4_07-01-2021_12-32-15_Organizational Behaviour.pdf

Master of Commerce (DDE) Semester – II Paper Code – 20MCO22D3 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION MAHARSHI DAYANAND UNIVERSITY, ROHTAK (A State University established under Haryana Act No. XXV of 1975) NAAC 'A+’ Grade Accredited University Material Production Content Writer: Dr. Copyright © 2020, Maharshi Dayanand University, ROHTAK All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means; electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright holder. Maharshi Dayanand University ROHTAK – 124 001 ISBN : Price : Rs. 325/- Publisher: Maharshi Dayanand University Press Publication Year : 2021 Organizational Behaviour Paper Code: 20MCO22D3 M. Marks = 100 Term End Examination = 80 Time = 3 hrs Assignment = 20 Course Outcomes: CO1: Students will gain a comprehensive understanding of the concept of Organizational Behaviour and Relationship to other fields and Learning. CO2: Students will understand about the Attitude, changing of attitude and aspects of personality. CO3: Students will learn about the Perception, factors influencing perception, Group Dynamics and Team Development. CO4: Will enable the students to learn about Organizational Conflict, its Dynamics, Traditional and modern approaches to conflict and Organizational development. Note: The examiner shall set nine questions in all covering the whole syllabus. Question No.1 will be compulsory covering all the units and shall carry 8 small questions of two marks each. The rest of the eight questions will be set from all the four units. The examiner will set two questions from each unit out of which the candidate shall attempt four questions selecting one question from each unit. All questions shall carry 16 marks each. Unit-1 Organizational Behavior: concept and significance; Relationship to other fields; OB Model, ethics and ethical behaviour in organizations. Learning: meaning and definition, process, theories of learning, OB in learning organization. Unit-2 Attitude: meaning and definition, components, functions, formation, changing of attitude, prejudice and attitude. Personality: meaning and definition, the big five personality model, the Myers- Briggs Type Indicator, additional work related aspects of personality. Unit-3 Perception: meaning and definition, process, factors influencing perception, perceptual errors or distortions. Group Dynamics and Team Development: Group dynamics- definition and importance, types of groups, group formation, group development, group performance factors, group norms, group status, group size, cohesiveness, social loafing. Team: types, team composition factors, team development. Unit-4. Organizational Conflict: Dynamics and management; sources, patterns, levels, and types of conflict; Traditional and modern approaches to conflict; Functional and dysfunctional Organizational conflicts; Resolution of conflict. Organizational development: Concept; Need for change, resistance to change; Theories of planned change; Organizational diagnosis; OD intervention. References 1. Griffin, Ricky W: Organizational Behaviour, Houghton Mifflin co., Boston. 2. Hellreigel, Don, John W. Slocum, Jr., and Richards W. Woodman: 3. Organizational Behavior, south western college Publishing, Ohio. 4. Hersey, Paul, Kenneth H. Blanchard and Dewey E Johnson: Management of Organizational Behaviour: 5. Utilising Human Resources, Prentice Hall, New Delhi. 6. Ivancevich; John and Micheeol T. Matheson: Organizational Behaviour and Management, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi. 7. Luthans, Fred: Organizational Behaviour, McGraw-Hill, New York 8. Newstrom, John W. and Keith Davis: Organizational Behavior: Human Behavior at Work, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi. 9. Robbins, Stephen P, and Mary Coulter: management, Prentice hall, New Delhi. 10 Robbins, Stephen P: Organizational Behavior, Prentice hall., New Delhi. 11. Steers Richard m. and J. Stewart black: Organizational Behavior, Hrper Collins college Publishers, New York. 12 Sukla, Madhukar: Understanding Organizations: Organization Theory and Practice in India, Prentice Hall, New Delhi. Contents Sr. No. Title Page No. 1 Unit – I 1-13 2 Unit – II 14-28 3 Unit – III 29-41 4 Unit – IV 42-54 UNIT – 1 Unit 1: Includes: - Organizational Behavior: Concept and significance - Relationship Organizational Behavior to other fields - Organizational Behavior Model - Ethics and ethical behavior in organizations - Learning: meaning and definition, - Process of Learning - Theories of learning, - OB in learning organization. Objectives: Aim of this unit is to acquaint students with the: a. Concept and significance of Organizational behaviour and its relationship with other fields b. Organizational behaviour model, Ethics and ethical behavior in organizations c. Learning: meaning and definition, Process of Learning, Theories of learning, OB in learning organization. Organizational BEHAVIOUR: CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE; “Organizational behavior is directly concerned with the understanding, prediction, and control of human behavior in organizations.” Fred Luthans. “Organizational behavior studies the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behavior within organization for the purpose applying such knowledge towards improving Organizational effectiveness.” Stephen P. Robbins. Keith Davis said that, “Organizational Behavior is the study and application of knowledge about how people act within organization.” Raman J. Aldag states, “Organizational Behavior is a branch of the Social Sciences that seeks to build theories that can be applied to predicting, understanding and controlling behavior in work organizations.” “Organizational Behavior is a subset of management activities concerned with understanding, predicting and influencing individual behavior in Organizational setting.” Callahan, Fleenor and Kudson. Organizational behavior is basically a study of human behavior in both, group as well as an individual in an organization. As we know that certain types of behavior of a person is linked to certain types of roles and responsibilities. So, generalizations were made based on their behaviors that help us predict what people do and should do so. 2 Organizational Behaviour And the accurateness of these generalizations is depending upon the accurate observations. An accurate generalization helps in taking strategic decisions in managing and controlling workforce in an organization. While observing and understanding the behavior, one should follow a systematic approach because a structured approach to conduct study may boost the explanatory and predictive capacities of a person. On the basis of above mentioned definitions and different views, features of Organizational Behavior can be defined in the following manner: Feature of OB OB is a systematic study OB is application oriented OB is performance oriented OB is change oriented OB is a part of Management Significance Organizational Behavior (OB) is a study involving the analysis of an organization's persons, community and structure or actions, and this analysis has significant significance in an organization's successful working.. It is a kind of study pertaining to “what people do within an organization” and “how their behaviour affects the performance of an organization”. Organizational conduct relates primarily to job-related concerns such as jobs, work, leaves, turnover, efficiency, human resources, and management. Organizational behavior study provides a comprehensive set of concepts and theories dealing with commonly accepted 'facts' about a person's behavior and organizations acquired over the years, e.g. "You can teach new tricks to an old dog," "Two heads are better than one." And such facts are not always true in all cases, at all. Ergo, these popularly held ideas are in desperate need of replacement. Study of “organization behavior does offer challenges and opportunities for managers since it focuses on ways and means to improve productivity, minimize absenteeism, increase employee job satisfaction, etc”. A Study Organization Behavior provides a basis for managers to develop and create an ethical culture and climate of work. Also, good prediction of human and Organizational behavior is helpful. RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER FIELDS Organizational behavior is a multidisciplinary subject because it has borrowed concepts and theories from other fields like Psychology, Sociology, Political science, Anthropology, Economics, Technology, Environmental science, and science. Organizational behavior is basically an applied behavioral science. Unit–I 3 Psychology: The term 'psychology' originates from the Greek language 'Psyche' meaning 'soul' or 'heart' and Organizational behavior is a scientific field that explores human behavior mainly concerned with the psychology of the individuals. Industrial psychology can be defined as “Industrial Psychology is a scientific study of employees, workplaces, organizations and Organizational behavior. Industrial psychology is also known as work psychology, Organizational psychology. Industrial psychology helps in improving the workplaces, satisfaction and motivation levels of the employees, and helping the overall productivity Source: www.verywellmind.com of the organization.” Psychology Economics Sociology Anthropology Science Organizational Behaviour Political Medicine science Engineering Technology Figure 1 Organizational Behaviour and other fields of study 4 Organizational Behaviour Sociology: According to Dictionary of the social sciences, sociology is “the study of society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture that surrounds everyday life.” From the definition it is very much clear that sociology also has a major impact on the study of Organizational behavior. Max Weber defines sociology as, “a science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects.” Anthropology: According to Britannica, “the science of humanity, which studies human beings in aspects ranging from the biology and evolutionary history of Homo sapiens to the features of society and culture that decisively distinguish humans from other animal species.” Therefore, Anthropology deals with the relationships between people and their environment and anthropology contributes to understanding the cultural impact on Organizational behaviour, the impact of value structures, expectations, emotions, unity and interaction. Also, University of Florida defines, “Anthropology is the study of