Hindu and Buddhist Architecture of China PDF

Hindu and Buddhist Architecture of China. APARNA JAIBUS CHETANA RANJIT SOWRAM RUHEE N.M. SUBBRAMANYAN VAISHNAVPRIYA M Hinduism in China The Spread of Hinduism in China The Hinduism was introduced into China mainly through the Overland Silk Road and the Maritime Silk Road, the...

Hindu and Buddhist Architecture of China. APARNA JAIBUS CHETANA RANJIT SOWRAM RUHEE N.M. SUBBRAMANYAN VAISHNAVPRIYA M Hinduism in China The Spread of Hinduism in China The Hinduism was introduced into China mainly through the Overland Silk Road and the Maritime Silk Road, the Hindu temples in border and coastal areas of Chinese territory were mainly patronized by wealthy individuals and commercial guilds. Hinduism was introduced into China around the first century AD when the Indian immigrants and merchants migrated to some border areas and coastal cities of the Chinese territory. Xiannian Ji, a Chinese scholar believes that Buddhism was introduced into China in the first century AD. Therefore the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism to China was simultaneous and of the same directions. Hinduism was introduced to China through four routes, i. e. , the Overland Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road, the Yunnan-Burma Route and the Nepal-Tibet Route Silk Route The Hindu Temples in Border Areas The Hindu temples in border areas have had a lasting impact on the region's religious architecture and culture, particularly in Tibet Plateau.  In history, the believers of Shiva Sect, Vishnu Sect and Shakti Sect were active in the above three areas, and some Hindu temples were built by these devotees. As a result of bordering India, Indian religious architectures naturally spread to Tibet Plateau and there remain many Hindu temple features in Tibetan religious buildings. A fact must be emphasized that the Hindu temple especially the stone-built temple symbolizes high mountain. It is hard to date the arrival of Hinduism and Hindu temple to this border area, but historians agree that the Hindu culture was flourishing there during the reign of Nanzhao Kingdom (738–902 AD). During this period of time, the Hindu temples were built in Dali which is the capital of the Nanzhao Kingdom. There are some Hindu iconography such as Yoni and Ganesh in Jianchuan Grottoes, the face may prove that some Shizhong Mountain Grottoes are and/or at least owns some features of the Hindu rock-cut temples. The Hindu Temples Along in Coastal Areas  As a result of the flourishing trade, wealthy individuals, commercial guilds, and royal family members patronized some Hindu architectures in some port cities. Among these port cities are Guangzhou and Quanzhou. Chinese scholars analyze the Quanzhou Hindu temples from a different perspective, For example, Mingzhong Zhu puts the Quanzhou Hindu temples in the context of the Maritime Silk Road. Zhu’s major points of view with regard to the Quanzhou Hindu temples are as the follows: (a)These Hindu architectures were constructed by the Indians resided in Quanzhou during Song and Yuan dynasty. (b) There remain many relics of Hindu architectures in Quanzhou which witness the cultural exchange between China and India. Buddhism in China The Spread of Buddhism Buddhism was initially confined to the Ganges Valley. Expanded rapidly during the reign of Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Dynasty. Asoka sent Missionaries to neighbouring countries, appointed ministers to propagate Buddhist teachings, and visited sacred places associated with the Buddha's life. To Commemorate his efforts and the Buddha's life, he erected pillars and inscribed edicts on rocks. Due to Ashoka's efforts, Buddhism expanded rapidly from India to other parts of the world, including Central Asia, China, Japan, and Southeast Asia. There were both land and sea routes. Major land route was the Silk Route. The Spread of Buddhism in China The main seaports for departure were located on the Bay of Bengal. Ships could also sail from the western coast of India. From these ports, ships could either sail directly to Java or follow the coastline around the Malay Peninsula to reach southern China. Searoute became more popular in the latter half of the seventh century when Chinese power in Central Asia declined. By the first century B.C., Buddhism was already established in Central Asia and was ready to expand into China. Commercial travellers and Buddhist missionaries played a significant role in introducing Buddhism to China. Buddhist Temples in China Buddhist temples in China Temples existed in China even before the official introduction of Buddhism during the Han Dynasty. The White Horse Temple is believed to be one of the earliest temples. During the third century, many temples were established and the number of temples continued to grow significantly during the subsequent dynasties. Sometemples include: Ximing Temple in Chang'an Shaolin Monastery. Dazu Rock Carvings - 50,000 sculptures associated with Buddhism carved into the rock. Ximing Temple in Chang'an Dazu Rock Carvings Shaolin Monastery  Buddhist Architecture in China Primary Architectural Forms In India, the primary forms of Buddhist architecture consist of stupas, chaityas (prayer halls), and viharas. Notably, the Great Stupa at Sanchi and the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya exemplify these structures. In contrast, Chinese Buddhist architecture prominently features pagodas and cave temples, such as the Yungang and Longmen Grottoes, which are characterized by their sculptural and decorative brilliance. Difference in Buddhist Architecture in India and China Feature India China Most Iconic Structure Stupa Pagodas and Grottoes Common Building Material Stone and Brick Wood and Tiles Architectural Style Rock-cut caves, temple Temple complexes, cave complexes temples Influences Hindu architecture, local Chinese and Indian culture, artistic traditions Confucianism, Taoism Purpose Religious worship, Religious worship, meditation government, imperial power Examples Sanchi Stupa, Ajanta Yungang Grottoes, Longmen Caves, Kailasa Temple Grottoes, Forbidden City Idol representation In Chinese Buddhist symbolism, the Buddha is not typically represented through forms like the Bodhi tree or umbrella as seen in Indian Buddhism. Instead, Chinese representations focus on other symbolic elements that convey the Buddha's teachings and divine nature, reflecting local and cultural interpretations. 