Chinese Architecture 2020-2021 Lecture Notes PDF

1 College of Architecture University of Santo Tomas HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 3 1st Term AY 2017- 2018 Lecture Notes 4: ARCHITECTURE IN CHINA Names of China:...

1 College of Architecture University of Santo Tomas HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 3 1st Term AY 2017- 2018 Lecture Notes 4: ARCHITECTURE IN CHINA Names of China: 1. Cin  first recorded use of the word "China" , dated 1555, derived from a Persian name for China, popularized in Europe by Marco Polo. 2. Cīnā  term for porcelain or ceramic ware originally made in China.  derived from the Sanskrit word which refers to "yellow-colored" barbarian tribe from the north (identified with Qin (778 B.C.-207B.C.), the westernmost of the Chinese kingdoms, or may refer to an unknown group then inhabiting Tibet). 3. Sina (Sino), Sinae, Cathay, or Ceres The official name of China changed with each dynasty. 4. Zhōngguó - “Central Nation" or as the “Middle Kingdom".  used to refer to the late Zhou Dynasty, as they believed that they were the “Center of Civilization"  implied a claim of political legitimacy  often used by states who saw themselves as the sole legitimate successor to previous Chinese dynasties  came to official use as an abbreviation for the Republic of China (Zhonghua Minguo) after the government's establishment in 1912. A. INFLUENCES: I. Geographical and Topographical Influences:  China is the largest country in Asia.  Bordered by Mongolia, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam, North and South Korea  Three great river systems: 1. Yellow River (Huang He) - 2,109 mi (5,464 km) long; 2. Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) - the third-longest river in the world at 2,432 mi (6,300 km) 3. Pearl River (Zhu Jiang) - 848 mi (2,197 km) long.  North China - Dominated by the alluvial plain along the Yellow River (shown on the right). - Mostly flat and the soil is well-suited to agriculture.  South China - Region drained by the Yangtze (Yangzi) River - Predominantly hillier than north China  Tibetan Plateau in Southwest China - Occupies about ¼ of the land area of the PRC. - Mountains and massive highlands, averaging between 4,000 and 5,000 meters (13,000 to 15,000 feet) above the sea level.  Mount Everest (known in Chinese as Mount Zhumulangma) - Highest point along the Tibetan Plateau - Highest mountain in the world. - Located on the Sino-Nepalese border and rises 8,848 meters (29,028 feet) above sea level.  Outer China - Huge area to the north and west of China Proper. - Ranges from 1,000 to 5,000 meters above sea level. - Zone includes part of Northeast China (also known as Manchuria), Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, part of the Loess Plateau, and a stretch of mountains. II. Climatic Factors:  Climate Extreme cold to almost tropical C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  2  Cold strong winter winds from Mongolia - Mountain ranges in the north  Influence:  Buildings and sites are oriented on a north-south axis as major axis and east-west axis as the minor - since China is geographically situated north of the equator and the climate is cold in the winter for most part and warm in the summer.  Chinese roof with its accentuated curved eaves. III. Geological (Materials) Influences:  Timber – principal material - Bamboo - Pine - Persea nanmu – tallest and straightest of all trees in China  Bricks - Roofs were covered with clay tiles, colored and glazed with symbolic colors (black, red, azure, white and yellow)  Limestone and sandstone - Fit for use in thresholds, stairs, balusters, engineering works Wood-frame construction- most distinctive feature IV. Religious Influences:  Buddhism  Taoism (founded by Lao Tzŭ offered a doctrine of universal love as solution to social disorder – main religion  Confucianism – new code of social conduct and philosophy of life.. Produced concepts of the universe and beliefs about the future closely allied with superstition, astrology and necromancy which have controlled the planning of society and cities as well as design of buildings. a. Indian Context – mandala b. Chinese Context - i. Feng Shui – pseudo science – based on the belief that forces exist in every locality which act on all buildings, towns, and cities for good or ill and sites were chosen or adapted accordingly. ii. Yin-Yang - Represents the ancient Chinese understanding of how things work. - Opposing qualities in a phenomenon, bound together as parts of a mutual whole; dynamic equilibrium - Outer circle represents "everything", while the black and white shapes within the circle represent the interaction of two energies, called "yin" (black) and "yang" (white), which cause everything to happen. o Yin – North, Winter, feminine principle embodied in earth, phoenix and Empress o Yang – South, Summer, masculine principle imaged in the sky (heaven), dragon and Emperor  Muslim minority contributed little to architecture except for pagoda like mosques. V. Historical Influences (selected dynasties only will be discussed): 1. Dynasties of Ancient China  Neolithic China (12,000 - 4,000 B.C.) The Yangshao and Lungshan - Defined by a spread of settled agricultural communities, but hunting and gathering was still practiced. - Largest concentration of agriculture was below the southern bend of the Yellow River and millet was the main crop. - Silk production, had already been invented before this time period began and began in Northern China. - Pottery was also present during this time period.  Xia Dynasty - Period marked an evolutionary stage between the late neolithic cultures and the typical Chinese urban civilization of the Shang dynasty.  Shang Dynasty - Believed to have been founded by a rebel leader who overthrew the last Xia ruler. - Settlement started along the Yellow river and its civilization was based on agriculture, augmented by hunting and animal husbandry. - King was the head of the ancestor and spirit-worship cult. Evidence from the royal tombs indicates that royal personages were buried with articles of value, presumably for use in the afterlife. - Court rituals to propitiate spirits and honor to sacred ancestors were highly developed. C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  3  Zhou Dynasty (2000 - 256 BC) - Emerged in the Huang He valley overrunning the Shang. - Under a semi-feudal system. - The Hundred School of Thought - spiritual movements including Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism and Mohism being formed. - Doctrine of the "mandate of heaven" (tianming), the notion that the ruler “the son of heaven” or governed by divine right but that his dethronement would prove that he had lost the mandate. 2. Early Imperial China  Qin Dynasty (221 – 206 B.C.) - Emperor Qin Shi Huang - first Chinese empire - Standardized the language and writing; and its currency as a circular copper coin with a square hole in the middle. - Public works projects were also undertaken. o Great Wall was built in the north, to protect against invasions, later augmented by the Ming Dynasty. o Roads and irrigation canals were built throughout the country. o Huge palace was built for Shi Huangdi o Famous for the terra cotta army that was found at the burial site for Shi Huangdi.  