humankind. Of all the disciplines that examine aspects of human existence and accomplishments, only Anthropology explores the entire panorama of the human experience from human origins to contemporary forms of culture and social life.” Eric Wolf said, “’Anthropology’ is less a subject matter than a bond between subject matters. It is part history, part literature; in part natural science, part social science; it strives to study men both from within and without; it represents both a manner of looking at men and vision of men – the most scientific of the humanities, the most humanist of sciences.” Political Science Political science has some fascinating implications in researching Organizational behavior as it helps in understanding how and why people gain control, political actions, decision-making, conflict, interest group activity and creation of coalitions. And the same is also true of major areas of Organizational behaviour. It has been stated many times that political parties and government are actively active in many of the activities of the ORGANIZATION. Economics Lionel Robbins stated the term economics as, “the science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scares means which have alternative uses.” Economics tackles the problem of fear resources and limitless uses or restricted resources and infinite desires. In addition to this, we studied the growth, distribution, and consumption of goods and services in economics. And studying different economic subfields helps to illustrate the Organizational actions in a very useful way such as understanding the dynamics of the labor market, efficiency, human resource planning and forecasting, and cost benefit analysis. Science: Scientific approaches are the foundation of organization's actions. Organizational behavior is based on the systematized analysis of data, actions, their relationships and predictions. New research methods help to learn modern analytical tools and techniques and to apply them. Unit–I 5 Technology: Technological progress often impacts employee behaviour. Because we live in an era of information technology in which technology plays a very important role. To understand the Organizational actions, the study of technological development becomes important because people are affected by technological growth. Technology influences consumer behaviour, manufacturing practices, and storage and distribution activities. To match the pace people need to be educated and/or technically qualified about technological development. Engineering: Engineering too plays significant role in the study of Organizational behavior. Certain topics are very common in both engineering as well as Organizational behavior. Medicine: Medicine has a link to researching human behavior in the workplace, as stress has become a very common issue in organizations as well as in people employed in organizations. To control the causes and consequences of stress, since it is important for the well-being of both the individual and the organizations. Medicine helps with treating emotional disorders as well as emotional related problems. Finally, it can be inferred that the Organizational conduct is given a multidisciplinary focus. Material is taken from many other fields and is aimed at explaining behaviour. OB MODEL Every organization develops a particular type of culture or value system or a model according to which people of an organization are supposed to behave. And the system is developed by taking into account the assumptions of the management regarding people, mission and management vision. The assumptions on which an organization's culture is based vary greatly from one organization to another, and so do the ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR MODELS. In the starting of civilized human society, there were two forms of strategies for the people in action, one says "trust anyone unless there is proof to the contrary" and an additional says "trust no one unless there is evidence to the contrary." Obviously, in such organizations the interactions between people take place differently according to these two approaches. "McGregor" Was specified "theories X and Y and each theory makes assumptions which are quite contrary to each other"; Argyris WAS specified "the concept of immaturity and maturity of people which also provides two opposite views about the people". Ergo, Models of Organizational behavior built on the basis of different decisions or assumptions represent Beat variations. OB models that are in practice, however, show some sort of continuum between these two opposite poles, although they tend to lean towards a specific pole. "Davis" has described four OB models which are as follows: 1. Autocratic 2. Custodial 3. Supportive 4. Collegial. 6 Organizational Behaviour Custodial Model Autocratic OB Supportive Model Model Model Collegial Model Autocratic Model In the autocratic model there is managerial orientation toward power. Managers see power as the only way to get the job done, and employees are forced to obey orders which lead to high boss dependence. The Organizational mechanism is largely formalized; power is delegated by the right of command to the individuals to whom it refers. The model is largely based on the “Theory of X assumptions of McGregor is where the human beings are taken inherently distasteful to work and try to avoid responsibility”. In this model employees are closely and strictly supervised in order to attain desired performance. Employees are supposed to obey the order of the managers and there is no place for employee's suggestion in this model which sometimes result in minimal performance. Custodial Model Under this model, the key goal relating to management is to use money or resources to support workers. Employee works towards security attainment and in return organization uses the organization's economic resources to benefit the organization's employees which lead to high employee dependence on organization. Employee Organizational reliance reduces personal dependence on boss. Employees in this model feel satisfied when working and their performance level is a little higher than the autocratic Organizational model but overall performance is not that good. This model is similar to the more satisfying and dissatisfying Herzberg theory. Employees are getting sufficient respect and Organizational protection according to this model, they feel satisfied but they are not given any kind of authority to determine what benefits or incentives they will receive. This model is quite common in many Indian business Organizations. Unit–I 7 Supportive Model In this supportive model mangers are very supportive towards employees. Here Managerial leadership is the key criterion of Organizational behavior, rather than using money or influence or authority. The main goal is to assist employees in achieving results with the aid of employee involvement and participation in managerial decision making process. The model is based on "Likert 's supporting partnership values, which is the fundamental component of his program 4 (participatory)." "Likert" notes that full manager-employee interactions will occur. The job of the manager is to support and inspire the subordinates to carry out their mission, rather than closely supervise them. In this model, employee output is much higher than the autocratic and custodial model, because employees have a sense of belonging due to managers' positive attitude towards them. Collegial Model This model is an extension of the positive model. Within this model all actors work for a common target. Collegial meaning implies a community of shared-intentioned individuals. Therefore, in collegial model, suggests the concept of a partnership in which a high degree of understanding is established between the two in order to accomplish common objectives. This model requires less guidance and control from the side of management. And the organization's environment is so favorable that Regulation is essentially carried out by team members by self-discipline. Collegial model is more useful where there is flexibility in behaviour, an intellectual environment and considerable freedom of employment. These OB models are based on the individual characteristics and how they could perform better. One model cannot be adapted in all situations and at all stages and managers cannot assume that a particular model is best suited for all purposes and all situations. ETHICS AND ETHICAL BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS The word “ethics” is taken from the Greek word ethikos which means “relating to one’s character” or “moral nature”. In an organization, ethics means various rules, guidelines and principles which direct the way an employee should behave at workplace. It also refers to the “code of conduct” which one should follow while working in an organization. No firm wants to earn profits by compromising with the ethics and depend upon unfair means to earn profits. An organization should not: Exploit any of the employee for the benefit of an organization Compromise with the safety of the employee Lie to customer/client. Discriminate any employee on the basis of any ground such as physical appearance, age, family background and behave in uniform manner. Compromise with environment by taking any step to spoil environement. 