching the leader to the situation or changing the situation to make it favourable to the leader). 21  Gaya kepemimpinan berorientasi hubungan (Relationship-oriented leadership style)  Lebih permisif, pasif dan perhatian (More permissive, passive and considerate) Gaya kepemimpinan berorientasi tugas (Task-oriented leadership style)  Lebih mengendalikan, aktif dan penataan (More controlling, active and structuring) 3 Faktor situasional dalam mencocokkan pemimpin dengan situasi (3 Situational factors in matching leader to situation):  Hubungan pemimpin-anggota (Leader-member relations)  Tingkat kepercayaan, kepercayaan, dan rasa hormat yang dimiliki pengikut terhadap pemimpin mereka (Degree of confidence, trust and respect followers have on their leader)  Struktur tugas(Task structure)  Apakah tugasnya lurus ke depan atau rumit (Is the task straight forward or complicated)  Kekuatan posisi (Position power)  Otoritas yang dimiliki pemimpin atas kelompok (The authority the leader has over the group). 22  Findings of the Fiedler Model Exhibit 17.4 23  The Contingency approach: The Vroom-Jago Model Decision effectiveness  Leaders choose a  Decision quality and leadership style Subordinate commitment based on the amount Decision style of participation  Individual decision-making suitable for a specific situation  Group situations situation when Diagnostic variables making decisions  When a situational diagnosis is performed. 24  Leader Participation Model (Vroom and Yago)  Posits that leader behavior must be adjusted to reflect the task structure — whether it is routine, non-routine, or in between — based on a sequential set of rules (contingencies) for determining the form and amount of follower participation in decision making in a given situation. 25  Five Leader Decision Styles Area of Freedom for Group Area of Influence by Leader Decide Consult Consult Facilitate Delegate Individually Group 26  The Contingency Approach Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) Hersey and Blanchard  Argues that successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style which is contingent on the level of the followers’ readiness.  Acceptance: leadership effectiveness depends on whether followers accept or reject a leader.  Readiness: the extent to which followers have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task.  Leaders must relinquish control over and contact with followers as they become more competent. 27  Creates four specific leadership styles incorporating Fiedler’s two  Posits four stages follower leadership dimensions: readiness:  Telling: high task-low  R1: followers are unable relationship leadership and unwilling  Selling: high task-high  R2: followers are unable relationship leadership but willing  Participating: low task-  R3: followers are able but high relationship leadership unwilling  Delegating: low task-low  R4: followers are able and relationship leadership willing 28  Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model Source: Reprinted with permission from the Center for Leadership Studies. Situational Leadership® is a registered trademark of the Center for Leadership Studies. Escondido, California. All rights reserved. Exhibit 17.5 29  Contemporary leadership issues: Current questions asked about leadership  Are women better than men?  Are leaders necessary?  Is current leadership theory applicable in South African context?  Are few individuals destined to become leaders or can everybody become a leader? These days, leaders need to be visionary and have the capability to embrace change. 30  Follower empowerment 31  Path-Goal Model  States that the leader’s job is to assist his or her followers in attaining their goals and to provide direction or support to ensure their goals are compatible with organizational goals.  Leaders assume different leadership styles at different times depending on the situation:  Directive leader  Supportive leader  Participative leader  Achievement oriented leader 32  Path-Goal Theory Exhibit 17.8 33  Path-Goal Situations and Preferred Leader Behaviors Situation Leader Behavior Impact on Follower Outcome Followers Supportive Increases confidence lack self- to achieve work confidence Leadership outcomes Ambiguous Directive Leadership Clarifies path to job Increased effort; reward improved satisfaction and performance Achievement- Lack of Set and strive for Oriented job high goals challenge Leadership Incorrect Participative Clarifies reward followers’ needs Leadership to change rewards 34  Leadership vs management Managers plan, organise and control the resources in the Leadership is the ability to organisation through decision influence people in order to achieve making. goals. 35  Leadership: A strategic and visionary perspective Future-state visioning  Predicting the organisation’s future state  Guidelines for achieving future-state visioning  Develop a comprehensive list of stakeholders  Create a comprehensive future vision regarding the organisation  Consider the present state  Contrast future and present vision  Develop and express values to guide organisation  Ensure link between values and business plan  Develop business plan around core values and purpose. A vision is a realistic, credible, attractive future for the organisation (Van Maurik). 