Han Dynasty (207 – 220 B.C.) - Liu Bang, a commoner overthrew the Qin emperor. - Period of prosperity, with the country embracing Confucianism. - The expansion of the empire led to the establishment of extensive trading links along the Silk Road. - Silk weaving and copper work were also important activities. - Irrigation systems were increased to help develop the areas of North China. - Education became more important during this period, as a new class of gentry was introduced. - Introduced an examination system for potential government officials.  Three Kingdoms (220 – 265/280 A.D.) - End of the Han Dynasty was followed by a long period of disunity and civil war. - Kingdoms that grew out of the three chief economic areas. 1. Buddhism Wei, in northern China, 2. Shu to the west, 3. Wu in the east - Buddhism began to spread throughout China although it was introduced in the 1st c. A.D. but did not really begin to spread until after the Han empire collapsed.  Sui Dynasty (580-618 A.D.) - Reunification of China after the Northern and Southern Dynasties. - The Grand Canal (longest canal in the world to date) was extended north from Hangzhou across the Yangzi to Yangzhou and then northwest to the region of Louyang. - Internal administration also improved during this time, which is evident by several things: o Building of granaries around the capitals, o Fortification of the Great Wall along the northern borders, o Reconstruction of the two capitals near the Yellow River, o Building of another capital in Yangchow.  Tang Dynasty (618-907 A.D) - Return to prosperity, but ended in Huang Chao (a warlord) capturing Guangzhou in 879 A.D. killing 200,000 inhabitants. - Distinction of having had the only female empress. A concubine of the T’ai-tsung and Kao-tsung, named Wu Chao reigned as emperor.  Five Dynasties (907-960 A.D.) - Are the officially recognized dynasties of the north, while the south had 10 kingdoms. The north was continually ravaged by warfare during this time as they were attacked by the Khitans and the Turks. - Important development was in the field of printing - The practice of binding women's feet also began during this time.  Northern and Southern Song Dynasties (960 – 1279 A.D) - Great advances were made in the areas of technological invention, material production, political philosophy, government, and elite culture.  used gunpowder as a weapon in warfare,  foreign trade expanded greatly, and the Chinese had the best ships in the world. - Education and the examination system became central to the upper class. C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  4 - Neo-Confucianism was developed during this time, especially during the Southern Song dynasty. 3. Latter Imperial China  Yuan Dynasty (1206 – 1368 A.D.) - First of only two times that the entire area of China was ruled by foreigners - the Mongols. - Established by Kublai Khan, he had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty  Ming Dynasty - One of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history, was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic Hans - The Yongle Emperor’s reign was the most flourishing time. - Revival and expansion of the Chinese culture.  Restoration of the Grand Canal  Repair and completed the Great Wall of China.  Establishment of the Forbidden City in Beijing during the first quarter of the 15th c.  Qing Dynasty (1644 – 1911) - 2nd time when the whole of China was ruled by foreigners, the Manchu. - Instituted changes in the dress of the Chinese  Ordered all Chinese men to have their pigtail hairstyle with the front of their heads shaved. - Forbid writing against the government. - Ordered the most complete dictionary of Chinese characters. - Two Opium (Anglo-Chinese) wars and lasted from 1839 to 1842 and 1856 to 1860, the climax of a trade dispute between the British Empire.  British smuggling of opium from British India into China in defiance of China's drug laws erupted into open warfare. - Boxer Rebellion was a violent anti-foreign, anti-Christian movement by the "Righteous Fists of Harmony,” ] or Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists in China VI. Social, Economical Influences:  Ancient Chinese fished, farmed, and irrigated the land.  Traded goods with other culture. Used metal coins in community bartering.  Silk was traded for other goods or services as they traveled the "Silk Route."  Emperors - (Chinese rulers) based their government on the Confucian model.  Contributions: - Ancient Chinese used characters and symbols as their written language. - Invented many things which we still use today - kites, silk cloth, fireworks, compass, and bronze. - The Great Wall of China built by Shi Huangdi. He united China and built a strong, centralized, authoritarian government.  In the past China was an agricultural society, but it has had large cities from early times. B. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER I. Fine arts – calligraphy, painting and poetry II. Sculpture, architecture and crafts - artisan work III. Ancient Chinese architecture (timber frame structure) is composed of:  SLOPING ROOF – with standing pillars formed a relatively fixed structure, while the walls only form the role of fencing.  HOUSE BODY- provides the living space  TERRACE – solid, or hollow formed by timber frame Neolithic Age: Two Types of Houses: 1. Square shape - dug into the ground 50-80 cm. deep on square form with a slant slope leading to the cave from the ground 2. Round shape – most built on ground with small wooden pillars on all sides closely lined as walls with slanted roofs to help drain the rain and snow. C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  5 Traditional Architectural Culture of China Bays are combined into a house and houses are combined into a COURTYARD STYLE group of houses. The Chinese Home: The Traditional Plan of Chinese Homes North-South Orientation: Solar-orientation provides a sunny, southern exposure to the major living spaces. Halls for the older generations and for important ceremonies were arranged along the main axis, which usually was the north- south axis, to have the best ventilation and sunshine. Axial planning: Provides an organized method for giving Chinese houses a sense of order and balance. The young generation occupied the side halls facing east and west. C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  6 Composed of: 1. Front, middle and rear yards 2. Master of the family, parents occupy the center, middle yard - stay on the axis 3. 2nd and 3rd generation stay in the wing houses on both sides 4. Servants stay in the rear yard Inward planning concept (EXTERIOR-INTERIOR) Houses are planned around a courtyard with the maximum linkage between the indoor and outdoor space. Represents the unity of man and nature, while focusing on the importance of the family. Courtyard: Allows sunlight into the inner spaces of the house Provides an outdoor activity space for the celebration of festivals. Sometimes it is a garden. Walled Enclosure: Secures privacy Serves as a defense Defines a physical space inside which people belong to one another, a place for the unity of family.  