8 Organizational Behaviour An organization should take initiatives to: builds a conducive and cordial Organizational culture, increase customer/client confidence by encouraging ethical practices Always recruit and hire by following ethics Be transparent in Organizational matters pertaining to finances, human resources LEARNING: MEANING AND DEFINITION Meaning of Learning in OrganizationalBehavior Learning is the process of attaining new or modified knowledge and skills. Change in existing behavior because of new knowledge, skill or training is known as learning. The change should be permanent means there should be significant change in behavior before and after acquiring some knowledge or skill and the change must be because of certain kind of experience or training. Definitions: In the words of Gestalt’s,“the basis of learning is to gain knowledge after observing the whole structure. Responding towards the entire situation is learning.” Kurt Lewin said that, “The learning as the direct cognitive organization of a situation. Motivation has a significant role &place in learning.” Woodworth said that,“The process of acquiring new knowledge and new responses is the process of learning.” According to G.D. Boaz(1984) “Learning is the process by which the individuals acquires various habits, knowledge, and attitudes that are necessary to meet the demands of life, in general.” According to Cronbach,“Leaning is shown by a change in behavior as a result of experience.”Pavlov has said, “Learning is habit formation resulting from conditioning.” Zalkind says, “Every aspect of human behavior is responsive to learning experience, including knowledge, Language, skills, attitude, values and one’s personality traits.” According to N. L. Munn, “Learning is described as a process of having one’s behavior modified more or less permanently, by what he does and the consequences of his action, or by what he observes.” According to Hilgard, “Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of prior experience.” On the basis of above mentioned definitions, the following features of learning can be concluded: Unit–I 9 Features or nature of Learning It creates Change Its repitition is a must It is a continuous activity It affects behavior It is an intangible activity PROCESS OF LEARNIG IN OB “Learning is a process of acquiring knowledge, skills, behavior and attitude.”Learning includes following four stages. Stimulus Response Motivation Rewards 1. Stimulus Everyone needs a source of motivation to perform something and Stimulus is a motivating source or an incentive. Learners should have a good perception of stimuli, as the learner should be supported in the learning process. When there are no triggers there is no thought. Stimulus can take the form of 'knowledge expansion,' 'abilities and skills,' 'job quality improvement,' 'productivity and profitability,' 'effectiveness,' 'career development,' and 'financial and non-financial incentives.' 10 Organizational Behaviour 2. Response In theory, reaction is the result of the learner to the stimulus. When the result is reached, response is the first step in the process of learning. Learner will respond positively, because only then does the learning process take place and can he / she respond positively to certain negative reactions only if the learner is persuaded of positive behavioral changes. 3. Motivation Motivation is the key catalyst to motivate individuals to learn, because learning cannot take place without motivation. It's the enthusiasm for learning that boosts curiosity and attitude. No one can learn without willingness and this willingness comes from motivation because we all know that whatever thinking and understanding capacity an one has without motivation, nobody can learn. 4. Rewards In learning process, rewards are incentives which learner gets. In learning process, there should be a clear incentive scheme, and it should be straightforward and predictive. Employees should be well aware in advance when studying at various rates of what they can get as return or bonuses. Rewards can come in both financial and non-financial form. For examples, praise is the incentive and salary increment etc. LEARNING THEORIES IN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR 1. Classical Conditioning 2. Operant Conditioning 3. Cognitive Theory. 4. Social Learning Theory. Classical Conditioning Lerning Operant Conditioning Theories Cognitive Theory in OB Social Learning Theory Unit–I 11 1. Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning theory was propounded by Ivan Pavlov that is it is also known as Pavlovian condition theory. It is a process in which an individual responds to some kind of stimulus that would not normally produce a response like this. Learning is associated with a particular thing in our environment in this leaning process, With a prediction of what will happen next. This is the easiest way to understand the learning process according to classical conditioning theory, since the association of such an event with another desired event is closely related. For example, "the normal stimulus for a flow of saliva is the taste of food. But often the mouth waters at the mere sight of luscious peach, on hearing it described or even thinking about it. Therefore, one situation is substituted for another to elicit behavior and this process is called conditioning." In classical conditioning, According to Evan Pavlov, “a procedure is to be followed by Pavlov to observe accurately the amount of saliva secreted by a dog. When dog was feed with a piece of meat, the dog exhibited a noticeable increase in salivation. When Pavlov withheld the presentation of meat and merely rang a bell, the dog did not salivate. Then Pavlov proceeded to link the meat and the ringing of the bell. After repeatedly hearing the bell before getting the food, the dog began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the sound of the bell, even if no food was offered”. Learning is related to a conditioned stimulus according to the classical conditioning and an unconditioned stimulus. In the above case, the meat was an unconditional stimulus; it caused the dog to respond in a particular way, and the reaction that occurred after the unconditional stimulus was called the unconditional response. In this case, the bell was a conditioned stimulus and, when the bell was combined with the meat, it eventually created a response when presented alone. This is called conditioned response. 2. Operant conditioning B.F. Skinner, a Harvard Psychologist gave this theory of learning. According to Skinner (1938), “operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and consequence”. The learning of a behavior is usually followed by a reward or punishment according to this theory. Operating conditioning indicates that an individual's behavior depends on the various types of circumstances. Usually people used to behave in a specific way where they earn incentives and often people used to avoid acts from which they do not get anything. Skinner said generating satisfactory outcomes for a specific type of action improves the action's frequency. B.F Skinner's rat experiment offers the best example of this theory of learning in which “Skinner trained rats to press a lever to get food, a hungry rat was placed in a box containing a lever attached to some hidden food content. Initially the rat ran around the box randomly and while doing so, leads to press the lever, and the food dropped into the box. The dropping of food reinforced the response of pressing the lever. And the same things happen again and again and the rat learned to press the lever for food. People usually engage in such a behavior’s if they are positively reinforced for doing so and rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response.” 12 Organizational Behaviour 3. Cognitive Theory Learning cognition theory states that learning relies on one's own perceptions, experience of meanings, comprehensions, or ideas about one's self and environment. Learners learn in this learning process through their own successful and positive thought processes, like a practice or using our memories. This learning process involved physical actions or activities solely within your own experience, intuition, and didn't include the outside environment. That needs only cognitive energy, which implies only an inner thought process. Cognitive processes included the assessment, categorization and creation of generalizations of the world. Cognitive learning theory proposed explanation of the various learning mechanisms by first studying the mental processes, thinking with the aid of positive cognitive processes, learning is easier and new information can be stored in the brain for a long time to come. 4. Social Learning Theory The theory of social learning is also called observational learning, in this theory one person learns by watching what happens to others and not by being told about something or his, her osm world. Due to this principle one can learn stuff by looking at others Parents, teachers, peers, movie pictures, television artists, bosses and others for example. Most concepts about actions are learned by studying other people's activities and studying the repercussions for them. This theory involves four processes namely: "Attention process, Retention process, Motor reproduction process, and Reinforcement process." In which, attention means people know when they remember something or its vital features and pay attention to it. In this learner all due attention is to be paid and if the learner is not attentive they %ill bot be able to know anything. Retention Process That means how well one recalls the actions after the model is not readily available any more. A process of motor reproduction Upon learning, the process of motor replication is understood by monitoring others attentively and holding the same, based on learned behavior. This involves studying the model’s behaviors and performing one's own actions and comparing them against those of the model. This process then demonstrates that the individual is able to carry out the activities as model. Reinforcing method Individuals that are motivated are expected to display their modeled actions if they are presented with good motivation or rewards for that, and more attention is paid to, learned more, and conducted actions that is positively improved. Finally we can conclude that the role of consequences is the concept of social learning. This also takes into account observational perception and the importance of perception in learning. OB LEARNING ORGANIZATION Organizational behavior is the field of study in which human behavior, both as an individual and as a group, is studied to know how an individual or group acts within an organization. The Organizational Unit–I 13 Behavior Study extends its area to Change, Leadership, and Human Behaviour. And its central role is to strengthen partnerships by achieving, Organizational, social and human goals. Today organizations strive to improve their core competencies for greater success, and their approaches are aimed at creating a "strong psychological human capital" which in turn will be the key to achieving their common vision and goals. It is therefore important for mangers to have a detailed understanding of what Organizational Behavior (OB) is all about. As managers it is important to have the technological skills, interpersonal skills and analytical skills to research human behaviour these people skills are of the utmost importance to predict what people do in an organization and how much the behavioral trends have an impact oin Organizational performance, for example. a manager with professional expertise in managing employee complaints will now be adequate, etc hence he needs to develop his soft skills to tackle employee conflicts. Human capital is considered to be an important asset for any organization, ensuring that moral staff, work ethics, and employee satisfaction are in favor of organization to thrive outcomes. E.g. "One of UK's Richest Millionaire and Entrepreneur of Virgin Airlines, Richard Brandson in his own words says that "Employees are first, then the customers". He argues that primarily the employees need to be treated well and be satisfied; this would in turn lead to better services to customers benefiting the organization as a whole. "In reading others, OB embraces and stresses a more systematic approach, rather than being intuitive. It helps managers provide a basis for understanding more accurate behaviour predictions. The underlying truth is that it indicates that action is not just unpredictable, but that there are basic consistencies that help to expla8in all individual's behaviour. Learning Organizational Behaviour is an effective tool for managers as it focuses on understanding the significance of learning and management styles for personal and Organizational growth and development, as well as for business leadership and management styles for personal and Organizational growth and development, as well as for business leadership and management; it recognizes the value of developing specific skills in an organization. Short Questions: 1. Define organization behavior. 