2HY 2024 Heroes & Villains: Stalin Booklet PDF

Name/Tutor:........................... 2HY 2024 Heroes & Villains STALIN Because, in History, one person’s hero is another person’s villain… 1  The Cast of Heroes and/or Villains: Part I: 1....

Name/Tutor:........................... 2HY 2024 Heroes & Villains STALIN Because, in History, one person’s hero is another person’s villain… 1  The Cast of Heroes and/or Villains: Part I: 1. Xerxes – and Ancient Persia 2. Genghis Khan – and the Mongols 3. Boudicca – and the Celtic revolt Half-Yearly Examination Part II: 1. Henry VIII – Tudor England 2. Stalin – and Communist Russia Annual Examination Part III: 1. Richard the Lionheart Inquiry Questions 1. Who was our historical figure and what did they do? (consider politics, religion, the military, social reforms) 2. How does understanding their context (historical period) help to understand their actions? (consider their childhood and family, society and its norms) 3. What does the available source material tell us about our historical figure? 4. How can we explain the different opinions held about our historical figure? 2  Glossary Bolsheviks Mensheviks Marxism Communism Socialism Capitalism Leninism Bourgeoisie Proletariat Provisional Government Dictatorship of the proletariat April Theses Red Guard Soviets Coup Pravda Soviet of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom) Civil war Red Army White armies Green armies War Communism New Economic Policy (NEP) Kulaks Industrialisation Collectivisation 3 Timeline 4 5  Context: 20th Century Russia The Empire of Russia was proclaimed in 1721 and established itself as one of the European great powers. As the map above shows, Russia consisted of a vast expanse of territory. It was ruled by a Tsar (a king, but essentially an emperor after 1721) until the 1917 revolution. The Tsars (Slavic word for emperor, derived from the Latin ‘caesar’) had absolute power. Russia officially became the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922, until this was dissolved in 1991, and then went back to just being Russia. Our story begins in the late 1800s. In the late 1800s, Russia was the largest country in the world. Stretching from the Black Sea in Europe to the Bering Straits in the extreme east of Asia. It would take at least ten days to travel from one end to another by train. The sheer size made it a difficult country to govern. It had a population of approximately 125 million. Half of these were ethnic Russians. The remainder included large numbers of Germans, Poles, Slavs and Asians. Russia had immense problems throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. The Romanov family was the reigning imperial house and had ruled Russia since 1613. Russia was a highly stratified society. Tsarist Russia was divided into separate social classes which had changed little since feudal systems. Over four-fifths of the population were peasants who lived in extremely poor conditions. Life expectancy in 1900 was only about 35 years, and most peasants lived in one room huts. In the winter they brought their few animals in with them, and 6 many slept on their stoves despite the cockroaches. The whole village was governed by a set of elders who enforced strict conformity, and society as a whole was extremely violent. At major holiday festivals like Christmas, fighting was common and often fatal. As historian Orlando Figes put it, “Peasant life in Russia really was nasty, brutish, and short. This was a culture in which life was cheap, and however one explains the origins of this violence, it was to play a major part in the revolution.” According to historian Michael Lynch, the 1897 census categorised the Russian people into the following classes: Upper classes: Royalty, nobility, higher clergy (Church leaders): 12.5 per cent. Middle classes: Merchants, bureaucrats, professionals: 1.5 per cent. Working classes: Factory workers, artisans, soldiers, sailors: 4 per cent. Peasants: Landed and landless farmers: 82 per cent. Even this is deceptive, however, because most workers, townsmen, and merchants had only recently left the land. In fact, workers in cities mostly continued with the traditional peasant dining practice where everyone sat around one pot and ate out of it with wooden spoons. Life in Russia was reminiscent of medieval feudalism, whereas nations around the rest of the world had developed economically and socially, due to the Industrial Revolution of 1760s-1840s. Tsar Nicholas II, in 1912 Russian peasants in 1912 Russia was also enormous. It spanned nearly 10,000 kilometres west to east and 3500 km north to south. This created significant problems for rulers, as they had to rely on regional officials to run their areas, and communication infrastructure was poor. Complicating the problem of distance was the problem of diversity. There were around twenty different nationalities within the Empire. Each had their own language and customs. Many did not speak Russian. Almost every major religion was represented within this diverse population. The Russian Empire had grown slowly for 300 years and in the process absorbed a wide range of minority groups, including Stalin’s native Georgia. Each group had its own area, language, and culture, and by the twentieth century nationalist tensions were growing. 7 Economically, as the massive peasant population attests, Russia still relied heavily on agriculture. In the early 20th century there were signs of progress. Agriculture was still much less efficient than in Western Europe and North America, but it was slowly improving in places. In terms of industry, Russia lagged well behind other industrialised nations, but was catching up quickly. Then World War I hit in 1914, and this crisis broke the Tsarist system. Historians debate whether or not Russia was on the road to more moderate development before 1917, but regardless, the Tsarist system fell in February 1917, and this is when Stalin became more important. ‘Bulak’ women dragging a river barge on the banks of the Volga River, circa 1900. What does such a picture tell us about the level of technology and infrastructure in Russia at this time? 8 Russia’s social structure was often depicted and lampooned in visual propaganda, such as several