Temples, tombs, palaces take the same pattern as the residences (quadrangle)  Square and symmetry with a prominent axis – formula of feudal ritual system for Chinese ancient architectural groups IV. Indigenous style  Chinese built mainly in timber  Three main elements of a Chinese structure: - PODIUM - buildings were raised on a stone or brick platform as protection against damp and flooding from the river. - COLUMN - ROOFING- expressive, curving and sweeping. Emphasis on horizontality.  Combination of wood and bricks (red or grey) - Bricks have glazed colored surface and walls are also faced with glazed tiles or majolica.  Stone were reserved for special structures and walls of important edifices.  Timber Frame and Flexible Structure to counter earthquakes: - Framework of the roof determines the position of the columns, often of nanmu wood. C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  7 - Rigidity of the framework and roof beams was relied on to keep the columns in position on the stone foundation. - Roof beams were tenoned direct at various heights into the shaft without the intervention of a second member or capital. - Development of a distinctive wooden framing system to support the heavy tile roof – distribute gravitational forces downward and then out through the wooden frame. - Weight-bearing frame provides flexibility for the placement of walls, windows, and doors. Tailing Chuandou Diagrams of framing systems from a Song dynasty building manual Li Jie, (1035-1110), Yingzao fashi zhushi. ed. Liang Sicheng (Beijing: Zhongguo jianzhu gongye chubanshe, 1983) - Two main kinds of framing systems developed: 1. Pillars-and-beams (tailiang), 2. Pillars-and-transverse-tie-beams (chuandou)  Use of corbel brackets “Dougong” - a system of brackets inserted between the top of a column and a crossbeam. Unique structural component and one of the most important elements in traditional Chinese architecture.  C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  8 - Consist of interlocking wood formed of a double bow-shaped arm (gong), which supports a block of wood (dou) on each side, which bear the load of the roof. - Pieces are fit together by joinery without the use of glue or nail, and the process can be repeated many times - Bracket systems help to solve problems that arise as buildings get bigger: 1. how to reduce beam spans 2. how to brace wall sections above columns 3. how to support a wide eave 4. how to strengthen the frame - Non-load-bearing walls can be made of many different materials, such as brick, earth, wood, bamboo, or even corn or cotton stalks. TIMBER FRAME STRUCTURE Advantages: Disadvantages: Much easier to cope with than Can be easily destroyed by fire. stone – from collecting, transporting Vulnerable to humidity and pest. Must to processing which save bother be raised and columns must be on a time and labor. stone base Resist earthquakes because of the use of tenons and mortises Timber frame structure carries all the weight of the roof as wee as the beam, walls perform as enclosures and partitions. V. BIG ROOF – special feature  Project out especially far from the walls on four sides since they protect walls from erosion of rain water. - Walls – built with clay, bricks with wooden windows and doors are all subject to wearing or deterioration due to water  Curved roof with raised eaves would enable more light to enter the house and better view outside from inside - Makes it more appealing - graceful and lightness in weight  Transformation also manifests in the decoration of the parts of the roof: 1. Tiles – one line after another, run from the upper to the lower reaches and eave edges are added with flowery decorations. 2. Ridges – flowery patterns formed by bricks and tiles or images of various kinds of animals and plants 3. Intersections – images of dragon, phoenix or pagoda, etc.  Different types of roof - become symbol of hierarchy - Graded according to the size and differences in images - high to low; big to small, important to less important Traditional Architectural Culture of China  Roofs one over the other - Sign of dignity - Grandeur could be signified by the number of tiers - in terms of floors or roofs. - Protect interior from extreme heat and cold  Emphasis on the horizontal axis - Construction of a heavy platform and large roof that floats over the base, with the vertical walls. Contrast to Western architecture which emphasizes height and depth in buildings - Stressed the visual impact of the width and symmetry of buildings C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  9 - Halls and palaces in the Forbidden City - have rather low ceilings when compared to stately buildings in the West, but their external appearances suggest the all-embracing nature of imperial China. - Does not apply to pagodas  Use of color was restricted according to strict social status classification. - yellow - symbol of the emperor - green – 2nd to yellow - blue – temples because of the symbol of heaven  Decorative roof and ceiling. Decorations also convey through symbolization and analogy, certain cultural connotations. 1. Dragons (Long) – reborn from its own ashes symbolizes continuity and divinity. 2. Phoenix (Feng) – affluence or good fortune - They are used to represent emperors and their consorts and were the main decorative patterns to be seen on various imperial structures. Palaces, columns, pathways and screen walls were all inscribed or carved or painted with their images. 3. Tiger – divine power and strength  Roof ridges with elaborate ornaments - Roof decorations include a dragon with a bell underneath, a man on a chicken (tyrant emperor), various guardian beasts and a carp, which is believed to bring success. The more important a building, the more guardians it includes to protect from evil spirits, fire, etc. - VI. Palaces, temples and even Hutongs (alleys of simple common people dwellings) were usually surrounded by a gated wall. VII. Basis for Chinese Ancient Architecture 1. Quadrangle - basic form of combination in Chinese architectural group 2. Rites - ancient Chinese political ideas - Criteria which determines the human relations, distinguishes right from wrong, and the regulation from which to formulate virtue and benevolence. - Set of hierarchy and hierarchical system which not only regulates the social ideology and virtue but also people’s life and behaviour?  SYSTEM AND REGULATION CONCERNING ARCHITECTURE (as recorded in the Book of Rites) Proportion of the house and utensils used the higher and bigger the loftier Applicable in the height of the tomb and thickness of coffin timbers Regulates ancestor worship. The most senior the ancestors should be placed in the middle in arranging the tablets of ancestors and tomb location. The rest are placed on the left and right according to seniority.  CLASSIFICATION OF CITIES: 1. IMPERIAL CITIES – highest and biggest 2. Capitals of fiefdoms belonging to the vassal lords 3. Cities of imperial relatives in the locality IMPERIAL CITY– takes a square form, each side is nine in length and encircled by city walls on all sides, three gates, nine vertical and nine streets crisscross the inside city. Planning and layout: 1. Size of the capital should reflect its significance in the hierarchy of authority. 2. City should face towards the brightness of the south. 3. Should be laid out in squares and rectangles aligned with the four directions of the earth. 