2. What do you mean by ethical behaviour? 3. Explain the meaning of learning. 4. Define learning organization. Long Questions: 1. What do you understand by organization behavior? Also explain its relationship with other related fields. 2. Define ethics. Describe the ethical behavior expected by the stakeholders in the organization. 3. Write a detailed note on theories of learning? 4. Define learning. Also explain in detail the process of learning in an organization. UNIT – 2 Unit 2: Includes - Attitude: meaning and definition, - Components of attitude - Functions of attitude - Formation of attitude and hanging of attitude, - Prejudice and attitude. - Personality: meaning and definition, - The big five personality model, - The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, - Additional work related aspects of personality. Objectives: Aim of this unit is to acquaint learners with the: a. Concept, components and functions of Attitude b. Process of forming and hanging attitude c. Difference between prejudice and attitude d. Concept of personality and the big five personality model e. The Myers-Briggs type indicator and work related to aspects of personality ATTITUDE: MEANING AND DEFINITION Attitude is important variable in human behavior which helps in a person’s personality traits i.e. optimistic or pessimistic, negative or positive etc. According to Michael Hogg, “An attitude is a negative or positive evaluation of an object which influences human’s behavior towards that object”. Martin Fishbein defined attitude as “An attitude is a learned predisposition to respond in a favorable or unfavorable manner towards people, an object, an idea or a situation”. According to Stephen P Robbins, “Attitude are evaluative statements, either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects, people or events.” Schermerhorn says, “Attitudes is the predisposition to respond in a positive or negative way to someone or something in one’s environment.” According to Newcomb, “Attitude is a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to given objective.” Joseph Reitz says, “The word attitude describes a persistent tendency to feel and behave in a particular way towards some objects.” Often we come across different person, situations and things in our life and we form a certain kind of view point for those persons, things or situation. That point of view may be positive or negative. “Attitude is basically an examination of a person, thing or situation in terms of liking or disliking, Unit–II 15 positive or negative and pro and anti”. Attitude mould a person’s behavior towards an object or a person in a negative or positive way. COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE Famous psychologists, Rosenber, Eagley and Holand provided three components of Attitude: Components of Attitude Cognitive Affective Behavioral 1. Cognitive component: This component is a combination of ideas, information, facts and knowledge about a person or an object. 2. Affective component: In this component, it is the feelings or emotions towards an object or a person which leads to liking or disliking, favoring or disfavoring. 3. Behavioral component: In this component, it is the behavior towards the object or a person. CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDE Characteristics of Attitude Attitudes are learnt Attitudes are predispositions Attitude has an object Attitude has an emotional component Attitude influence human behavior Attitude is relatively stable phenomena 16 Organizational Behaviour 1 Attitudes are learnt: Attitude is learnt through experiences or social interaction or encounter of an event. It is not an inborn phenomenon. 2. Attitudes are predispositions: It is already formed opinion or predetermined on the basis of prior experience or information. 3. Attitude has an object: It has an object (object can be an idea, a person or situation) which is favored or disfavored or analyzed as positive or negative. 4. Attitude has an emotional component: Attitude is having an emotional aspect in the form of like or dislike, or positive or negative. 5. Attitudes influence human behavior: Attitude has all the power to mould the behavior of a person in a positive or negative form. 6. Attitude is relatively stable phenomena: Attitude is basically a stable phenomenon which persists for a period of time. It does not change so frequently. FUNCTIONS OF ATTIUDE: “Attitude allows us to respond to the individual or object in a meaningful way or manner.” It is necessary to hold a certain kind of attitude because of the below mentioned functions: Utilitarian Functions of Ego Knowledge Attitude Defence Value Expressive Unit–II 17 1. Utilitarian An attitude has a utility to develop certain kind of behavior which helps a person to draw conclusions. It is the attitude which helps one in obtaining reward or avoiding punishment. “A worker finds that when he expresses a negative attitude towards his boss, his co-workers pay attention to and sympathies with him, but when he expresses a positive attitude, he is ignored or chastened. The negative attitude is instrumental in obtaining rewards (acceptance) and avoiding punishment (reflection)”. 2. Ego-defence Individuals usually create these conducts to protect their own self-images. For example , a person may feel discouraged in their organization by the employment or development of female employees and may develop biases towards new employees as well. He may develop an attitude such as rookies being less skilled or less experienced and may mistreat such workers, this is known as an attitude of ego protection which is usually developed and used to cope with a sense of guilt or risk. That sort of mindset will remain unchanged until it eliminates this feeling. 3. Value Expressive The attitude of one is the reflection of his system of values and the value of expressive attitudes depends on our concept of oneself. One who values freedom is the individual who expresses very positive attitudes towards the organization's decentralization of authority and provides a cordial work environment. 4. Knowledge Knowledge pertaining to a particular object leads to a positive attitude towards that object and absence of knowledge leads to negative attitude towards that object. In the absence of knowledge sometimes we form stereotype attitude too. FORMATION OF ATTITUDE Individuals usually learn attitudes from various sources, it should be noted that attitudes are formed but not inherited from them. Among the most significant attitude-gaining sources are: 18 Organizational Behaviour Direct experience with the object Classical Mass conditioning communication and Attitude Formation of Economic Attitude Vicarious condition and learning occupation Family and Peer Neighborhood groups 1. Direct experience with the object One can form attitude towards an object with the help of his direct exposure or direct experience of that object. Employees, for example , generally form their attitude to jobs based on their previous experiences. Attitudes can develop from an object experience which is personally rewarding or punishable. And the attitude created by experience can hardly be modified. 2. Classical conditioning and attitude One can also develop attitude with the help of classical condition. If an event occurs again and again, it develops a different kind of learning and that will leads towards a particular kind of attitude. Operant conditioning and Attitude acquisition One can also develop an attitude with the help of operant conditioning. According to Skinner (1938), “operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and consequence”. According to this theory learning a behavior is usually followed by a Unit–II 19 reward or punishment. Operant conditioning depicts that the behavior of an individual is depend on the kind of different situations. Generally people used to act in a certain way when they get rewards and sometimes people used to discourage actions from when they're not getting something. Such conduct may create a particular sort of attitude. 3. Vicarious learning One can also learn certain things by observing the behavior of other people which automatically develop a certain kind of attitude. And this learning is known as vicarious learning in which a person learns by observing behavior of others. For example watching TV, movies etc. 4. Family and Peer groups A person may also learn the attitudes by imitating his or her parents or other family members. Even from his party of peers too. If parents have a positive attitude toward a particular phenomenon, the child will admire his parents, and it is evident that he will adopt a similar attitude, even without being told. Similarly, behaviors in universities, schools, are learned from peer groups. 5. Neighborhood Sometimes neighbors also play a significant role in developing a particular kind of attitude. Each and every neighbor has something different value system or culture aspects which will automatically provide a kind of impact on our personality. 