versions of the ‘Russian wedding cake’ (see picture below). In these depictions, Russian society is shown as a feudal pyramid, the upper classes propped up by the labour of the working masses – who are usually kept in check with work, religion and the threat of violence. Nestled atop this metaphorical pyramid was Russia’s royalty and aristocracy, who for the most part lived lives of comfort, isolated from the dissatisfactions of the lower classes. Noble titles and land ownership were the main determinants of privilege in tsarist Russia. The tsar himself was a significant landowner, holding the title of as much as ten per cent of arable land in western Russia. The Russian Orthodox church and its higher clergy also owned large areas of land. The Russian ‘wedding cake’ (social hierarchy) of the 19th century, date and author unknown. Which social classes can you spot? 9  Who was Stalin? Stalin was born Ioseb (Joseph) Besarionis dze Jughashvili on 18 December 1878 in the town of Gori, Tiflis Governorate, Russian Empire (present-day Georgia). His mother, Ketevan Geladze, was a housekeeper and his father, Besarion Jughashvili, worked as a cobbler. Ioseb eventually adopted the name “Stalin” from the Russian word for ‘steel’ and used it as an alias and pen name in his published works. Location of Georgia (in red) within the Soviet Union As a child, Stalin was plagued with numerous health issues. His face was left permanently scarred after contracting smallpox at the age of 7. Later, at age 12, his left arm was injured in an accident involving a horse-drawn carriage, rendering it shorter and stiffer than its counterpart. During the first several years of his life, Stalin and his mother were subjected to severe physical abuse at the hands of his father, who himself was struggling with severe alcoholism. When Geladze enrolled her son into an Orthodox Priesthood school against her husband’s wishes, he went on a public rampage and was ultimately banished from Gori for assaulting its police chief. He subsequently moved to the Georgian capital of Tbilisi, leaving his family behind. Stalin in 1894 10 When Stalin was sixteen, he received a scholarship to attend the Georgian Orthodox Tiflis Theological Seminary in Tbilisi. Although his performance had been satisfactory, he was expelled in 1899 after missing his final exams. The seminary’s records also suggest that he was unable to pay his tuition fees. (The ‘official’ Soviet version states that he was expelled for reading illegal literature and for forming a Social Democratic study circle.) Around this time, Stalin discovered the writings of Vladimir Lenin and decided to become a Marxist revolutionary, eventually joining the Bolsheviks in 1903 and becoming one of their chief operatives in the Caucasus (a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea that includes Georgia). His activities included organizing paramilitaries, inciting strikes, spreading propaganda, and raising money through bank robberies, ransom kidnappings, and extortion. Particularly notable was his involvement with the 1907 Tiflis bank robbery, which resulted in 40 deaths and the theft of 341,000 rubles (roughly US $3.4 million when adjusted for inflation); the incident would have long-lasting consequences for his political career. Stalin’s crimes began to draw the attention of the Okhranka (the secret police of the Russian Empire), and he was sent to Siberia on seven different occasions, and escaped five times, enjoying less than two years of liberty between 1908 to 1917. His final exile saw him conscripted by the Russian army to fight in World War I, but he was deemed unfit for service due to his deformed left arm. Stalin’s file with the Tsarist Police, 1910. What are your first impressions of Stalin? _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 11  OverSimplified – The Russian Revolution (Part 1, 21 min) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cqbleas1mmo 1. Describe what Russia was like in the 19th century. 2. What did Tsar Alexander III do to reform Russia? 3. Who was Vladimir Lenin? 4. What did Marx’s manifesto propose? 5. Why did communism appeal to the Russian workers of the late 19th century? 6. What political group did Lenin establish? Skip 9.30 – 10.45 minutes 7. What was industrialization in Russia like for workers? 8. Who won the war between Russia and Japan? 9. What disaster in 1905 pushed Russia into revolution? 10. How did Tsar Nicholas II resolve the 1905 Revolution? 12  11. How did Lenin and Stalin meet? 12. What did Stalin do to help the Bolsheviks? 13. Who was Rasputin? 14. What broke out in 1914? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Time for Revolution! Factors affecting the security of the Tsarist state https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z9qnsbk/revision/1 13  Crash Course World History: Capitalism and Socialism (14 min) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B3u4EFTwprM 1. True or False: Capitalism is only an economic system and not a cultural system. (1:04) 2. Describe mercantile capitalism and provide an example of how it operated in the past. (1:37) 3. How did industrial capitalism differ from mercantile capitalism? (2:30) 4. True or False: During the 19th century, a significant percentage of the British population worked in agriculture. (5:00) 5. What were some of the negative consequences of industrial capitalism mentioned in the video? (5:42) 6. True or False: Socialism is considered an imperfect opposite of capitalism. (7:44) 7. What role did class struggle play in Karl Marx's view of capitalism? (11:04) 8. True or False: John Green suggests that both capitalism and socialism continue to compete in modern society. (13:00) 14  Key Idea: Marxism As a result of the Tsar’s unlimited power the only way to challenge Tsarist autocracy was through acts of rebellion. Opposition groups began to grow as a consequence of successive Tsars’ refusal to grant reform and improve living conditions. Bolshevik ideology came from Karl Marx’s (1818-1883) theory of communism, with some contributions from his friend Friedrich Engels (1820-1895). They believed that society needed to go through a series of changes and revolutions to achieve the end goal of a communist society. Both men were