1.Absence of the Bodhi Tree Symbol In contrast to Indian Buddhism, where the Bodhi tree is a prominent symbol associated with the Buddha's enlightenment, Chinese Buddhism does not emphasize the tree as a defining symbol for the Buddha. Instead, idols may be set amidst natural elements, but the Bodhi tree does not hold the same iconic status within Chinese representations 2. Lack of Umbrella Symbolism The umbrella, or chhatra, is a significant symbol in Indian Buddhism, representing protection and sovereignty, often depicted in connection with the Buddha and his teachings. In Chinese Buddhist art, however, the umbrella is not a commonly used symbol for the Buddha himself. Instead, umbrellas may appear as elements in some temple decorations or associated with ceremonial contexts rather than as integral to the Buddha’s iconography 3. Alternative Symbolic Representations In Chinese Buddhism, alternative symbols are more prevalent. The Buddha is often depicted with a halo, representing enlightenment and divinity. This emphasis on radiance highlights his role as an enlightened being rather than connecting him to the physical elements found in nature. Chinese representations of the Buddha often incorporate local symbols that resonate within Chinese culture, such as auspicious symbols like the lotus flower or cranes, which connect the Buddha to themes of purity and transcendence. Gateways In India, Buddhist gateways, known as "toranas," are typically elaborate stone structures featuring intricate carvings and often four cardinal gates surrounding a stupa, as seen in the Great Stupa at Sanchi. These gateways are adorned with detailed relief sculptures representing significant events in the life of the Buddha and various motifs from Buddhist iconography. In contrast, Chinese Buddhist gateways, referred to as "Shanmen," often exhibit traditional Chinese architectural styles with tiered roofs and symmetrical designs, emphasizing aesthetic harmony and balance within the temple complex. Examples: Some of the most notable examples of Buddhist gateways can be found at famous temples and pilgrimage sites, such as the Lingyin Temple in Hangzhou and the Nanshan Temple in Sanya. These sites feature grand entrances that reflect both the spiritual importance of the location and the intricate artistry of traditional Chinese architecture.  Pagoda A pagoda is a tiered tower with multiple eaves, built in traditions originating as stupas in historic china. They were built to have a religious function, most commonly Buddhist and its original purpose was to house religious relics and sacred writings. Pagodas have an odd number of layers. Seven-layer and Nine-layer pagodas are commonly built. The shape of cross-section is rectangular, eight-sided or even circular. Initially, the pagoda served as the central axis alongside which rows of halls and monks' rooms spread out. Later, pagodas were built near the main palace hall.  This form of pagoda derives from the chatra atop Buddhist stupas in India. As Buddhist moved eastward, the chatra changed from being a final atop stupa to become a building in itself. Feature of Chinese Pagodas Some pagodas are solid with no interior. Hollow pagodas have no higher floors or rooms, but the interior often contains an altar or a smaller pagoda, as well as a series of staircases for the visitor to climb to see the view from an opening on one side of each tier. Most have between three and 13 tiers (almost always an odd number) and the classic gradual tiered eaves. Pagodas come in many different sizes, with taller ones often attracting lightning strikes, inspiring a tradition that the finial decoration of the top of the structure can seize demons.  The pagodas in Himalayas are derived from Newari architecture, very different from Chinese and Japanese styles. Newari style usually features intricate woodwork. The primary construction material is wood. The pagodas are usually placed in the centre of a courtyard Taleju Bhawani Temple, Kathmandu Construction materials Wood The oldest pagodas were mostly built of wood, as were other ancient Chinese structures. Wooden pagodas are resistant to earthquakes, but they are prone to fire, natural rot, and insect infestation. Wooden pagodas possess certain characteristics thought to resist earthquake damage. These include the friction damping and sliding effect of the complex wooden dougong joints. The oldest standing fully wooden pagoda in China today is the Pagoda of Fugong Temple in Ying County, Shanxi, built in the 11th century. Dougong joints Brick The earliest extant brick pagoda is the 40-metre-tall Songyue Pagoda in Dengfeng Country, Henan. This curved, circle-based pagoda was built in 523 during the Northern Wei dynasty, and has survived for 15 centuries. This temple featured tiers of eaves encircling its frame, as well as a spire crowning the top. Its walls are 2.5 m thick, with a ground floor diameter of 10.6 m. Another early brick pagoda is the Sui dynasty Guoqing Pagoda built in 597. Stone The earliest large-scale stone pagoda is a Four Gates Pagoda at Licheng, Shandong, built in 611 during the Sui dynasty (581 to 618). Like the Songyue Pagoda, it also features a spire at its top, and is built in the pavilion style. Pagoda, Dazu, Sichuan Province (12th century C.E) The design of the Pagoda at Dazu is ultimately based on the Chatra set atop Indian Stupas. The parabolic form of the entire Pagoda can be compared to Shikaras of Hindu temples, and the finial suggests a Stupa’s shape. Grottoes A grotto is a small cave or hidden room that can be natural or artificial. In the 3rd century, Chinese Buddhists began to build grottoes and Xinjiang is the first area where grottoes were chiseled. Grottoes are decorated with painted sculptures, carvings and frescos.  Mogao Caves Longmen Grottoes Yungang Grottoes Maiji Caves