6. Economic condition and occupation The economic condition and work-related roles of one often lead a great deal to the creation of a certain kind of behavior, and this will shape an attitude automatically. Our socio-economic history has a very important part to play in our current and future attitudes. 7. Mass communication Mass media like television, radio, newspaper, and magazines can also add a lot to somebody's personality. Media coverage is designed to build a public attitude. CHANGING OF ATTITUDE Employee behaviors that operate within an organization may be modified because it is in the best interest of the organization. Yet change is complicated, because there are some hurdles in it. Hurdles to change Usually people resist change of attitude because of balance and consistency theory of attitude. Accordingly, a person wants their attitudes towards people and things to be in line with one another's 20 Organizational Behaviour own acts and objects (i.e. safe, consistent). If habits aren't identical and consistent, people typically try rewarding internally to eliminate differences. The second barrier When a person is bound by certain commitment or protocol then his attitude is really hard to change like every organization has some different kind of value system, protocol etc. The third barrier Sometimes a person sees no strong cause or sufficient amount of information then that person finds it difficult to change his attitude. WAYS OF CHANGING ATTITUDE There are certain ways for changing attitudes which are as follows: 1. Providing new information When a person is well informed with all latest and accurate information about a particular object then that person changes himself accordingly. New information always helps change attitudes. Once employees become conscious of the fact that the management think about the welfare of the workers, they modify their attitude and turn pro-management. 2. Use of Fear Sometimes fear can prove to be a powerful weapon for changing attitude. The change will no doubt depend on the degree of fear. Yet often people tend to become stubborn in their actions when they are being challenged too far and people can fail to adjust. 3. Influence of friends or peers Changes of attitude can also be influenced by friends or peers. Here credibility of the peers or friends matters a lot. Peers or friends having high creditability put more influence on change. 4. The co-opting approach Co-opting also can be an efficient means of changing habits. When people are unhappy with a particular situation, and involve them in changing things. Co-opting can be the most effective form of changing attitude. 5. Others It is also found that a person is more likely to alter an attitude kept in private than one that he has publicly mentioned. Unit–II 21 Ways of changing Attitude Providing New Information Use of Fear Influence of friends or peers The co-opting approach Others ATTITUDE AND PREJUDICE Many times people consider attitude and prejudice the same as both are people's feelings and expressions, but there is a considerable difference between the two. Among all human beings attitude is a very normal phenomenon. People usually have both positive and negative attitudes towards different things, and they may favor something or not. While prejudice is a prejudice over something without knowing the facts behind that particular situations or having exposed it to a situation's reality. Most of the prejudice is contradictory with the actual situation. However, the fact remains that almost every person can see both attitudes and prejudices. Gordon Allport described attitudes as "the most distinctive and indispensable concept in contemporary social psychology. Attitude is an important part of one's personality and one's way of thinking is a very important basis for creating the kind of life we want to live in. No doubt attitude and discrimination are both essential condition of one's personality and one's way of thinking is a very important basis for creating the kind of life we want to live in. No doubt attitude and discrimination are both essential condition of one's personality and both contribute to one's behavior or lifestyle. They are still feeling emotional against someone;. Attitude may be targeted at a individual, an event, a location, or a circumstance, but bias is targeted at a person of community. Positive or negative disposition positive or unfavorable, but discrimination is often a negative felling. Attitudes are usually developed after a full investigation into a particular issue or event or circumstance or individual, while prejudice is founded on bias without any investigation being carried out. Prejudice can be regarded as an attitude which is not established without examining the evidence. All attitudes and biases can change over time as they are not ideologies of permanence. When people are aware of their emotions, they can better control their behaviors and attempt to change them before it is demonstrated by behaviour. Research evidence indicates a behavioral shift can alter values and attitudes. 22 Organizational Behaviour PERSONALITY: MEANING AND DEFINITION Personality is a term derived from the Latin word 'persona' which means mask or dress up. This is a mix of certain characteristics or qualities which define the character of a person. This is a dynamic phenomenon that combines many distinct human traits. It's hard to grasp as it has contextual personal characteristics to it. Personality defines a person's recurring psychological patterns or emotions, feelings, beliefs, and behavior. It represents the overall profile or combination of stable traits capturing a person's unique nature. Personality has components, internal as well as external. External characteristics or physical features are measurable actions based on which we draw inferences about the personality of a individual. The inner factors or cognitive characteristics are inherently more complex feelings, thoughts, ideas, values and interests. Definition According to G W Allport, “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determines his unique adjustment to his environment.” According to R. B. Cattell, “Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation.” According to Hogan, “Personality refers to the relatively stable pattern of behaviors and consistent internal states that explain a person’s behavioral tendencies.” According to Eysenck, “Personality is more or less a stable and enduring organization of a person’s character, temperament, intelligence and physique which determine his unique adjustment to the environment.” According to Allport, “Personality is the dynamic organization with the individual of those psycho- physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.” According to Valentine, “Personality is the sum total of innate and acquired disposition.” According to Child, “Personality refers to more or less stable, internal factors that makes one person’s behavior consistent from one time to another and different from the behavior of other people would manifest in comparable situations.” Burges says, “Personality is an individual’s unique and relatively stable pattern of behavior, thoughts and feelings.” Thus, personality is a reflection of the overall behavior of a person. It is the sum of all the actions and reactions of a person towards other persons. Every person has a unique personality and they act in different situations in a different way according to their personality traits. Every manager should have understanding of personality dimensions of employees in order to manage them. Managers have to use varied motivation techniques to influence the behavior of their employees. Unit–II 23 Characteristics or Nature of Personality Psycho-physical System Adjustment Ability Uniqueness Persistency Goal Directed THE MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MST') The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality assessment questionnaire pinpoints varied psychological preferences of people while decision making. This is a popular questionnaire containing 100 questions and is widely used to comprehend personalities' different work setting. This questionnaire was developed by Isabel Myers and Katherine B based on their work with Carl Jung's theory of personality type. This questionnaire inquires people about their feelings or actions in particular situations. The MBTI helps in assessing personality types. It is a useful determinant of communication preferences during management employees. It also assists in employing 'right person at the right job' during selection process. The Four different scales of the questionnaire: Extraversion (E) Sensing (S) Introversion (I) Intuition (N) Thinking (T) Judging (J) Feeling (F) Perceiving (P) On the basis of these four scales, the following 16 four letters code were generated The sixteen personality traits according MBTI ISTJ - The Inspector INFJ - The Advocate ESTP - The Persuader ENFP - The Champion ISTP - The Crafter INFP - The Mediator ESTJ - The Director ENFJ - The Giver ISFJ - The Protector INTJ - The Architect ESFP - The Performer ENTP - The Debater ISFP - The Artist INTP - The Thinker ESFJ - The Caregiver ENTJ - The Commander 24 Organizational Behaviour These personality divisions provide an insight about the personality of a person or tendencies of his/her behavior. According to the Myers & Briggs, it is important to note that every personality type has its own merits and demerits. The strength and weaknesses of every individual should be considered in group tasks to achieve the desired objectives. THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY MODEL The big five model of personality or popularly known as the ‘Big Five’ is a part of ‘Trait theories of Personality’. Earlier trait theories illustrated variety of possible traits. Some of the popular theories are “Gordon Allport's list of 4,000 personality traits, Raymond Cattell's 16 personality factors, and Hans Eysenck's three-factor theory. The five core personality traits theory has been supported by many researches such as D. W. Fiske (1949), Norman (1967), and Goldberg (1981). Robert McCrae and Paul Costa (1987) later developed the Five-Factor Model, or FFM, which describes personality in terms of five broad factors.” The big five personality model describes the essential traits that are the fundamentals of personality of a person. Curiously, all five personality variables indicate a variation between two extremes, i.e. high or low. Individuals in the real world normally fall between these two extremes somewhere in between. The five factors of this model or fives traits of the personality are: 1. Agreeableness 2. Extraversion 3. Conscientiousness 4. Neuroticism 5. Openness to experiences Five Traits of Personality Agreeableness Extraversion Conscientiousness Neuroticism Openness to experiences Unit–II 25 A brief description of the above five factors are as follows: 1. Agreeableness: It applies to one person's willingness to get along with others. The trait is characterized by confidence, collaboration, compassion and empathy. Those who are highly agreeable value harmony more than just having a say or a way. They're cooperative, and trust other people. People who concentrate more on their own needs than on acceptability needs of those who are weak. Note: The acronym CANOE (for conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion) is helpful while remembering the big five personality traits. 