German- born philosophers, political theorists, economists, and historians. Marx’s best-known works are the 1848 pamphlet The Communist Manifesto (with Friedrich Engels), and Das Kapital (1867-1894, it was completed by Engels after Marx’s death). Marx's ideas are known as Marxism, and have had enormous influence on modern intellectual, economic and political history. Valdimir Lenin, 1897 Karl Marx had promoted the idea that power should be in the hands of the masses. Revolutionary groups which combined Marx’s aims with their own goals developed in Russia. In 1898 the Russian Social Democrats Labour Party was formed in Russia. It was made up of several different groups of Marxists (people who follow the political philosophy of Karl Marx). In 1903, disagreements between the different factions led to a split in the party. Two new parties were formed – the Bolsheviks (translates to the ‘majority’ party) and the Mensheviks (the ‘minority’ party). The Mensheviks, led by Martov, wanted revolution from below (by the workers) to occur naturally. However, the Bolsheviks led by Lenin, believed revolution should come as soon as possible. Power would then be held by a small group (the dictatorship of the proletariat) until the workers were ready to rule themselves. The Bolsheviks were led by a young lawyer and political activist named Vladimir Ulyanov, who later became known by his codename, Lenin. Karl Marx on the left, and Friedrich Engels on the right. 15 In Marx’s model of communism, he envisioned several stages of communist ‘evolution’. The first stage, called primitive communism, related to hunter-gatherer societies that worked to support and provide for each other in their community (like how Native Americans lived before colonisation). The second stage was feudalism. This concerned societies that were run by monarchs who made the laws and ruled over their country alone. They usually had lords who were given large areas of land. The land was worked by peasants who had few rights and earned little money. This was what happened in medieval European countries. The third stage was capitalism. This is a society based on individual ownership and businesses focused on making a profit. Australia today is an example of a capitalist society. Capitalist societies are often accompanied by a form of democracy where the leader is chosen by the people. The fourth stage was socialism, which still allowed for private ownership but focused on fairer distribution of wealth across the population because the government decided how much things cost. Communism was the final stage of Marx’s theory. This is a classless system where all property is owned by the whole community and people take and use only what they need. Figure 1 Diagram showing the final four stages of Marxism To move from one stage to another, according to Marx there needed to be a conflict between the oppressed and the oppressor, with the oppressed able to defeat their oppressor. This is sometimes achieved through revolutions. In Russia, Tsar Nicholas II’s rule was an example of a feudal society. Under Nicholas II, the landowners were referred to as the nobility and were made up of a small number of wealthy and elite people. Below them were the middle class, called the bourgeoisie (they own a lot of society’s wealth and the means of production, such as factories and machinery). The lower class were called the proletariat and were made up of the workers; those who worked on farms and in factories. 16 Watch The Economist’s clip ‘Was Karl Marx right?’ (3:22min). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TMmDebW_OBI Summarise three things you have learnt from this clip. ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ Marxism in Russia In Marx’s theory, there is usually a reasonable period of time before the shift to the next stage (this could be hundreds of years or more), but in Russia, it was essentially skipped over. At the time of Marx, Russia was one of the last feudal countries in Europe. It was a mostly agricultural society until the early 20th century, when Nicholas II decided that Russia needed to industrialise. The February 1917 Revolution and the abolition (removal) of the Tsar should have been Russia’s shift from feudalism to capitalism; the bourgeoisie became the new rulers in the form of the Provisional Government. However, Marx’s version of communism (called Marxism) wasn’t exactly what was followed in Russia. The type of communism followed by the Bolsheviks is often referred to as Marxism- Leninism, or just Leninism, named for the leader of the Bolsheviks, Vladimir Lenin. In Marx’s capitalism stage, it is assumed that there is a strong and powerful bourgeoisie and a weak proletariat. But in Russia, the bourgeoisie was far from powerful. A lot of the opposition towards Nicholas II came from the proletariat and military who marched in the streets. As such, Leninism rushed through the capitalist stage and moved on to the socialist stage. The Bolshevik Revolution in October 1917 began the socialist stage, so capitalism was never properly established in Russia. Lenin believed that a single revolutionary party had to be formed to lead the people, as the people weren’t capable of leading themselves. This meant there was no need for the democratic parliament (the Duma). He favoured implementing a political dictatorship to then guide the people into ruling under the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ (this is where that political power is in the hands of members of the proletariat). After this, he expected that the need for any government would disappear and the society would become fully communist. 17 Key Bolshevik ideology can be summarised as follows: The belief that the working class of all countries (proletariat) must unite to overthrow the bourgeoisie and capitalism, to establish a socialist society (violent revolution is necessary!). A proletariat dictatorship, where the working class must take power, rule and suppress resistance from capitalists. Centralised planning, where the economy is completely managed by the state (government). Banning the ownership of private property so all property is communal and shared, to end the exploitation of workers by the bourgeoisie. The state (government) will gradually wither away, and society will become truly communist. Check your understanding! 