Cognitive, Perceptual, and Motor Bases of Early Language and Speech PDF

Cognitive, Perceptual, and Motor Bases of Early Language and Speech Dr. Mohd Azmarul A Aziz Lecturer & Speech-Language Therapist Universiti Sains Malaysia Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 1 ...

Cognitive, Perceptual, and Motor Bases of Early Language and Speech Dr. Mohd Azmarul A Aziz Lecturer & Speech-Language Therapist Universiti Sains Malaysia Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 1  Objectives 1. Understanding the relationship between perceptual, motor and cognitive development in the language acquisition process. Describe the early cognitive development in infant. Discuss the development of cognition in infant. Describe the schemes, adaptation, the role of organization and memory in the learning processes of an infant. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 2  Introduction Language development serves as the cornerstone for effective communication. Enables children to express thoughts, needs, and emotions. Proficient language skills contribute to success in academic pursuits. Facilitates reading, writing, and comprehension abilities. Language proficiency enhances social interaction and relationships. Enables children to engage with peers and adults effectively. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 3  Introduction Language development is intricately linked to cognitive growth. Enhances problem-solving, critical thinking, and reasoning skills. Brain areas crucial for language development include Broca's area and Wernicke's area. Synaptic connections and neural pathways strengthen with language exposure. Young brains exhibit high plasticity, allowing for adaptability in language learning. Neural connections are formed and refined based on language experiences. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 4 How Does the Brain Develop? Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 5  How Does the Brain Develop? “Everything we do, feel and say from infancy to the end of life reflect the functioning of our brain.” How is the brain organized? Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 6 The Human Brain Most complex three pounds in the universe. 100 billion neurons at birth. 250k to 500k neurons per minute during some stages in development. The human brain is larger than mammals but, smaller than whales, dolphins, and elephants. The human brain is similar to other species – neurotransmitters, ion channels and structures. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 7  Brain Growth Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 8  Brain Growth At birth, most neurons the brain will have are present approx. 100 billion neurons By age 2 years, brain is 80% of adult size What keeps growing? Other brain cells (glia) New neuron connections approx. 1000 trillion connections by age 3 years. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 9  Neuron Growth Timeline of Neuronal Development All neurons are developed by the end of the second trimester (month six of pregnancy). Organization in the form of networks is in its early stages. Neuronal Overproduction Initially, the brain overproduces neurons during the first six months of pregnancy. Subsequently, pruning occurs, eliminating excess neurons that have not formed networks. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 10  Neuron Growth Neuronal Multiplication and Migration Neurons multiply intensively during the first six months of pregnancy. Migration of neurons begins around four months, forming specialized areas of function. Postnatal Development Postnatal period involves myelination and synaptogenesis (cell communication). Physical brain organization is genetically controlled, but fetal development can be influenced by environmental factors. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 11  Early Brain Activation and Experience Genetic Determinants of Brain Functions Genes roughly determine the location of functions like hearing processing. Fine details are shaped by a baby's experiences. Sequence of Brain Activation Activation sequence is genetically programmed. Lower brain activates first, handling basic bodily functions (e.g., breathing). Cerebellum and basal ganglia (movement control) follow. Motor Cortex and Visual Cortex Activation Motor cortex becomes more active around 2 months, correlating with gaining control of voluntary motor behaviors. Visual cortex becomes more active at 3 months, enabling full-range focus. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 12  Early Brain Activation and Experience Activation of Limbic System and Cerebral Cortex Limbic System Activation The limbic system is involved in emotions, motivation, and memory. When activated, it processes emotional responses and memories tied to experiences or stimuli. Cerebral Cortex Activation The cerebral cortex  responsible for higher-order thinking, reasoning, and conscious decision-making. Activates after the limbic system, indicating that emotional and instinctive reactions (governed by the limbic system) often occur before rational thought (managed by the cerebral cortex). This pattern often explains why emotional responses can be immediate and instinctive, whereas logical analysis and reasoning take more time. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 13  Early Brain Activation and Experience Second Half of First Year Frontal cortex and hippocampus become more active in the second half of the first year. Development of gestures, tied to prefrontal cortex, begins around 8 months. Organizing Brain Framework through Experience Infant's experiences and interactions shape the brain's framework. Organization reflects experience; incoming information alters the baby's mind. Baby actively contributes to cognitive growth through observation, exploration, experimentation, and seeking information. Note: Understanding the sequential activation of different brain regions and the impact of experience provides insights into cognitive development in early infancy. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 14  Early Cognitive Development Sensation Cognition Cognitive Perception Development Motor Control Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 15  SENSATION The innate ability to register sensory information from the environment. All sensory modalities are operational from birth, contributing to the newborn's perceptual experiences. 1. Fetal sensation 2. Newborn sensation 3. Infant sensation Newborns exhibit a remarkable range of sensory abilities immediately after birth. These skills have been developing throughout the prenatal period, providing a foundation for interaction with the external world. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 16  Fetal Sensation Touch Development In Utero Development: Touch is the earliest sense to develop, with sensitivity emerging in various body regions by 8 weeks. Global Sensation: By week 14, sensation spreads to the entire body, forming the foundation for tactile experiences. Maternal Interaction Calming Effect: Pregnant women report that gentle stroking of their abdomens can calm the fetus. Early Sensitivity: Fetal responsiveness to maternal touch highlights the early development of tactile perception. Pain Receptor Formation Week 26: Pain receptors are formed by the 26th week of fetal development. Sensory Awareness: This development contributes to the fetus's capacity to perceive and respond to potentially noxious stimuli. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 17  Fetal Sensation Auditory Sensitivity Early Sound Perception: Fetus exhibits sensitivity to sounds and movement by 8 weeks. Middle and Inner Ear Development: The middle and inner ears reach their adult size at 20 weeks, preparing for auditory functioning. Taste and Smell Sensation Sweet and Noxious Tastes: Fetuses can sense sweet and noxious tastes in amniotic fluid. Olfactory Sensitivity: Sense of smell is likely activated in utero, as evidenced by a newborn's preference for the mother's scent and amniotic fluid. Visual Development Limited Information: While touch, hearing, taste, and smell development are observed, the timeline for visual development is less clear. Postnatal Visual Responses: After birth, newborns show preferences and responses indicating visual awareness. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 18  Newborn Sensation Babies experience a change in the quantity and quality of sensation rather than significant alterations in sensory abilities at birth. Love for Stimulation Babies show a fondness for new stimulation, indicating their inherent curiosity and attraction to ever-changing sensory experiences. Auditory Cortex and Middle Ear Immaturity At birth, the auditory cortex is immature, and the middle ear is filled with fluid. Lack of Cortex Maturation: Immature auditory cortex makes it challenging for newborns to integrate sounds effectively. Middle Ear Sensitivity: The middle ear is less sensitive to sound initially but becomes more responsive as fluid is absorbed within two weeks after birth. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 19  Newborn Sensation Neonates' Control over Attention Newborns struggle to control attention and concentrate mental activity. Limited Willful Direction: Neonates find it challenging to willfully direct attention or break free from captured attention due to sensory stimuli. Importance of Attention Control Significant because the ability to control attention influences the ease of remembering stimuli. Attention and Memory: Increased or decreased attention correlates with the ease of remembering a particular stimulus. Moderate Stimulation and Attention Attention is most easily captured by moderate stimulation. Optimal Stimulus Strength: A moderate level of stimulus strength leads to longer and more frequent maintenance of an infant's attention. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 20  Infant Sensation Infant Behavior-State Changes and Habituation Internal Changes and External Influence Infant behavior-state changes often reflect intrinsic brain activities. External stimuli can impact the duration of these states, influencing the infant's responsiveness. Receptivity to External Stimuli Infants are most receptive to external stimuli when alert but not overly active. The ability to attend is initially influenced by the infant's internal state, but this changes quickly. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 21  Infant Sensation Determinants of Attending Early Development of Attention Initially, an infant's ability to focus and attend to something is largely driven by their internal state (e.g., hunger, fatigue, comfort). Their attention is more reactive to internal needs rather than external stimuli. Shift to External Determinants Over time (within the first few months), the infant's external environment (e.g., sounds, visual stimuli, interactions) starts to play a more significant role in capturing their attention. Stabilization of Internal Conditions As infants grow, they gain the ability to self-regulate their internal states (e.g., soothing themselves, sleeping better, maintaining alertness)  allows them to focus more on external stimuli and engage with the world around them. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 22  Infant Sensation Selective Attending Skills By 2 months, infants exhibit selective attending skills. They can become unresponsive to certain background stimulus events. Habituation Process Infants react less strongly to a stimulus with each successive presentation, a process known as habituation. Habituation results from patterns formed as stimuli occur repeatedly. Purpose of Habituation Habituation enables infants to attend to new stimuli without competition from older, less novel stimuli. It involves sensory learning and perception, highlighting the developmental aspects of early attention processes. Expectation and Response Infants begin to expect the repeated stimulus to occur. If the expectation is fulfilled, the stimulus no longer elicits a significant response. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 23  PERCEPTION Perception involves using sensory information and prior knowledge to understand incoming stimuli. Discrimination of Differences The ability to discriminate differences in incoming information is a crucial aspect of perception. Perception as Awareness Perception is a process that allows individuals to gain awareness of their surroundings. Active Stimulus Seeking From birth, infants are active stimulus seekers. They actively work to attain specific types of stimulation. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 24  PERCEPTION Early Engagement with Surroundings Understanding perception in infants emphasizes their early engagement with the environment. The interplay between sensory information and active seeking contributes to the development of perceptual skills. 1. Auditory perception 2. Visual perception Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 25  Auditory Perception Focus on Auditory Perceptual Skills Emphasizes auditory perceptual skills concerning language and speech development in infants. Environmental Stimulation Growth and changes in an infant's perceptual skills require exposure to environmental stimulation. Repetition and Speech Exposure Infants need repeated exposure to speech for perceptual skills development. Hearing speech repeatedly is crucial for the language development. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 26  Visual Perception Early Face Perception Infants perceive human faces with some blurriness at birth. Quickly learn to direct attention to faces, showing early visual abilities. Facial Expression Discrimination Within days, infants can differentiate between various facial expressions. By 2 months, they show a preference for an "average" face, aligning with internalized face concepts. Facial Recognition Development Infants start recognizing facial differences by the age of 3 months. Personal facial recognition, including self-recognition, begins around 5-8 months. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 27  Visual Perception Emotional Responses Recognition of facial expressions doesn't necessarily imply understanding of emotions. Between 4-6 months, infants respond more positively to smiles. Importance of Familiar Faces Infants quickly recognize their mother's face within days of birth. While a stranger's face may receive longer scrutiny, emotional responses are stronger for the mother's face. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 28  MOTOR CONTROL Motor control involves muscle movement and sensory feedback to inform the brain about the extent of the movement. Onset of Movement Discernible movement starts at 7 weeks post-conception. Isolated limb movement becomes evident 2 weeks later. Specific Actions Hand-to-face contact and body rotation observed by 10 weeks. Maternal Perception Mothers often report feeling fetal movement around the 10-week mark. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 29  Neonatal Reflexes Initial Motor Behavior Neonates lack smooth and voluntary motor control. Behaviors include twitches, jerks, and random movements. Reflexes and Learning Primary oral reflexes (Table 4.1) enable reactions to the environment and aid in body control. Some reflexes, like gagging, protect vital systems. Reflex Development Many reflexes disappear or change by 6 months due to rapid brain growth and myelination. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 30  Neonatal Reflexes Oral Reflexes Phasic bite and rooting reflexes present at birth but vanish by 3 months. Rhythmic suck-swallow pattern, crucial for speech, develops at six months post- conception. Sucking Development Sucking initially involves up-and-down jaw action, evolving into lateral movement within weeks. Back-and-forth jaw movement emerges at around 1 month. Swallowing Progression Swallowing involves tongue protrusion and retraction, evolving over time. Independent swallowing without jaw movement appears around 3 years of age. Complexity of Swallowing Swallowing requires intricate actions, including uncoupling the nasal and oral cavities and laryngeal closure. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 31 Neonatal Reflexes Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 32  Motor Development: at 4-11 Months Motor Behavior and Cognitive Development Motor behavior mirrors cognitive growth and influences cognition. Repeated hand movements, like banging a toy, provide multisensory feedback. Infants keenly sensitive to synchrony between movement, sight, and sound. 4 Months: Exploring Mouth and Objects Infants spend up to four hours daily on nonnutritive sucking and exploring their face and mouth. Neuromuscular control advances from the back of the oral cavity. Tongue control improves, showcasing cupping and strong projection. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 33  Motor Development: at 4-11 Months 6 Months: Developing Lip Control Infants can pout, draw lips in without jaw movement. Ability to keep lips closed while chewing and swallowing semiliquids. 8-11 Months: Advanced Tongue Control Chewing shifts from vertical to rotary pattern, reflecting improved tongue control. Gradual inclusion of lateral tongue movement by 8 months. By 11 months, infants exhibit neuromuscular control to elevate tongue tip and bite soft solid foods. Note: Motor behavior plays a crucial role in cognitive development and vice versa. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 34  COGNITION Involves mental activities like comprehension, organization, memory, and knowledge utilization. Encompasses thought, learning, problem-solving, and related processes. Observing Cognitive Development: Brain-imaging tech and behavioral changes in infants reveal cognitive processes. Example: At 4-5 months, infants use the right hemisphere for facial recognition. Brain imaging documents early hemispheric specialization. By 6 months, infants can recognize faces from various angles, indicating cognitive information storage. Genetic Contributions to Brain Development: Little evidence for gene-determined hardwiring of brain circuitry. Human genome doesn't predetermine direct communication among neurons. Connections determined by experience, with genetics influencing brain structure and developmental timing. Genetic contributions set the stage for development, requiring environmental input. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 35  Brain Structure Neuronal Level Neurons have specific properties, including firing thresholds, transmission types, and post-firing changes. Despite a small number of neuron types, they are not randomly distributed in the brain. Local Architecture Describes differences in cortical layers, cell density, neuron types, and interconnectivity. Early cortical development shows minimal architectural differences, evolving with time and environmental stimuli. Global Architecture Refers to brain areas' connections, especially inputs and outputs to subsystems like sensory and motor areas. Cortex initially appears unorganized but becomes structured with time and external stimulation. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 36  Brain Structure Developmental Periods Functional areas emerge during neuron production in the first and second trimesters of pregnancy. Early cortical specification involves genetic mechanisms signaling axons to grow to the correct target region. Factors Affecting Development Genetic expression disruption by mutations or prenatal influences like drugs, alcohol, toxins, and inflammatory responses. Neural patterning, synapse formation, adjustment, pruning, and trimming continue through puberty. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 37  Brain Structure Experience and Synapse Formation Thousands of genes are responsible for synapse formation, plasticity, and stabilization. Experience is crucial for the regulation of synapse formation, influencing growth, dendritic development, and synaptic connections. Cortex Plasticity Human brains exhibit plasticity, capable of reorganizing in various ways. Cortex plasticity is evident in children recovering lost abilities after brain damage. Note: Cognitive development involves intricate structures at the neuronal, local, and global levels, influenced by genetic mechanisms, experience, and external factors. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 38  Timing in Brain Development Receptivity and Learning Timing involves the brain's receptivity to inputs and changes resulting from learning. Genetic and environmental factors contribute to the timing of developmental events. Brain Segmentation Within the first two months postconception, the human brain starts segmenting into specific regions. Cortex patterning into functional areas begins with the production of the first neurons. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 39  Timing in Brain Development Genetic Control The timing of neuron growth and migration is genetically controlled. Genetic factors collectively shape the early plan for brain architecture. Cortex Organization The cerebral cortex organizes to receive information from the environment. Integration across functional areas allows the brain to generate responses to environmental stimuli. Note: Timing in brain development involves a combination of genetic and environmental factors, shaping the architecture and functional organization of the cerebral cortex. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 40 Experience: Early Life Influence on Brain and Behavior Brain Foundation Early life events shape brain organization and behavioral development. Genetic influences and environmental conditions interact to establish the foundation of brain architecture. Genetics and Environment Interaction Genetics provides a blueprint, but environmental factors influence the timing and pattern of gene expression. Postnatal experiences drive maturation, and prenatal brain architecture sets the basis for processing incoming information. Sensitive Periods Each sensory and cognitive system has a unique sensitive period in early development. Identical environmental input can have varying effects on cognitive development depending on the child's age. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 41 Experience: Early Life Influence on Brain and Behavior Impact of Early Experiences Early experiences profoundly affect brain organization and development. Sensitive periods allow modification and enhancement of infant capabilities, emphasizing the importance of high-quality experiences. Environmental Changes Changes in experience have a greater impact on younger brains. Dramatic and pervasive environmental changes can alter neural connectivity and cognitive processing. Learning Foundation Early learning lays the foundation for later learning. Later development struggles to overcome the detrimental effects of early deprivation, emphasizing the importance of early intervention. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 42  LEARNING Learning in Utero Learning begins early, around 24 weeks postconception. Fetus habituates to repeated stimuli, showcasing recognition of similar sounds. Habituation and Preference Habituation involves becoming accustomed to repeated stimuli. Newborns display preferences for stimuli experienced in utero (e.g., mother's voice, music). Age-Related Memory Development Learning ability and retention increase with age. A 2-month-old retains motor skills for a few days, a 6-month-old for two weeks, and a 12-month-old for eight weeks. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 43  LEARNING Importance of Learning Context Learning context is crucial for retention, especially in very young infants. Recall may vary between environments, similar to adult learning. Role of Emotional Learning Neural pathways for emotion are established before birth. Environmental factors, including reciprocal emotional interactions, shape these pathways. Lack of reciprocal response from caregivers can lead to confusion and passivity in the child. Note: Understanding early learning processes, memory development, and the impact of emotional interactions provides insights into the foundational aspects of cognitive development in infants. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 44  The Role of Schemes Conceptual System and Schemes Developing organisms undergo changes in their conceptual system. Schemes are organized reaction patterns to stimuli, serving as cognitive structures. Schemes aid in processing sensory information through interpretation and categorization. Concepts and Mental Representation Concepts are mental representations underlying categorization for storage and retrieval. Linked to related information in complex mental maps, concepts facilitate organized thinking. Benefits of Concepts Concepts simplify information processing and storage. Cognitive resources are freed for higher-order functioning. They reduce the vast variety of sensations into manageable data. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 45  The Role of Schemes Early Cognitive Evaluation Infants engage in evaluating and comparing stimuli at an early age. Attention focuses on the contrast between stimuli and internal representations. Nature of Cognitive Development Cognitive development is qualitative, not just a quantitative accumulation of facts. Active involvement with the environment, mediated by mature language users, drives change. Motivation for cognitive learning is internal, as children seek a balance between new and existing schemes. Note: Understanding the qualitative nature of cognitive development and the role of concepts provides insights into how infants process and categorize information. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 46  The Role of Adaptation All organisms undergo adaptation to environmental changes. Adaptations are driven by two interconnected processes: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation: Process of fitting new information into existing cognitive structures. Accommodation: Adjustment or modification of existing structures to accommodate new information. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 47 The Role of Adaptation Complementary Processes Development is the outcome of adaptation and organization. Adaptation involves assimilation and accommodation, creating a dynamic interplay in cognitive growth. 1. Adaptation is the function or tendency of all organisms to change in response to the environment. 2. Organization is the tendency to systematize or organize processes into systems. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 48  The Role of Organization and Memory Organizing Perceived Information First step in long-term memory involves organizing and storing information. Vital due to continuous information exchange with the environment, preventing cognitive overload. Motor Responses and Generalization Infants generalize and classify objects based on limited motor responses. Organization helps infants systematize information and optimize processing efficiency. Memory Development in Infants Some long-term memory areas develop later in childhood. Early memory evidenced by infants recognizing familiar sounds, like their mother's voice. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 49  The Role of Organization and Memory Rehearsal and Long-Term Storage Repetition, or rehearsal, crucial for placing information in long-term storage. Integrative rehearsal, where new material integrates with existing information, aids transfer to long-term memory. Changes in Memory Strategies Memory performance changes with evolving long-term storage strategies. Maturation involves shifts in techniques to control information flow, increasing capacity. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 50  The Role of the Environment Organism-Environment Equilibrium Effectiveness in interacting with the environment relies on achieving equilibrium. Example: Polar bears in the Arctic exhibit better survival than black bears. Equilibrium in Cognitive Development In cognitive development, equilibrium is a state of balance between stimuli and cognitive schemes. Intelligence evolves with attempts to achieve cognitive equilibrium, following predictable patterns. Achieving Equilibrium Perceptual data compared to existing concepts or schemes. Fit: Stored in the category. No fit: Requires forming a new concept or altering existing ones, adjusting categories based on environmental input. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 51  The Role of the Environment Assimilation Use of existing schemes to incorporate external stimuli. Ongoing integration of new perceptual matter into existing patterns. Example: Irish setter assimilated into the dog category. Accommodation Transformation process responding to stimuli that don't fit existing schemes. Option to modify existing schemes or develop new ones. Example: An elephant necessitates a new category. Complementary Nature of Assimilation and Accommodation Both processes are interdependent and complementary. New or modified structures continually created and used to enhance comprehension of the environment. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 52 Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 53