2. Extroversion: It represents the degree of comfort a person has with relationships. Extroverts are sociable, talkative, assertive and open to new relations. Introverts are less sociable, less talkative, less assertive, and more reticent about beginning new relationships. 3. Conscientiousness: This trait refers to the number of targets a person is focusing on. At one point, a person of high conscience focuses on very few goals. Such individuals are believed to appear to be well organized, cautious, responsible, self-disciplined, and centered. A person with low conscientiousness tends to be less concentrated, and at one time may seek to accomplish several goals. 4. Neuroticism or Emotional stability: This personality trait centers on the ability of an individual to cope with stress. Emotionally stable individuals tend to be calm, enthusiastic and secure. The emotionally unstable person, on the contrary, appears to be anxious and deprived with insecurities. 5. Openness to Experiences: Creativity and innovation intrigue especially transparent humans. They 're willing to listen to new ideas in reaction to new knowledge, and change their own ideas, beliefs and attitudes. At the other hand, those with low levels of transparency tend to be less inclined towards new 26 Organizational Behaviour ideas and less likely to change their minds, respectively. These do seem to be less adventurous and have less and fewer focused interests. The “Big Five” framework is considered valuable for managers as study of these personality dimensions give them with the power to predict the behavior of individuals in certain situations. However, there are many demographic, cultural, and environmental factors that influence the Big Five traits. These factors should be taken into consideration while taking decisions based on The Big Five Personality dimensions. Several other Personality Measures or Traits Self Monitoring Other Proactive Self Efficacy Personality Personality Traits Self Esteem In addition to the Big Five, researchers have suggested several other personality measures, or traits. Things include self-monitoring, self-esteem, positive temperament and self-efficacy. 1. Self-Monitoring: It refers to the degree to which a person is capable in social contexts of controlling his or her behavior and appearance. "People who are social monitors are social chameleons who understand what the situation demands and act accordingly, while low social monitors tend to act the way they feel (Snyder, 1974)". 2. Proactive personality: This refers to the desire of a person to correct what is wrong, to change things and to use initiative to overcome problems. Rather of waiting to be told wlat to do, positive people are taking steps to bring about real change and through the barriers that they face along the way. Proactive individuals tend to be more effective in both work searches and career paths. 3. Self-esteem: It's the degree to which a person has positive feelings about himself or herself overall. People with a high self-esteem take a positive view of themselves are confident and respect themselves. Those with low self-esteem, by comparison, experience high levels of self-doubt and challenge their Unit–II 27 self-worth. High self-esteem is linked to higher levels of work satisfaction and higher levels of performance on the job. 4. Self-efficacy: It is a belief that one can perform a specific task successfully. Evidence indicates the assumption that anything we can do is a strong indicator of how we can actually do it. Self-efficacy varies from other personality characteristics, since it is unique to the task. You may have a high degree of self-efficacy in being academically effective but low self-efficacy with respect to your ability to repair your car. Factors Influencing development of Personality Factors influencing development of personality Biological or Environmental Psychological Situational Hereditary Physique, Social, Cultural, Mental Intelligence, Geographical, Development, Gender Family will power, Environment attitude, Relationship between Personality and Organizational Behavior The study of personality has a significant impact on Organizational behavior. If an entrepreneur wants to run his business organization successfully and smoothly, then it is very essential to understand the key components of personality traits. To understand the concept of human behavior, one needs to understand the different concepts of personality. And study of human behavior itself included in the study of Organizational behavior. Many decisions are taken in an organization in which personality and their traits play a significant role, it can be shown in the following diagram: 28 Organizational Behaviour Matching Job with people Determining Control System Determining Motivation System Short Questions: 1. Define attitude. 2. Differentiate between prejudice and attitude. 3. Explain the meaning of personality. 4. What are the various components of attitude. 5. Define prejudice. Long Questions: 1. What do you mean by the term personality? Explain the Big five Personality model in detail. 2. Write a detailed note on additional work related aspects of personality 3. What do you mean by attitude. Explain process of formation of attitude in detail 4. Explain the components of attitude and also explain function of attitude. 5. Define prejudice. In what ways prejudice is different from attitude. UNIT – 3 Unit 3: Includes - Perception: meaning and definition, - Process of Perception, - Factors influencing perception, - Perceptual errors or distortions. - Group Dynamics and Team Development: Group dynamics- definition and importance, - Types of groups, - Group formation, - Group development, - Group performance factors, - Group norms, - Group status, - Group size, cohesiveness, social loafing. - Team: types, - Team composition factors, - Team development. Objectives: Aim of this unit is to acquaint students with the: a. Meaning, process of perception and factors influencing perception b. Meaning of Group dynamics, procedure of group formation, types of groups and group performance factors c. The concept team, types of team, composition of team and team development PERCEPTION: Perception can be characterized as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their measurable experiences so as to give sense to their situation. Whoever it may be, maybe what you see may not be exactly the same as target reality. This doesn't have to be, but there's a daily difference e.g.: It's possible that all members of an organization with an excellent working atmosphere, fantastic working conditions, interesting job mission, great pay, understanding and diligent administration but, as most of us know, discovering such a place of work is very shocking. Throughout OB’s investigation, awareness is critical throughout light of the cons of individuals. 30 Organizational Behaviour According to Joseph Reitz; “Perception includes all those processes by which an individual receives information about his environment—seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling.” In the words of Luthens Fred, “Perception is an active psychological process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.” Udai Pareek said, “Perception can be defined as the process of receiving, selecting, organising, interpreting, checking and reacting to sensory stimuli or data.” According to Rickey Griffin, “Perception is a set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about the environment.” Characteristics or nature of perception Mental Process Subjective Process Provides meaning to Stimulus Activation Process Provides check on behavior Process of Perception: There are three stages of perception process are; 1. Selection. 2. Organization. 3. Interpretation. Process of Preception Selection Organization Interpretation Unit–III 31 Selection The world around us was packed with endless stimuli that we should follow, but our brains didn't have the energy to pay attention to everything. And the first decision stage is to decide what we want. When we pick one object in our universe, whether it's a smell, a feeling, a sound, or something else, it's the stimulus that's being attended. Selecting is the first aspect of the perception process, where we concentrate our attention on the sensory feedback that is coming in. In selection, we choose stimuli which attract our attention. We focus on those that distinguish our senses (seeing, sound,smell, taste and touch). Organization When we have chosen to take care of stimuli in the world, and the option sets in our brain a sequence of reactions. This neural process starts when our sensory receptors (touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing) are triggered. Organizing is the second part of the process of perception in which we sort and categorize information we perceive based on cognitive patterns that are innate and learnt. Through using proximity, similarity, and difference (Stanley, mo), we sort items into patterns three ways. Interpretation Having attended to a stimulus, and having obtained and arranged the information from our minds, we perceive it in a way that makes sense using our current knowledge. The word Interpretation means we're taking the information we've sensed and organized and turning it into something we can classify. We can better understand and react to the world around us by putting different stimuli into the categories. Other experiences include sensing, arranging, and processing details about people and what they are doing and doing. The feeling is a primary function of perception, because it relates to external information. First of all the perceiver will pick what will be experienced in the perceptual phase. Instead, as listeners recognize the type of sound and equate it with other sounds heard in the past, the organization is retained. Interpretation and categorization are generally the most subjective areas of perception, since they involve decisions as to whether listeners like what they hear and want to continue listening. We conduct instant assessments that cause unconscious conclusions of positive and negative reactions to others outside of our consciousness. Selection, organization, and interpretation of perceptions can differ from one person to another. Based on these, the perceptual performance of the perceiver implies varying beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, etc. Therefore, when people react differently in a situation, by examining their perceptual process, they can explain part of their behavior, and how their perceptions lead to their responses. Factors Affecting Perception Perception is the technique a man or woman uses to select, „oz and interpret facts to create a meaningful picture. However, perception no longer relies solely on the physical stimulus but also on the relationship between the stimulus and the surrounding environment and the conditions within the person. Perception is a way by which people arrange and interpret their sensory perceptions to provide their environment with what means. 