1) Summarise the key stages of Marx’s communist model. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 1) Why did Russia essentially skip over the capitalist stage of Marxism? _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 18  OverSimplified – The Russian Revolution (Part 2, 15:30min) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b1reY72ktEc Play from start – 15:30min 1. Summarise Russia’s war effort against Germany. 2. How and why did WWI act as a catalyst for the 1917 Revolution? 3. What was the immediate outcome of the 1917 Revolution? Skip from 6.10 min to 7.40 min 4. How did Lenin get back to Russia? 5. What was the Bolshevik’s slogan? 6. Where did Lenin escape to in July 1917? 7. Who was Trotsky? 19  8. Summarise how Lenin took power. 9. True or false: The October Revolution was an incredibly violent, bloody uprising. Stop at 15:30min Factors that led to the October Revolution, 1917 https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/ztyk87h/revision/1 20  October Revolution of 1917 Although the Bolshevik Party had been quite insignificant before 1905, membership did begin to grow slowly thereafter. The leading Bolsheviks were determined and dedicated and never lost sight of their goal - a revolution that would bring power to the working classes. The October Revolution in 1917 was led by Vladimir Lenin and was based upon Lenin’s writing on the ideas of Karl Marx, a political ideology often known as Marxism-Leninism. The Bolshevik Party seized power in October l9l7 with very little opposition. The Provisional Government was removed with ease, and Lenin established a government based on the ideas of Marx. The factors that led to the October Revolution are complex and had been building for decades, but here is a brief summary of key factors: 1. Tsar Nicholas II was unable to rule effectively. He made poor decisions that led to worsening relations with the government and increased hardship for civilians and soldiers alike. 2. Members of the government tended to be increasingly weak and ineffective men. They owed their positions to winning favour with Nicholas and his wife, rather than their ability and effectiveness. 3. The imperial family was brought into disrepute as the Tsarina fell under the influence of Grigori Rasputin, a controversial Siberian monk. 4. Revolutionary groups such as the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks continued to build support 5. World War I began in 1914 and brought terrible suffering for Russian soldiers and civilians alike. Best estimates state that almost two million Russian soldiers were killed. A similar number of civilians also perished. Morale during this time was very low and the Russian people looked for someone to hold to account for their suffering. 6. From the start of the war, Russia's economic problems grew steadily worse. By the beginning of 1917, the country was facing virtual economic collapse. By 1916, inflation had reached 200 per cent 7. There was major discontent from the peasants and workers. Many of those conscription into the army had come from the Russian peasantry. By 1916 a third had been injured. This discontent culminated in brutal riots on February 23-27, 1917, in Petrograd (St. Petersburg). The people and the army called on Nicholas II to abdicate. He was forced to renounce the throne on March 2, and a temporary transitional government was established, called the Provisional Government. It lasted 8 months. While Lenin and the Bolsheviks did not orchestrate the February riots, they recognised that the people of Russia wanted dramatic change, and planned to take advantage of this political upheaval. In late 1917, Bolshevik leader Lenin decided that the conditions in Russia were ripe for revolution. 21  The October Coup of 1917 In April 1917 Lenin returned to Petrograd from exile. He established a new set of aims for the Bolshevik Party that included withdrawal from World War I, no cooperation with the Provisional Government, all land to be owned by the state and run by the peasants on communal farms, industry to be controlled by soviets (which are local councils elected by workers, soldiers, and peasants, similar to trade unions), and all banks to become one state bank. This document was known as the ‘April Theses’. Lenin also bolstered Bolshevik support by promising “Peace, Land and Bread” to the masses: o Peace - Lenin could see that the Russian people wanted an end to the war, so the Bolsheviks declared that they would make peace with the Germans. o Land - Bolsheviks support was concentrated in the cities; they had very little support among the peasants who made up the vast majority of the population. By offering them land, Lenin ensured that the peasants stayed neutral when the Bolsheviks made their bid for power o Bread - Lenin claimed that the Bolsheviks could solve the food shortages that existed in the towns and cities By June 1917, 41 Bolshevik newspapers were being published across the major Russian cities criticising the Provisional Government and calling for a revolution. Lenin set up the Red Guard, an organised group of armed workers who formed the military arm of the Bolshevik Party. By July there were 10,000 members of the Red Guard in Petrograd. In October 1917, the Bolsheviks voted amongst themselves in favour of an uprising. Leon Trotsky, Vladimir Lenin and the rest of the Bolshevik Central Committee (the steering council of the Bolshevik party) coordinated the uprising against the Provisional Government that had assumed power after the Tsar was forced to give up his power in February 1917. The October Revolution planned to replace the Provisional Government with rule by soviets. Bolshevik member Leon Trotsky had been put in charge of developing the plan for the revolution. It was put into action on 24 October. On that night, Lenin travelled by tram to Smolny (a place in central Petrograd) to take charge of the revolution. The Bolshevik Red Guard began to take control of Petrograd’s government buildings including the telephone exchange, post office, railway stations, state bank, bridges and power stations. By doing this they could control communications, finances and