4. Internal organization should reflect the orderliness of the universe. 5. Each social function should have its appropriate place. a. Imperial palace, temples and mansions of the princes should be positioned in more important locations. The imperial palace should be placed at the heart of the settlements b. Lesser activities such as markets and mercantile shops – should be situated at secondary sites. C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  10 6. The ancestral temple should be to the right of the central axis, with the altar of heaven 7. A great wall symbolizing the power of the emperor should enclose the whole metropolis C. STRUCTURES AND EXAMPLES I. Palaces  Early times- meant as an ordinary house.  Qin Dynasty (221- 207 B. C.) - group of buildings in which the emperor lived and worked.  Chinese palaces grew ever larger in scale.  Dian - Large single building in traditional Chinese architecture and generally referred to as dadian (grand hall). - Also called zhengdian (central hall) as it is invariably built on the axis of an architectural complex. - Grandest of all building, being symbolic of the supreme power of the emperor. Examples: 1. Efanggong of the First Emperor of Qin measured (2 1/2 km) from east to west and 1,000 paces from north to south". 2. Weiyanggong of the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC.-24 AD. ) had, within a periphery of 11 km, as many as 43 halls and terraces 3. The Forbidden City of Beijing, - Served as the imperial palace for both Ming and Qing emperors (1368-1911) - 720,000 square meters - Many halls, towers, pavilions and studies measured as 9,900 bays - One of the greatest palaces of the world - Grew into a city and often called gongcheng (palace city) Apart from the palace, other abodes of the emperor are also called gong. 1. Yiheynan Park used to be the Summer Palace; 2. Mountain Resort at Chengde and the Huaqingchi thermal spa near Xi'an were both Zinggong or "palace on tour." 3. Zhaigong - another type of gong, where the emperor prepared himself for abstinence before he offers sacrifice at grand ceremonies. I. FORBIDDEN CITY Enmeshed in ritualistic and religious concepts. It was conceived in a dream by Yunglo's tutor, a visionary monk - imagined an extraterrestrial city, where the Lord of Heaven resided in a purple enclosure (believed to be a constellation formed by 15 heavenly bodies turning round the polestar). Consists of 980 surviving buildings with 8,707 bays of rooms and covers 720,000 square metres (7,800,000 square feet). Used by the two feudal dynasties of the Ming and Qing for 491 years. Embodied with material and aesthetic function as well as spiritual needs in the overall planning and the layout of the architectural groups - Chinese houses made of timber frame structures. C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  11 Emperor Yunglo established himself as the Son of Heaven, with the mandate to maintain harmony between the human and natural world, balancing the vastness of nature with a uniform modular system of rectangular courtyards and buildings. The residence of the emperor was a purple city at the center of the temporal world. o PURPLE - a symbol of joy and happiness and refers to the North Star (the abode of the Celestial Emperor). o Built from 1407 – 20 who moved the capital from Nanjing and changed its name from Beiping Fu “Northern Peace” to Beijing “Northern Capital”. o Built in part of the foundation of Khanbalik, the former winter “Ming” capital of Kublai Khan (1267). o Principal buildings should be aligned along a straight axis from south to north, flanked by a symmetrical arrangement of minor structures on parallel axes. Biggest quadrangular architectural group in ancient China, Beijing. North was regarded as a harmful direction. o Because all invasions of China had originated from the north, it came to represent evil spirits, cold winds and the wicked warriors from the Steppes. o Nearly all the buildings face south, the direction of holiness, giving protection from icy winds and also permitting subtle decoration based on catching infinite variations of sunlight. C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  12  Main Parts of the Forbidden City: - Three big halls where the emperor holds grand celebration on major events, meets with officials, civilians and military on festival days: 1. Supreme Harmony – most important hall 2. Middle Harmony 3. Preserving Harmony - Spacious front court - to show also the grand atmosphere of the palace architectural groups. - Rear part is arranged with buildings for the emperor’s daily life. 1. Palace of Heavenly Purity 2. Palace of Union and Peace 3. Palace of Earthly Tranquillity - East side are residences of imperial concubines and the sons - West side are residence of the Empress Dowager and past emperor’s concubines - Buildings for religious and sacrificial purposes - Gardens and services - Corner Towers (Watch Tower) – for observation and protection - Main Gates: 1. Meridian Gate (called the Noon gate) o Main and most important gate o Place where the emperor issues edicts, orders the army to start an expedition and to be presented with prisoners of war. o Built on a high wall terrace with big hall of nine bays wide sitting in middle, hop roof with double eaves with halls, 13 bays wide o Follow hierarchy of ritual system: 1. Middle gate - reserved for the emperor 2. East gate - civilians and military officials 3. West gate – princes, dukes and imperial relatives C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  13 2. Gate of Supreme Harmony o Gate of the front court, entrance of a group of buildings o Sits on a white stone terrace, 9 bays wide with a gable and hip roof o Long but narrow square which runs a river called Golden Water Stream with 5 stone bridges o 9-bay gate is capped by a double-eaved, hip-and-gable roof and approached by a triple staircase. Only the emperor could use the central ramp of the staircase, decorated with a marble dragon relief, over which he was carried in a sedan chair. - Other Architectural items: 1. Water Vats o 308 large vats, that held water for fire-fighting, were scattered around the palace compound. 18 of them, presumably associated with the major buildings, were made of gilded bronze. 2. Screen Wall near the Palace of Mental Cultivation o Screen walls are situated behind the front gates of elite residences. o They hide the interior of the compound from people passing in front of the gates, and are also related to the idea that bad spirit influences must travel in a straight line; any bad influences that managed to pass through the gate would, presumably, be deflected by the screen wall. o Medallion portrays a pair of mandarin ducks in a lotus pond (symbolic of harmony in marriage), harmony between emperor and empress). 3. Wenshou are zoomorphic (animal-form) roof ornaments that occupy the roof corners of nearly every building in the Forbidden City. o The lead figure is an immortal riding a phoenix, or an official riding a chicken. (The back figure is a horned dragon, a qilin. In between are a (usually) odd number of figures. o Number of wenshou indicates the importance of the building; the more figures, the more important the building. o The roof animals are apotropaic, protecting against evils such as fire, windstorms, and hail. o The number of animals is properly counted between the lead and end figures. 