32 Organizational Behaviour How one perceives, however, can be significantly different from objective truth. It is the system that selects, receives prepares and interprets the data from the outdoor surroundings to make it significant. This input of significant selections and behavior resulting in the details. A number of elements work to form and distort perception from time to time. These elements may live in the perceiver within the perceived object or goal, or in the context of the situation in which the understanding is made. When a person arrives at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she sees, the perception is closely influenced by the individual perceiver's personal traits. Personal traits which affect perception consist of the attitudes, personalities, motivations, interests, past experiences, and expectations of a individual. There are certain elements that affect the goal like- novelty, motion, sounds, size, background, proximity, similarity, etc. The characteristics of the destination being determined will influence what is perceived. Since goals no longer exist in isolation, the relationship between a goal and its context also affects interpretation, as does our propensity to group dosing items together and comparable matters. There are also certain situational factors, such as the time of perceiving others, work environments, social settings, etc., which affect the process of perception. Besides these: there are several separate elements such as perceptual learning which is entirely based on previous experiences or any extraordinary training we receive: each of us learns to prioritize certain sensory stimuli and ignore others. Another issue is the mental set: which refers to being prepared or ready to acquire a certain sensory input. This anticipation holds the disciplined man or woman with favorable attention and focus. The understanding stage we have may also change how we perceive his or her behaviors. For instance; if a person knows that his friend is being pressured for household troubles then she may forget her snappy comments. Learning has an important perceptional effect. In humans it generates anticipation. Additionally, the essence of the matters that must be interpreted is an important factor. By nature we mean, whether or not the object is visible or audible, and whether or not it includes images, persons or animals. With the assistance of every human being's physiological and psychological characteristics, perception is determined when feeling is conceived with only the physiological characteristics. Therefore, perception is no longer simply what one sees through the eyes it is a far more complex mechanism by which a person selectively absorbs or assimilates the stimuli in the world, cognitively organizes the interpreted data into a specific pattern and then interprets the information to make an assessment of what is happening in one's setting. When a man or woman appears at a target and tries to interpret what he or she sees, that interpretation is closely influenced by the perceiving person's personal characteristics. Perception Errors Unit–III 33 There are a few mistakes in perception which are describes as follows: 1. Illusion. 2. Hallucination. 3. Halo Effect. 4. Stereotyping. 5. Similarity. 6. Horn Effect. 7. Contrast. Illusion Contrast Hallucination Perception Errors Horn Effect Halo effect Similarity Stereotyping Illusion False thinking is delusion. The individual is going to botch an improvement here, and see it wrongly. In darkness, for example, a rope is mixed up like a snake, or the other way around. An unknown individual's voice is mixed up like the voice of a friend. An person that remains a way off and that may not be seen as a recognized entity. Hallucination Wherever the individual sees any stimuli, it can't in present in any situation. This mystery is called Hallucination. The person may see an object, a person, and so on, or he may hear some voice out, but there are actually no articles and sounds. Halo effect Individuals are evaluated on the basis of apparent positive quality, aspect, or function. A corona impact works when we draw a general impression about a person based.4 for example, on a solitary trademark, knowledge, friendliness or appearance. In the end of the day, that is the tendency to score a man 34 Organizational Behaviour consistently high or low in different characteristics on the off chance that he is exceedingly high or low in one specific attribute: if a worker does not have several unfortunate shortcomings, his boss will award him a high rating in any other region of work. Stereotyping Individuals will typically fall into a general class based on physical or social characteristics in either situation, and then they are assessed. We use the simple route called stereotyping at the point where we judge others based on our understanding of the gathering that the individual has a place to. Similarity Frequently, individuals will in general search out and rate all the more emphatically the individuals who are like themselves. This propensity to affirm of comparability may make evaluators give better appraisals to representatives who show similar interests, work techniques, perspectives or models. Horn Effect At the point where the person is judged solely on the basis of an obvious negative attribute or highlight. These findings are lower than an acceptable rate in a general ranking. He can't spruce up in the office, which is why he could possibly grind away too. Contrast The propensity to rate individuals comparative with others instead of to the individual execution the individual is doing. Or maybe will assess a representative by contrasting that worker's exhibition and different workers. Group Dynamics A group is when "two or more people share a common definition and evaluation of themselves and behave in accordance with such a definition." (Vaughan & Hogg, 2002, Page 200). According to Keith Davis – “The social process by which people interact face to face in small groups is called group dynamics. It is concerned with the interaction of individuals in a face to face relationship. It focuses on team work, wherein small groups are constantly in contact with each other and share their ideas to accomplish the given tasks.” Importance of Group Dynamics The following importance of group dynamics as under: The group can influence the way it believes the members. The leaders are often informed by other leaders interacting within the party. Compared to a group with a bad leader, a group with a strong leader makes good. 1. The group will provide the impact of collective effort, i.e. if the collective is made up of positive thinking then each time its performance is more than double. 2. Apart from that, group dynamism can give the individuals work fulfillment. 3. Group may also impart the spirit of the team among members. Unit–III 35 4. Also members' attitudes & ideas depend on group dynamism. For example, with the help of the facilitator negative thinkers convert to positive thinkers. Types of Group A common way of classifying a group is through whether they are formal or informal in nature or not. Formal working groups are set up to achieve Organizational goals through an organization. Also, formal groups could take the form of command groups, task groups, and functional groups. It is decided by using the Organizational chart that depicts accepted formal connections within an organization between persons. Examples of command group are managers and faculty members in a business school, college managers and teachers, manufacturing supervisors and supervisors, and so on. Types Of Groups Command Groups Task Groups Functional Groups 1. COMMAND GROUPS Through the aid of the Organizational map, command groups are assured, and sometimes consist of a supervisor and the subordinates who report to that supervisor. An example of a command group is the president of the academic division and the representatives of the faculty within that department. 2. TASK GROUPS Task groups consist of people working collectively to attain a common task. Members are collectively added to achieve a narrow variety of goals within a specified period of time. Task groups are often referred to as task forces, too. The organization appoints members and assigns the targets and duties to be fulfilled. Examples of assigned tasks include the development of a new product, the enhancement of a production process or the motivational contest proposal. 3. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS With the support of the enterprise a functional group is formed to accomplish dear objectives within an unspecified time frame. Functional organizations remain in place until existing goals d priorities have been accomplished. Examples of functional group may be a department for advertising and marketing, a department for the customer service, or an accounting department. Unlike formal groups, informal groups are shaped naturally and responsively to individuals' common interests and shared values. They are created for purposes other than the attainment of Organizational objectives and no longer have a specified time frame. Informal groups may have a significant effect both 36 Organizational Behaviour pleasant and negative in groups. Informal groups may take the font of interest groups, groupings of friendships or reference groups. Informal Group – There are different types of informal groups: Types of Informal Groups Interest Groups Friendship Groups Reference Groups 1. INTEREST GROUPS. Interest groups generally go on over time, and may also end longer than general informal groups. Furthermore, leaders of interest groups may not be in the same Organizational department process today, but they are certain collectively by some shared interest. Team hobbies' aspirations and ambitions are special to each group and can no longer be aligned with corporate expectations and goals. College students who work together to create a community learning for a particular class will be an example of an interest group. 