the movement of people to ensure the success of their revolution. While the Bolsheviks were fighting, the Second Congress of Soviets, which was made up of Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries gathered at Smolny Institute, a large and impressive building of historical significance. The Congress of Soviets decided to adopt a resolution (a formal decision usually taken after a vote) to take power in Russia. Lenin presented his ‘Decree on Peace’ which proposed the end of Russia’s involvement in World War I. This was adopted unanimously. On 27 October, the new communist government of Russia was created, called the ‘Central Executive Committee’. A body was created to run the government in the same way a ministerial cabinet does. It was called the ‘Soviet of People’s Commissars’ (known as 22 Sovnarkom) and was made up only of Bolsheviks, as the left-wing Socialist Revolutionaries refused to join. There was an elaborate hierarchy of soviets, where local ones elected representatives to city and national soviets and congresses. Lenin was elected as chairman of Sovnarkom, making him the new leader of Russia.  Why was controlling communications, finance and the movement of people necessary for the success of the revolution? 23 24  Stalin & the October Revolution After being released from his latest exile in 1917, Stalin returned to Petrograd and replaced Vyacheslav Molotov and Alexander Shlyapnikov as editors of Pravda, a pro- communist Russian newspaper and propaganda machine. At the April 1917 Communist Party conference, Stalin was elected to the Bolshevik Central Committee (the committee directed all party and governmental activities), and was appointed Commissar for Nationalities (essentially a government minister). Overall, the October Revolution was a key factor in pushing Russia towards the larger, more important Russian Revolution and Civil War. Though he did not play a prominent role in the October Revolution (certainly not when compared to Trotsky!), Stalin’s influence grew exponentially as the editor of Pravda and a member of the Central Committee. Stalin in 1917 Study the following two excerpts from modern historians on Stalin’s role in the Revolution, and answer the questions. 25 26 Questions: 1. According to the sources, who had the most important role in the Revolution, Stalin or Trotsky? Do they differ in their accounts? _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ 2. According to extract b, how and why did Stalin falsify the story of the October Revolution? _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Why might historians have a hard time establishing what Stalin actually did during the October Revolution? Think: Stalin eventually removed all his opponents… _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ 27  OverSimplified – The Russian Revolution (Part 2, 10 min) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b1reY72ktEc Start from 15:30min - end 1. 1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election: who won? 2. Why do you think there was an attempted assassination of Lenin in 1918? (16:45) 3. What was the outcome of Trotsky’s “no war and no peace” strategy? 4. What were the White and the Red Armies? 5. How did Trotsky contribute to the Russian Civil War? (19:11) 6. What happened to Nicholas II and his family? 7. What date was the USSR officially declared under Communist rule? 8. What job was Stalin first given in the new Communist Party? 28  The Russian Civil War, 1918-1921 After seizing control of Russia from the Provisional Government, the Bolsheviks had to safeguard their fragile grip on the reins of power. Lenin negotiated peace with Germany and therefore an end to Russia's role in World War One. However, he could not avoid a civil war. The Russian Civil War raged from 1918 until the start of 1921. During this time, the Bolsheviks faced massive opposition to their rule in the form of the White Armies, led by former officers of the Tsarist state, and also from intervention by the forces of foreign countries. Yet, by the start of 1921, the Bolsheviks had defeated their enemies and gained a complete victory. In early 1918, different groups developed to challenge the Bolsheviks and their control in the government. There were three main sides in the war: the Reds, the Whites and the Greens. The Reds were the Bolsheviks. Their objective was to stay in power. The Red Army was made up of Kronstadt sailors and Red Guards as well as workers who volunteered and soldiers from the former imperial army. The Whites consisted of a broad collection of groups who had one thing in common – their desire to remove the Bolsheviks from power. Members included: supporters of the tsarist system who wanted a new tsar put in charge aristocrats and the bourgeoisie who would lose their wealth and social position under Bolshevik policies army officers who were unhappy about the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that Lenin had struck with Germany the Mensheviks who disapproved of the revolution the Kadets and SRs who had been pushed out of government when Lenin closed the Constituent Assembly national minorities like the Georgians who had been promised independence, but didn’t believe that the Bolsheviks would give it to them international forces such as the Czech Legion who opposed Bolshevik rule The Greens were less political than the Whites. They were peasant armies who wanted to protect their land from the armies of the Reds and the Whites who often raided and looted villages and towns as they went through them. Some of the Greens fought alongside the Bolsheviks and others opposed them. Trotsky became Commissar for War in the Bolshevik government in March 1918. A brilliant organiser and improviser, Trotsky created the Red Army out of the Red Guards and from the remnants of the old Tsarist army. The Whites had several leaders - Yudenich, Kolchak, Deniken and Wrangel. All wanted glory for themselves. While trying to defeat the Reds, they were also often in competition with each other. They were all ambitious men and each was determined to take control of Russia for himself. 