4. Rain Spouts, Platform of the Outer Court o The makara, a water creature - function of channelling rainwater. 5. Dragon And Cloud Relief, Hall Of Preserving Harmony o Reliefs are set into the stairways. The emperor would be carried in his sedan chair, as the porters mounted the stairs on either side of the relief. o The design shows dragons chasing the flaming pearl among mountains and clouds. 6. Tortoise, Triple Crane, Dragon, Foo Lion, etc.  Architectural Character: 1. Invariably quadrangles connected by lanes in vertical and horizontal directions 2. Ideal environment (geomantic influences) - Heaven, earth, mountain and water - Placement of a mountain at the back and a river in front. - If there is no natural environment then a man-made one should be created. a. Golden Water River - A spring-fed canal, named the Golden Water (or Jade Belt) River, crosses the courtyard between the Meridian Gate and the Gate of Supreme Harmony. The canal is spanned by five marble bridges (not seen in this photo). b. Jingshan Park - Earth dug from the moat was piled up into a hill (nearly 50 m.) behind the Forbidden City 3. Repetition - basic elements would be used over and again in different combinations and structures of greater significance distinguished by architectural compositions. 4. Important buildings were raised up on paved terraces – the number of terraces increasing with the building’s importance – faced with gray brick and intermittently bordered by white marble balustrades 5. Surrounded on all sides by high city walls with gates on each wall. 6. Major palaces and gates are on the same axis including the three halls in the front and rear 7. Use of color was restricted according to strict social status classification. - Gold - noblest color - green – 2ND to yellow 8. Often applied on palace painting, called Hexicaihua (a kind of Chinese color painting). 9. Dragon or phoenix was painted on green background with mass gold powder or gold foil. C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  14 II. TOMBS Emperors of all dynasties lay emphasis on the construction of mausoleums. Usually built against hills or mountains and facing plains. Shendao (the Sacred Way) - broad ways at the entrance. Along both sides are stone sculptures of men and animals which guard the tombs. Examples: 1. Qin Tombs - In 221 years B.C. Emperor Qin Shi Huang unified the whole of China, becoming the first emperor of China. - He built palaces in Xianyang and began to built his mausoleum until his death. - Famous for the Terracotta Army, a form of funerary art buried with the emperor. Their purpose was to help rule another empire with Shi Huang Di in the afterlife. - Mount Lishan is also where the material to make the terracotta warriors originated. In addition to the warriors, an entire man-made necropolis for the emperor has been excavated. 2. Han Tombs - Inherited the system of the Qin. - Tomb chambers are buried deep into the underground while on ground; a high mound is piled up with halls built for worshipping purposes. Traditional Architectural Culture of China - Built with brick and stone in the shape of rectangular, using long stone slabs or hollow bricks for the floor, ceiling and the walls. - Walls and ceilings are carved with all kinds of designs – human figures, images of animals, scenes, etc. Examples: a. Mawangdui Han Tombs o From 1972 to 1974, three tombs of the early Western Han dynasty were excavated at Mawangdui in Changsha. o The tombs were identified as those of Li Cang, who was the chancellor to the prince of Changsha State and the Marquis of Dai, Li Cang’ wife and his son. o Over 3000 cultural relics unearthed from the tombs. b. General Huo Qubing Tomb o Famous general during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty. o He led the arm against the Huns for six times, and died in the battle at the age 23. o The emperor built a tomb near his mausoleum. 3. Song and Tang Tombs - Tang dynasty is a powerful one in the middle period. - Built its capital Chang’an according to strict plan including magnificent palaces and gigantic mausoleums. - Also inherited the tomb system of the Han o Sacred way in front , with stone sculptures of men and animals lined on both sides o Above-ground halls Example: a. Xian Qianling Tomb o Co-tomb of Emperor Tang Gaozong (Li Zhi, 628 A.D.-683 A.D.) and Empress Wu Zetian (624 A.D.-705 A.D.), the only Empress in Chinese history. o Located on Liangshan Hill, 6km north of Qianxian County, and about 85km from Xi'an. Qianling o First built in 684 A.D.and its construction took 23 years. o Sacred way is flanked by animal and human statues leading all the way to the tombs from the southern approach. o There are also ten pairs of guardian generals wearing long-sleeved robes and holding the hilts of long swords. b. Baisha Tomb, Yuzhou, Henan Province (Song Dynasty) o Underground chamber divided in two rooms: C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  15 Front is in square shape and the rear one, in hexagonal shape Built of bricks but imitating the timber-frame structure Other Structures found in the Ming Tombs: 1. Five-gated Stone Pailou 2. Stele Pavillion 3. Huabiao - Marble commemorative pillars at the 4 corners of the stele pavilion, where they symbolize the four quarters of the world 4. Spirit Road 5. Shisanling Stele - BIXI, a mythological tortoise, carries the great weight of the8.0 m-tall (26') stele. Its 3,500-character text eulogizes Emperor Yongle, whose tomb lies at the end of the spirit road. - mythological tortoise cosmologically supports the earth. 6. Longfeng "Dragon and Phoenix" Gate- Triple gate stands at the north end of the spirit road, which then extends onward to the burial precincts 7. Spirit Tower, Changling 4. Ming Tombs - Final resting place of 13 of the 16 emperors, located 42 km northwest of Beijing, in a mountain valley just below the Great Wall. - Tombs are approached from the south by a five-arched gate, beyond which a long "spirit road," lined with men and animals, leads to the burials. - Tombs are nestled in a valley, according to feng shui principles, and surrounded by groves of cypresses. - Each emperor was buried underneath a tumulus (large earthen mound). - Tomb was preceded by a sacrificial hall and "spirit tower" and surrounded by subsidiary tombs for wives, concubines, and princes. - Included are houses and working quarters, like a town for - priests, caretakers, and supporting personnel (who maintain the tomb and perform the prescribed Confucian rites and sacrifices on behalf of the deceased emperor). III. TEMPLES  Sacrificial offering - kind of worshipping activities in the form of showing and offering material objects.  Emphasis on the "reappearance" of tranquility and peace, nirvana.  Only the emperor can worship Heaven and Earth including the mountains, rivers and four directions. - Because they are the parents of the emperor and to worship them is to show filial piety. - During state mourning, all worshipping for the ancestor gods must stop except for worship of Heaven and Earth.  