36  Management and Vision Management is the attainment of organizational goals in an effective and efficient manner through planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling organizational resources. Vision is a picture of an ambitious, desirable future for the organization or team 37  Visionary Leadership  A leader who creates and articulates a realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the future that improves upon the present situation.  Visionary leaders have the ability to:  Explain the vision to others.  Express the vision not just verbally but through behavior.  Extend or apply the vision to different leadership contexts. 38  Stages in the transformation process Establishing the Need for Change Building the Change Team Creating Vision and Values Communicating and Engaging Empowering Noticing Improvements and Energising 39 Consolidating  Characteristics of visionary leadership Transformational leadership Transactional leadership Successfully steer organisations Guide their followers in direction through periods of transitions of established goals by clarifying Use relationship building rather role and task requirements than authority to inspire Follow. followers Leaders display charisma, inspiration, intellectual stimulation and individualised consideration. 40  Transactional or Transformational?  Transformational Leadership  Leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the organization by clarifying role and task requirements.  Leaders who also are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on their followers.  Transactional Leadership  Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements. 41  Transactional Leadership  Classical management  Focus on the leader and the follower  Transaction  Work for pay  Work for psychological benefits (status, recognition or esteem)  Requires appropriate role behavior  Requires clear goals and appropriate instructions  Transactional leadership focuses on the task. 42  Transactional Leadership  Puts leaders and followers on opposite sides.  Ebb and flow of power and reward depending on follower performance.  High task performance=power and rewards to the follower.  Low task performance=Leader exercises legitimate and coercive power.  Promotes “game-playing” 43 Transformational leadership  Transforms the  People can be trusted environment and the  Everyone has a contribution people in it to make  Complex problems should  Focuses on building an be handled at the lowest appropriate context and level on enhancing the  Norms are flexible adapting relationships of people to changing environment within the system  Superiors are coaches, mentors, models 44  Transforming the leader’s behavior (1)  Identifying and articulating a vision-Behavior on the part of the leader aimed at identifying new opportunities for his or her unit/division/company, and developing, articulating, and inspiring others with his or her vision of the future.  Providing an appropriate model-Behavior on the part of the leader that sets an example for employees to follow that is consistent with the values the leader espouses.  Fostering the acceptance of group goals-Behavior on the part of the leader aimed at promoting cooperation among employees and getting them to work together toward a common goal. 45  Transforming the leader’s behavior (2)  High performance expectations-Behavior that demonstrates the leader's expectations for excellence, quality, and/or high performance on the part of followers.  Providing individualized support-Behavior on the part of the leader that indicates that he/she respects followers and is concerned about their personal feelings and needs.  Intellectual stimulation-Behavior on the part of the leader that challenges followers to re-examine some of their assumptions about their work and rethink how it can be performed. 46  Charismatic Leadership An enthusiastic, self-confident leader whose personality and actions influence people to behave in certain ways. Characteristics of charismatic leaders:  Have a vision.  Are able to articulate the vision.  Are willing to take risks to achieve the vision.  Are sensitive to the environment and follower needs.  Exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary. 47  Halpert’s dimensions Use of power by leaders Charisma combines  Socialized Charisma power with task  Power for social good  Personalized charisma orientation  Power for personal benefit  Referent Power  Office holder Charisma  Expert Power  Combines legitimate  Job or task power with task needs involvement  Personal charisma  Use referent power to lead 48  Charismatic Leadership Characteristics Charismatic leaders high in  Dominance  Self confidence  Need for influence  Belief in own values 49  Charismatic Leadership Behaviors  Goal Articulation  A transcendent goal inspires a movement - I have a dream  Personal Image Building  Behaviors that create impression of competence/success  Prove his competence to the followers  Leader role modeling of value system  Gandhi models self sacrificing behavior of non violence  Leader motive arousal behavior  Message inspires needs in the followers that are needed to complete the task. (message of love=needs for affiliation=required for bringing together Hindu/Moslems/Christians)  Leader communication of high performance expectations of, and confidence in, followers 50  Follower Behaviors  Characteristics and behaviors of the charismatic leader encourage behaviors in the followers  Trust, loyalty, unquestioning acceptance, obedience to the leader  Emulation of leader’s value system  Acceptance by followers of challenging goals  Enhanced self esteem and performance expectations by the followers 51