29 The Bolsheviks were fighting for a very definite cause - the establishment and survival of a communist Russia. The Whites, however, had problems motivating their troops and building up support. Why should soldiers face death simply to make Kolchak or Yudenich master of Russia? Moreover, some Russians feared that foreign intervention would bring an end to Russian independence in the event of White victory. As time passed, more and more soldiers deserted from the White Armies. Given the choice between the Bolsheviks and the Whites, it was hardly surprising that Bolshevik support increased dramatically. By the end of the Civil War in 1921 the Bolsheviks had succeeded in securing their grip on power in Russia. The White Armies and the foreign powers fighting on Russian soil had been defeated. Just as importantly, rival political parties had been outlawed. Thanks to the Cheka secret police, dissenting voices had been silenced. Lenin had achieved his ultimate goal of steering his small Bolshevik party to total control of Russia. Map of Russian civil war in the west 1918-1920 https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zgdthyc/revision/6 30 Lenin’s New Economic Policy Even though the Civil War was over, Lenin continued to use ‘War Communism’ as the Bolshevik economic policy. This had been a necessary strategy while Russia was at war. The primary features of War Communism were: Uncontrolled inflationary printing press finance, ultimately leading to hyperinflation and a nationwide abandonment of currency, instead reverting to a barter system. The Communist government took control of the main big industries, ending private ownership of businesses. There was also the forced requisition of surplus grain and other food products from the peasantry by the state (essentially the state confiscating food for the war effort). This was very unpopular among the Russian people as food shortages and famine took hold. Lenin recognised that a change needed to be made and announced the New Economic Policy (NEP) in March 1921. Under the NEP many of the harsh measures of War Communism were reduced. Grain requisitioning stopped and peasants were able to sell any extra crops as long as they paid a 10 per cent tax on their profits. The state still controlled big industries, but factories with less than 20 workers could be privately owned and make a profit. Anyone was able to open a shop to sell goods for a profit. Approximately three million people took advantage of the changes to business ownership and as such, they were referred to as NEPmen (today we would call them entrepreneurs, or businesspeople). Because of the return to some capitalist ideas, money was reintroduced and new coinage adopted. The NEP was effective in reviving farming and industry: Grain production increased from 37.6 million tonnes in 1921 to 56.5 million tonnes in 1923 Coal production increased from 8.9 million tonnes in 1921 to 16.1 million tonnes in 1924. In June 1921, 99 per cent of cotton mills weren’t operating, but by 1926, 90 per cent of them were operating again. The total value of goods being produced in factories increased from two billion roubles in 1921 to 4.7 billion roubles in 1924. However, the NEP was controversial and not universally popular amongst the Bolsheviks. The NEP was supported by Nikolai Bukharin, Grigory Zinoviev and most of the Bolshevik leadership, but its shift back towards more capitalist ideas (because it allowed for private ownership and private profit making) was seen as a betrayal of Bolshevik ideology by many members of the Party. The NEP created a class of wealthy landowners, known as kulaks, which directly opposed the Marxist-Leninist view of communism as a classless system. The NEPmen were responsible for as much as 75 per cent of trade but also contributed to the class system. The NEP was greatly disliked by the majority of Bolshevik Party members, with many referring to it as the ‘New Exploitation of the Proletariat’. 1) Add new words to your glossary. 2) Discuss: What was the purpose of the New Economic Policy? 31  Documentary - Evolution of Evil https://clickv.ie/w/IDGy (1.35 – 19.20 min, up to Lenin’s death) 32 Stop at 19.20 min, continues on p.84 33  Stalin’s Rise to Power In May 1922, Lenin had his first stroke, temporarily losing his ability to speak and being paralysed on his right side. In December, he had a second stroke. During December 1922 and January 1923, Lenin dictated "Lenin's Testament" to his secretary, in which he discussed the personal qualities of his comrades, particularly Trotsky and Stalin. In March 1923, Lenin had a third stroke and lost his ability to speak. On 21 January 1924, Lenin fell into a coma and died later that day at age 53. His official cause of death was recorded as an incurable disease of the blood vessels When Lenin died, he left no clear successor. Building on the idea of party unity, no one stepped forward and instead the other Bolshevik leaders maintained the public image of cooperative rule. Behind the scenes, however, the different leaders competed for the top position. Source: Excerpt from Lenin’s Last Testament – a series of letters he dictated to his secretary in December 1922 Comrade Stalin, having become Secretary-General, has unlimited authority concentrated in his hands, and I am not sure whether he will always be capable of using that authority with sufficient caution. Comrade Trotsky, on the other hand… is personally perhaps the most capable man … but he has displayed excessive self-assurance and shown excessive preoccupation with the purely administrative side of the work. These two qualities of the two outstanding leaders of the present Central Committee can inadvertently lead to a split, and if our Party does not take steps to avert this, the split may come unexpectedly … Stalin is too rude and this defect, although quite tolerable in our midst and in dealing among us Communists, becomes intolerable in a Secretary- General. That is why I suggest that the comrades think about a way of removing Stalin from that post and appointing another man in his stead who in all other respects differs from Comrade Stalin in having only one advantage, namely, that of being more tolerant, more loyal, more polite and more considerate to the comrades, less [impulsive], etc. Annotate the source above. Highlight and note which aspects are particularly interesting for a historian studying Lenin’s opinion of Stalin. 