Grottoes/Cave temples and or Timber frame Structure Temples:  Resemble Indian temples, consisting of open courts, porticos with kitchen, refectories and sleeping cells of priests. C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  16  Housed a big bell or drum used to announce time. Local officials would open the city gates at the toll of the bell early in the morning and close them with the strike of the drum in the evening.  Normal type consist: 1. Three lofty one-storey pavilions with parallel open timber roof 2. Approached by broad steps, gateways and bridges A. Grottoes and Cave Temples  Buddhism was introduced to China through the ancient Silk Road which was the road of commercial trade and a road of cultural exchange.  Rock Cut temples were brought to China from Central Asia  Begun in the north during the Northern Dynasties.  Cave dug into a cliff, which is a form of India’s early Buddhist architecture  Two forms of grottos: a. Small cave in square shape, gate in front within the cave are niches arranged in parallel on three sides, which are for the monk to sit in and meditate. b. Bigger with pagoda built in the center of the rear part, the place in front of the pagoda is for the disciples to get together to pay respects to the Buddha.  Statues were made bigger, more divinely impressive and attractive to the believers. Examples: 1. Dunhuang, Mogao Caves begun in 366 2. Yungang Caves in 460 3. Longmen (Dragon's Gate), early 6th c. o Cave-chapels occupy the west bank of the Yi river, just south of the ancient Northern Wei capital of Luoyang. o Construction begun in the early 6th c. - sculptures dates back from the Tang period. o Empress Wu, the controversial Tang ruler commissioned about 380 images between 655 and 705. o Over 100,000 images -found in approximately 1,300 caves 4. Bingling and Maijishan in the early 5th c. 5. Tianlongshan Grottoes, Shanxi o Colossal 30.0 m high Maitreya dominates the upper reaches of the cave 9 6. GIANT BUDDHA, Lingyun Temple, Leshan of Sichuan Province o Carved out of the natural rock of Lingyun Mountain, facing the Minjiang river. o 1,203-year-old buddha statue is 71 meters high and is the biggest buddha statue in the world. B. Buddhist Temples  Main form of Buddhist architecture  Objects worshipped by believers are only relics, remains of Buddha, as well as souvenirs representing the experience of Buddha during his lifetime.  Buddhist temples are divided into several kinds in line with layout, the main type of which is temples with a pagoda at its center. In this type, the open space in the courtyard provides room for monks to walk around.  Towering pagoda is the main part in the design. If there are watchtowers in the four corners of the courtyard, they echo and set off the big pagoda, constituting rich scenery.  Layout of temples built in the cities is similar to that of the complex of other large buildings.  A number of temples built in beautiful forests, arranged flexibly in an undulating land in close combination with the natural scenery of the local environment, and filled with a simple and warm atmosphere and displaying high creativity.  All the places for worshipping activities are located in the suburbs, far away from the noises of the city and seem closer to the universe.  Traditional quadrangle group of architecture became the basic form. - Follows the imperial style, but with green roof tiles - Strictly symmetrical - Usually main buildings will be set on the central axis, facing the south. - Annex structures will be on the west and east flanks. - Dorm, kitchen, dining hall, storehouse and antechamber usually cluster on the right side - Left side remains for the visitors  Temple Periods: 1. Eastern Han Dynasty o Buddhism was introduced to China during this period. The early Chinese Buddhist temples followed Indian style, which set the stupa as its center. They once had a traditional Chinese name - Ci (ancestral temple) and the number was very limited. C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  17 o Example - White Horse Temple in Luoyang is a typical example of this period. 2. Northern and Southern Dynasties (386 - 589) to Five Dynasties (907 - 960) o Buddhism was at its height of splendor and power. o In the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907), the main Buddhist sects were formed and developed. Many Buddhist temples were built with larger dimensions. Walls of the courtyard were decorated with exquisite embossment. A niche was placed in the middle of the north wall. A Buddhist pylon stood in the centre of the temple. o Example - The Big Wild Goose Pagoda in Xian 3. Song Dynasty (960 - 1279) - late Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911) o The social position of Buddhism overall was weakened in the Song Dynasty but Zen, a major sect of Chinese Buddhism, began to flourish in this period. The layout of temples changed little by little. o Example - Xiangguo Temple in Kaifeng City C. Taoist Temples  Architecture is a little less grand  Main deity is usually represented in the main hall which is at the front, in contrast to Buddhist layout where the main hall will be to the rear  Entrance is usually at or to the side which is believed to confuse entry by demons (a Feng Shui guideline)  Taoist roofs are generally blue Examples: 1. Temple of Heaven (Ch’i Nien Tien), Beijing - Sacrificial altar for the emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties to worship heaven and pray for good harvest. - Twice a year the emperor came here to perform the most sanctified rituals of the empire. Focus of the emperor’s temporal power and authority to intercede with the gods to seek atonement, future providence and bountiful harvest. o On the 15th day of the first lunar month, he sacrificed to ensure an abundant grain harvest. o At the winter solstice, he expressed his gratitude for the blessings from Heaven. - Founded by Ming Emperor Yung-lo and built in 1420, same time the Forbidden City was built. Rebuilt in 1530 and 1889. - Covers an area of 273 hectares, four times the Forbidden City. - Circular tripled-roofed covered with deep cobalt-blue glazed tiles. - Symbolism: a. Earth represented by a square and Heaven by a circle; several features of the temple complex symbolizes the connection of Heaven and Earth, of circle and square.  Temple complex is surrounded by two cordons of walls; the outer wall has a taller, semi-circular northern end, representing Heaven, and a shorter, rectangular southern end, representing the Earth.  Both the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests and the Circular Mound Altar are round, each standing on a square yard, again representing Heaven and Earth. b. The number nine represents the Emperor  Evident in the design of the Circular Mound Altar: a single round marble plate is surrounded by a ring of nine plates, then a ring of 18 plates, and so on for a total of nine surrounding rings, the outermost having 9×9 plates. c. The Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests - season and solar term  Four inner pillars twelve middle and twelve outer pillars, representing the four seasons, twelve months and twelve traditional Chinese hours respectively. Combined together, the twelve middle and twelve outer pillars represent the traditional solar term. d. All the buildings within the Temple have special dark blue roof tiles, representing the Heaven. e. The Seven-Star Stone Group, east of the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvest, represents the seven peaks of Taishan Mountain, a place of Heaven worship in classical Chin C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  18 - Temple Precinct Main Structures: 1. The Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests  Used for praying for grain on the first 10th day of the first month of Spring.  