2. FRIENDSHIP GROUPS Friendship groups are influenced by members sharing common social events, political views, oral values, or different regular bonds. Members enjoy the company of each other, and meet frequently to engage in these events after work. For example, as soon as a month, a group of employees structuring a friendship group may also have an exercise group, a softball team, or a potluck lunch. Friendship groups enhance things to do or stage the office drama among the Organizational members when they share some common hobby such as taking part in certain sports activities, etc. 3. REFERENCE GROUPS A reference category is kind of a category that people use to find themselves. The fundamental purposes of the reference groups, Cherrington says, are social validation and social comparison. Public approval encourages people to explain their behaviors and beliefs and public affirmation enables individuals to understand their own actions by comparing themselves against others. Reference classes have a significant impact on the actions of members. Through discussing themselves with other stakeholders, individuals will evaluate if their conduct is acceptable or not, and whether their behaviors and beliefs are right or wrong. Unit–III 37 Group Development Stages of Group Development Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning According to the Five-Stage Model of group development, groups go through five distinct stages during the process of its development. These are as follows: 1. Forming is the early stage of community growth where the group leaders come in touch with each other first and get to know each other. This stage is primarily characterized by a feeling of confusion among the group participants as they are now trying to develop floor policies and relationship patterns among themselves. 2. Storming is the next stage characterized by a high level of conflict between the members. Members often show greater animosity to each other and resist influence by the chief. If such disputes are no longer resolved correctly, the community can also dissolve additionally. Nonetheless, usually the group ends up in phrases with all the specific and recognizes the position of leadership at this stage's giving up. 3. Norming is the third stage of the group growth process at some point where the individuals of the group come closer to each other and the group continues to act as a cohesive unit. The group members now identify with the group and share a responsibility to achieve the group's desired stage of success. The standardization stage is complete when members of the community can set a common goal and decide on how to accomplish it. 4. Performing is the fourth stage when the group is prepared to start its work sooner or later. As the group is now fully formed after their intemal acceptance and sharing responsibility conflicts, pave been resolved, they can now devote strength to achieving their goals. 38 Organizational Behaviour 5. Adjouming is the closing stage when the group starts to dissolve itself periodically after meeting the goals for which it was once formed. Group Performance Factors A group is described as two or more interacting and independent individuals who have collectively come to attain specific goals. With the assistance of certain significant variables or influences, group habits are influenced or influenced. The principal variables are: 1. Formal leadership: Virtually every task force has a structured chief. Superior, foreman, mission chief, department manager, general manager, chairman or managing director etc. are the general titles of such leaders. Such leaders may play an important role in the success of the party. Furthermore they are responsible for group loss. 2. Roles: The world is a stage, with all men and women simply being players. All individuals in groups are actors; they enjoy distinctive kinds of roles. A function is a projected action in a social unit at a given position. Specific groups place extraordinary positions on particular individuals. In a community, we can have unique ideas about function. Formal Leadership Group Roles Cohesion Group Performance Factors Composition of the Group Norms Group Group Size Status Unit–III 39 Role identity: there are positive behaviors and attitudes that are consistent with a position. This is called identity of role. Perception of the role: Team leaders want perception of the role. Task comprehension in an individual's understanding of how he or she will behave in a given situation. Role expectations: Role expectations are described as how others behave in a given situation when one needs to act. Role conflict: Role conflict is a scenario in which a man or woman is confronted through expectations of a divergent role. 3. Norms: Both classes have certain norms set up. Norms refer to suitable behavioral requirements that are shared by members of the group. Formalized principles are written in corporate documents, and certain rules and legislation are guaranteed to be followed by all individuals within an organization. But in organizations most norms are informal. 4. Group status: Status may also be described, through others, as a social rank or position given in a group. We live in a community organized by categories. Status is important to leaders of the party. 5. Group size: The group dimension determines the ordinary overall performance or behavior of the group. Small groups are faster at assignment finish than big ones. If the group is influenced by problem solving, the best for small groups is to large groups. So if the aim of the hand is to achieve productivity, smaller groups are better. 6. Composition of the group: Since group is affiliation with variety of abilities and knowledge of unique kinds of humans. If a group is heterogeneous in terms of age , gender, ethnicity, educational background, attitudes , beliefs, abilities, and expertise as an alternative to homogeneous, it can be tremendous to a job as a whole. 7. Group cohesion: The degree to which individuals are attracted to each other and inspired to remain in the group is known as group cohesiveness. The cohesiveness of group behavior is considerably affected by the use of group. The following suggestions can make cohesiveness of a larger group: i. the group smaller a. Make Increase the members spend together b. Encourage agreement about group goals c. Increase the status of the group d. Stimulate opposition with different group e. Give reward to the group rather than the members f. Physically isolate the group Social loafing Social loafing refers to people 's propensity to put even less energy into functioning within a group context. This phenomenon, further considered to be the Ringelmann effect, was first cited in 1913 through the French agricultural engineer Max Ringelmann. In one study, in my view, and in groups, he had human beings pull on a rope. He concluded that as the number of pulling people grew, the overall 40 Organizational Behaviour pulling pressure of the group used to be much less than the effort of the individual had been when measured alone. Teams and Types of Teams Teams have a wide variety of things to do. They will produce products, provide services, conclude deals, plan projects, advise and take decisions. The four most popular types of groups that you are likely to find in an organization are defined aptly throughout this section: problem-solving teams, self-managed work teams, cross-fiction teams and virtual teams. Problem Solving Team Project Types of Multifunct Team Team ional Team Self Managed Team 1. Problem-Solving Teams The feedback or offer suggestions about how to develop work strategies and approaches in problem- solving teams. Rarely, however, are such teams allowed to arbitrarily bring all of their supported behavior into law. Some of the most widely practiced functions of problem-solving teams at some point in the 1980s was once great circles that are working teams of eight to ten workers and managers who have a common place of duty and typically meet to address their best issues, see why the problems occur, propose solutions, and take corrective action. 2. Multifunctional teams There are teams made up of around the same hierarchical level of workers, but from distinct areas of work that come together to accomplish a task. The goal was to improve verbal communication and job tracking, leading to better productivity and more happy customers. 3. Self-managed teams Self-managed teams work in many departments to organize complex tasks involving research , design, process creation, and even resolution of Organizational problems , particularly for cross-departmental projects involving people of similar age. Although a self-managed team's internal leadership style is fantastic from ordinary management and helps to neutralize the often-related problems with ordinary leadership styles, a self-managed group also needs to assist senior management to function effectively. Unit–III 41 Additionally, the teams which are self-managed can be interdependent or independent. Of course, the mere mistreatment by a self-managed team of a team of people does not make them both a team and self managed. 4. Project teams Also known as an enterprise team will be a team which was used solely for a given period of time and for a specific, clearly definable purpose. Typically managers label human groups as "teams" based primarily on having a common goal. Members of these teams may belong to different groups, but tasks for the same project may be assigned, allowing outsiders to see them as a single entity. Short Questions: 1. Define perception 2. Explain the perceptual errors? 3. What do you mean by group dynamics? 4. Explain the term team. 5. Explain the conce

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