34 How Did Stalin Defeat his Opponents? Stalin’s political career was seemingly ended by Lenin’s Last Testament. Lenin openly favoured Trotsky as the man with the most outstanding ability within the Party. Stalin’s secretary, Bazhanov, recalled Stalin’s emotional reaction as fellow Bolshevik leader Lev Kamenev read Lenin’s document aloud; “A painful confusion paralysed the audience. Stalin… felt himself small and pitiable… in spite of his self-control and enforced calm one could see clearly from his face that his fate was in the balance”… So how did Stalin, despite this clear blow to his standing, defeat his political rivals and establish himself as the leader of Russia? Was it due to his political cunning, his ideology, his political ruthlessness, or his political climate of fear and favouritism? Was it a combination of all these factors? In order to answer this question, you must first familiarise yourself with Lenin’s potential successors. Task 1 - Work through the PowerPoint titled ‘Death of Lenin – Bolshevik Bachelor’ on Canvas. Using the handout titled ‘Rivals note-taking sheet’, summarise each individuals’ strengths and weaknesses. Task 2 - Read about each of the contenders for power on pages 35-38, and add to your summary notes. Task 3 – Read about the tactics Stalin used to remove his political rivals on pages 39-42 Task 4 – Play the game! Found on Canvas titled ‘Game - Stalin, Trotsky and Power’. The Contenders for Power 35 36 37 Another important reason why there was division between the revolutionaries is that some spent the war years abroad, and some spent them in Russia (as noted by historian Orlando Figes). The leaders who spent time abroad, such as Trotsky, Bukharin and Zinoviev, had a more international perspective; their travels allowed them to reflect broadly on the difficulties of introducing socialism into the Russian context of relative backwardness. Those leaders who spent the war years in Russia, like Stalin, had little knowledge of the rest of Europe which fostered a harsh determination to focus on Russia and protect Russia at all costs. This led to a divide about how to best introduce socialism – either through Permanent Revolution, or Socialism in One Country. 38 39 40 41 42  Lenin's Death and Stalin's Rise to Power I BETWEEN 2 WARS I 1924 https://youtu.be/GGhseRgjE0k Watch from 13 min - 20:14 (graphic scenes earlier in clip) 1. How did Trotsky and Lenin’s view of democracy differ from Stalin’s? 2. Explain the 3 different views of Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin on how to carry out “international revolution”. 3. What was Lenin’s dying comment about Stalin? 4. What was in Lenin’s final “Political Testament”? 5. Who did Stalin conspire with against Trotsky? 6. How does Stalin use the “Cult of Lenin” to help him rise to power? 7. What did Stalin do after Lenin’s death about: a. democratic processes? b. the N. E. P? c. his political opponents including Kamenev, Zinoviev, and Trotsky? 43  Source Work "Comrade Stalin, having become General Secretary, has concentrated enormous power in his hands: and I am not sure that he always knows how to use that power with sufficient caution. I therefore propose to our comrades to consider a means of removing Stalin from this post and appointing someone else who differs from Stalin in one weighty respect: being more tolerant, more loyal, more polite, more considerate of his comrades." Source A: Lenin’s last will and testament a series of letters he dictated to his secretary in December 1922. 1. Explain the context and perspective of Source A. 2 marks ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 2. Using Source A, and your own knowledge, explain how Stalin came to power. 5 marks ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 44  Stalin as Dictator Collectivisation, Industrialisation & the Five Year Plans Stalin used the food crisis of 1927-1928 to help defeat his rivals on the Right. The grain harvest of 1927 was not as good as the bumper harvest of 1926, but it was still more than enough to feed the cities. However, by December the State had managed to buy from the peasants only half of what it had bought by the same month the previous year. The industrial population was threatened again by starvation. Much of Russia’s surplus grain before 1917 had come from large estates, which produced for the market for profit. After the Revolution these estates had been replaced by peasant farmers, who consumed a larger proportion of their produce themselves. There was a real shortage in the towns of goods for the peasant farmers to buy. What was the point in selling grain to the State in return for money with which you could buy nothing? Much better to eat it yourself or feed it to your animals. There were few private traders because Article 107 of the Criminal Code had made them liable to arrest and imprisonment. The 1927 Party Congress agreed in December to encourage farmers to join collective farms to compete with private farmers. After the Congress, party leaders went into the countryside to supervise grain collections. Stalin went to western Siberia, where requisitioning as in 1918 was used to collect grain. The party used force, rather than persuasion or higher prices, to encourage peasants to release surpluses. During 1928, a difference emerged between Stalin and right-wing members of the Party over how to end the grain crisis. Stalin and his supporters increasingly argued for force; they wanted to force the peasants to hand over grain as part of a much larger program of modernisation. They wanted to force the peasants to join large collective farms that would pool labour and farming equipment such as tractors and combine harvesters. This machinery would make farming more efficient, meaning the farms could produce more grain with fewer people. The excess labour could be redirected into industrialisation, and the surplus grain could be sold abroad to raise money to buy important industrial equipment. The growing industrial base would in turn make farming even more efficient, helping to promote a cycle of development that would help the USSR catch up to the West. Bukharin, Tomsky and Rykov (opponents of Stalin’s on the right) disagreed with Stalin’s