Set on top of a three-tiered marble platform that is 90.0m in diameter and 6.0m high.  38.0 m high and constructed entirely of wood joinery (without nails). 2. The Imperial Vault of Heaven of Prayer  Located south of the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests and resembles it, but is smaller.  Single-gabled circular building, built on a single level of marble stone base.  Surrounded by a smooth circular wall, the Echo Wall that can transmit sounds over large distances.  Place where the tablets of god of heaven are stored.  During each winter solstice, the tablets were placed in a small pavilion-like cage and removed to the Circular Mound for the Worshipping Heaven ceremony. After the ceremony, the tablets were returned to the stone platforms. 3. The Circular Mound Altar, the altar proper  Used for worshipping heaven on winter solstice.  Constructed of 3 tiers of green and white marble, the circumference of each tier being fitted with a white marble balustrade.  The surface of the platform, the stairs and the railings are made up of stone slabs in multiples of nine.  Nine was the numerical epitome of Yang, the positive force, and symbolized Heaven.  First ring of stones around the top consists of nine slabs, the second ring of 18, the third of 27 and forth until the ninth and outermost row which consists of 81 slabs.  Top platform is 33.3 meters in diameter and has a circular stone in the center, considered the most sacred spot in the Chinese empire. - Characterized by a unique artistic style and the knowledge of mechanics, acoustics and geometry principle is used in some constructions. o The circular wall of the Imperial Vault of Heaven is called echo wall famous for its acoustic effects. - Decorative frieze and cantilevered timber brackets – phoenix and dragons. 2. Qingyang Palace o One of the oldest and most extensive Taoist temples in Chengdu area. C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  19 o First built during the Zhou Dynasty, the Qing Yang Palace served as a place of worship for Taoists through the Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, making it one of China's most famous and ancient Taoist temples. 3. Temple of Honan, Canton – typical Buddhist temple 4. Temple of Sleeping Buddha, near Beijing 5. Fayuan Temple. Beijing 6. Fo Guang Temple (TANG Dynasty 9th c) - Oldest wooden Temple 7. Longxing Temple IV. PAGODAS (Pinyin Ta)  Began as a shrine to hold the Buddhist relics. Shape evolved from the Indian stupa and sikhara  Believed to be the residences of the immortals but later evolved as a watch tower and defense from evil spirits.  Indian form of stupa merge with the classical ancient chinese watch tower, a very prominent element in the landscape. Traditional Architectural Culture of China Stupa Dense-eaved Pagoda Pavilion style pagoda  Originally 3-4 storey pavilions increase to seven, nine or even more than 10 stories and in overall planning, from the bottom to the top - Every floor is smaller than the previous so that outside line of the pagoda is slant or curved line - Height of every storey is lower than the previous one so that it looks higher and more imposing - Multiple stories were added to lend visual power and prestige. o majestic and striking in style o used by the ruling class to show off its power and wealth  Made of brick or stone to mimic the classical wooden structures.  Associated with Feng Shui to insure good fortune Examples: 1. Wood - White Horse Pagoda at White Horse Temple, Luoyang. China's first pagoda - Futuci Pagoda in Xuzhou, built in the Three Kingdoms period (220-265) 2. Brick - 40 m pagoda at Songye Temple – oldest Pagoda - Dengfeng Country, Henan - built in 520 during the Northern Wei Dynasty, and has survived almost 1500 years 3. Stone - 4-door pagoda at Licheng, Shandong, built in 611 during the Sui Dynasty - earliest large-scale stone pagoda 4. Brick and Stone - Porcelain Pagoda, Nanjing - famous brick and stone pagoda V. PAILOUS (Bailous/Paifang)  Derived from Indian toranas  Erected in memory of virtuous people  Ceremonial entrances/ archways to temple, tombs or occasionally spanning a street  Constructed of wood or stone, painted or ornamented with glazed tiles  One or multiple openings, formed by posts supporting horizontal rails bearing an inscription  Crowned with bold projecting roofs of symbolically colored tiles. C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  20 Examples: 1. 5-gated Stone Pailou, Ming Tombs 2. Pailou which spans the avenue leading to the Temple of the Sleeping Buddha 3. Marble Pailou at the Altar of Heaven, Beijing https://i.pinimg.com VI. ORNAMENTAL PILLARS (Huabiao)  Architectural ornament, often seen on the grounds of palaces, imperial gardens and mausoleums. And may also be seen in some crossroads to mark the thoroughfares. - Bangmu (commentary board) - when placed outside palaces, - Shendaozhu (spiritway columns) - when placed outside a tomb VII. OTHER HOUSES/DWELLINGS  Climate has a huge impact on the construction of Chinese homes, both because it shapes the materials available and determines the kind of shelter people need.  Houses in the north respond to the colder, drier climate, while in the south, heat and humidity are major factors influencing design.  Some regional variation - a matter of style unrelated to geography.  Courtyards of houses in the north are often much larger than those in the south.  Way of laying out a house was similar among the rich and poor, both in earlier and later times in materials and techniques: - Pounded earth foundations - Timber framing - Use of bricks and tiles - Roofing materials vary depending on the wealth of a family - Thatch and bamboo - common materials for the poor - Wood framework systems for Chinese homes and other buildings were standardized by the Ming dynasty.  Wealth and regional variation - houses were by no means identical in all parts of China  Basic principles of house design - emphasis on orientation, layout, and symmetry - Houses face south - one of the most striking aspects of Chinese domestic architecture - Related to sunlight, and the direction of prevailing winds, especially cold winds  Decorative Elements - Combination of practical concerns, folk beliefs, and pure ornamentation. - Walls and eaves are often decorated. - Doorways and windows are given more attention - good or evil spirits enter - Elegant decorative schemes would also provide ventilation or shading. - Many openings would be covered with latticework in variety of patterns that "shape the wind" or alter the way air flows into a home. Examples: 1. Cave Dwellings: - Common in certain areas of northern China where they serve as homes for more than 40 million people. a. Cliffside Dwellings - Carved out of the side of a cliff, often facing south and facades are sometimes faced with bricks or stone. C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  21 b. Pit Dwellings - Cave dwelling built where there are no hills. Sunken courtyards are created. After digging a courtyard of about 10 m. deep, rooms are dug off the main courtyard - Courtyards of cliff dwelling are usually larger than those of pit dwellings, because they are easier to create than sunken courtyards which must be excavated. 2. Houses in Southern Anhui Province - Decorative fire walls known as “horse's head wall” o End or gable walls which rise above the roof lines, originally served as fire barriers between houses to prevent the spread of flames that would catch in the wooden roof supports. 3. A five-bay house in Zhejiang Province 4. Houses built along canals are common in the south of China. 5. Toulou Houses in Fujian province in a region where Hakka live in single-lineage dominated villages. 6. Yurt - traditional dwelling of inner Mongolians 7. Brick house with timber structure exposed in Guangxi province 8. Beijing's Hutong and Courtyard - form of community that exists only in China. - “Water well“- In the old time with the digging of new wells, came the new communities. - Means a small street or a narrow lane between two courtyards. - Exists only in China – Beijing, etc. - Form of community surrounding the Imperial Palace, hutongs were established throughout the Yuan (1206-1341), Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) Dynasties. The main road - 36 m. wide, minor road is 18 m. and Hutong (lane) is 9.0 m. or smaller - Some hutong names are connected to the names of: Food names, such as Miancha Hutong (noodle and tea) Temples, Baoguosi Hutong (Baoguo Temple) Daily necessities, Caomao Hutong (straw hat) Place names, as Inner Xizhimen Hutong Plants, such as Liushu Hutong (Liushu means willow) Light industry, as Damuchang Hutong (big wood factory) People's names, as Songguniang Hutong (Ms Liu) Government organs, as Jingcha Hutong (Police Bureau) VIII. BRIDGES  Constitute the main characteristic of the Chinese landscape and has been estimated that there are 12 bridges per square mile in the parts of the country. IX. GREAT WALL of China  Length of the wall is debatable. Some historians put the length between 1,500 and 2,600 miles to 4,000 miles spanning from western Jiayuguan, past the Gobi Desert, over the Yellow River, past Beijing and through to Shanhaiguan on the Bohai Sea.  Ranges from 6 – 9 m (20 -30 ft) high. From its lowest point in the desert, parts of the wall reached heights of over 6,000 ft.  7.6 m (925 ft) thick at the base  Sloping to 4.5 m.(15 ft) at the top  Ancient Chinese started building fortifications as early as the eth c. BC. - Barrier against barbarian attacks - Fortified highway for moving troops along the northern border - Physical boundary between China and the barbarian lands to the north - Signal to barbarians of China's territorial claims  First emperor of the Qin dynasty (221-206 B.C.) connected the existing walls into a single system.  Periodically rebuilt, with most of the current wall dating to the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). X. GARDENS  Art in China  Cosmic diagrams, revealing a profound and ancient view of the world and of man's place in it (combination of structures and man-made landscape within natural scenery - environment and human in full harmony)  Product of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.  History: - Originated in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, when monarchs began to build parks for their own leisure and pleasure. - Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period - fashion to build gardens - Han dynasty - private gardens appeared - Tang and Song dynasties - a poetic touch was added to the layout and scenes of a garden, and became a general feature. - Qing dynasty - garden architecture reached its peak C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18  22  Uses: - Retreats – setting for peaceful contemplation - Settings for family festivals and socialization - Considered an acceptable location for the women of the household to relax, enjoy a pleasant and safe natural setting, and socialize among themselves and with visitors. - Gatherings for members of the scholar class devoted to cultivated pursuits like painting, calligraphy, and playing the zither, as well as for discussing important topics of the day.  Classification: 1. Imperial gardens - usually spacious, exquisite and grandiose with a variety of plants, symbolic trees and smaller gardens for specific purposes. 2. Private gardens - built in urban areas, neighbored with residences. Generally small and simple due to expensive land. Most famous private gardens are situated in Suzhou, Jiangsu. 3. Monastic gardens - found in monasteries against quite and verdant mountains with natural beauty - solemn within the sacred atmosphere 4. Garden architecture in scenic resorts - occupy large public areas since they are based on the combination of natural scenes and man-made landscape and structures in suburb area or mountains  Four Principal Elements: 1. Rock is classified as "yang" because it is strong, durable, hard and "male"), but the best garden stones also exhibited spareness and delicacy. - Top-heavy, rugged stones that seemed to defy gravity and hang in the air like clouds were the most highly prized. 2. Water - central component of the garden. - Believed to serve as a balance for other elements in nature and in the garden. - Typically broken into small, separate areas that are sometimes connected with ponds or flowing water. Pools are made to wander, disappear, then reappear at the next corner to hold the “chi.” 3. Buildings could serve as residences - Connected by covered walkways and different spaces are visually linked by views glimpsed through open doorways, lattice windows, and decorative openings in walls. - Overall arrangement of buildings divides the interior space of the garden into smaller cells that contain one or many small scenic views. 4. Plants - Visual effects of plant materials were more important than the plants themselves: References: Books: De la Croix, Horst and Richard Tansey. Gardner’s Art Through the Ages. Ancient, Medieval and Non- European Art. 7th ed. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. USA. 1976. Goepper, Roger. Landmarks of the World’s Art. The Oriental World. Mc. Graw-Hill Book Company, New Yorkl – Toronto. 1967. Harris, Cyril M. Historic Architecture Sourcebook. Mac Graw Hil, Inc. USA.1977. Palmes, J.C. Sir Banister Fletcher’s A History of Architecture. 18th ed.The Athlone Press, University of London. London Qingxi Lou. Translated by Su Guang. Traditional Architectural Culture of China. China Travel and Tourism Press, China. 2007 Stevenson, Neil. Architecture Explained. DK Publishing, New York. 1997, 2007. Shun, Lu, planner and Ji Yang, Editor in Chief. The Eternal Forbidden City, World Heritage Site of China. China Nationality Art Photograph Publishing House., China. 2004. Westwell, Ian. Timeless China. Chartwell Books, Inc., New Jersey, USA. 2007 Other Sources: Pictures and data from Internet Sources Secrets of China, Artifacts and Sacred Spaces Chinese Architecture, DVD Prepared by: Ar. Clarissa L. Avendaño September 2017 C.L.AVENDAÑO, UST HOA3 1st Term 2017-18