methods, so Stalin accused them of supporting kulaks, wealthy farmers portrayed by Marx and Lenin as enemies of the peasants. In 1929 Bukharin was removed from the Politburo and Pravda, while Tomsky and Rykov were ejected from the Politburo the following year. Stalin, having defeated his political rivals, was now the undisputed leader of the Party and the Soviet Union. The 1930s saw a remarkable transformation in the Soviet Union. At the end of the 1920s the Soviet Union remained a backward state in comparison with other major powers. Twelve years of Communist rule had restored the country to roughly the same economic position that she had occupied in 1914. This may perhaps be regarded as a great achievement in view of the appalling cost of First World War and the following period of civil war. It was not, however, what Russian Marxists hoped to achieve. Lenin’s revolution had been to put the Communist Party in power. Stalin would build the Communist Utopia in the Soviet Union. Stalin launched his “revolution from above” by setting two extraordinary goals for Soviet 45 domestic policy: rapid industrialization and collectivisation of agriculture. His aims were to transform the Soviet Union as quickly as possible, without regard to cost, into an industrialized and completely socialist state. Stalin’s position as dominant leader in 1928, combined with the end of the NEP, allowed Stalin to implement the policy of Socialism in One Country. However, pursuing this ideology meant the USSR didn’t have many foreign allies, and communism was seen as a threat to the capitalist world. This meant that Stalin believed that the Soviet Union was in danger. The only way to combat this was to industrialise quickly to be prepared for any future war. The relationship between the possibility of rapid industrialisation and agricultural production can be seen in the flow chart below: Stalin believed that the Soviet Union needed to industrialise Industrialisation requires a very large amount of manpower and capital (funds for purchasing machinery and factories) Russia's only significant resource at the time was land which was used to produce crops Peasants needed to produce surplus (extra) food that could be exported to raise capital The state needed to own all farms in order to gain the export earnings Collectivised farming should be adopted to make processes more efficient and free up farmers to become factory workers 46 Collectivisation 47 48 49 50 51 52  Activity It is 1930. You are a Communist activist, who has been involved in ‘persuading’ peasants to join collective farms. You have a friend works in a rural Soviet who is having doubts. Convince your friend of the importance of the success of collectivisation. You could mention: - The problems of persuading the peasants to give up their grain in the late 1920s, - The need to deal with the capitalist kulaks, - The benefits of collective farms, - The importance of collectivisation to industrialisation and the Revolution. Or You are the friend. Explain your reservations about the way collectivisation is being carried out, especially the way in which kulaks are identified. Source work Source B: A propaganda poster from 1931. The heading reads ‘Smite the Kulaks!’ 1. Explain the nature, context and purpose of Source A. /3 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 53 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2. How important was collectivisation to Stalin’s reforms? In your response, refer to Source A and your own knowledge. /6 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 54 Industrialisation 55 56 57 58 59 60  Coming to your conclusion Some of the following statements are about successes and some are about failures, and some are about the costs of collectivisation and industrialisation. The USSR could defend itself in World War 2. Millions of kulaks died. Many useful public works were built. Peasants who became factory workers didn’t know how to use new equipment. The countryside was 75% collectivised. The USSR became the second most powerful nation in the world. There was famine in 1932-33. Millions of political prisoners went to labour camps. The output of heavy industry rose. There were very few consumer goods for people to buy. Agricultural output initially decreased. People worked under strict discipline. TASK Some of the following statements are about successes and some are about failures, and some are about the costs of collectivisation and industrialisation. 1. Identify which are costs (C), which are failures (F) and which are successes (S). 2. Are there any more points that you can add to the ones listed above? Try to add at least 3. 3. Which sources from those you have read previously give evidence to support your choices? Note these next to each choice. 4. Which policy do you think was more successful – collectivisation or industrialisation? 5. In your exercise books, draw up a table and summarise Stalin’s major reforms. Add whether you think the reform was a success or failure overall, and why. 61  Research Task Use the following link to research the industrialisation of Russia: https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/leaders-and-controversies/g4/ Answer the following questions on in your exercise books or on a separate sheet. QUESTIONS: 1. Explain why Stalin felt the need to industrialise Russia. In your response, integrate evidence from at least TWO primary sources. (5) 2. Describe the methods implemented by the government to industrialise Russia. In your response, integrate evidence from at least THREE primary sources. (5) 3. Find two sources that provide contrasting impressions on the experience of industrialisation. Explain why the content of these sources conflict. (5) 4. To what extent do agree that industrialisation was a resounding success in Russia? Use evidence from at least FOUR sources to support your argument. (10) General Notes: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………….………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………….………….. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………….………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 62 Stalin’s Reign of Terror 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 In conclusion, between 1928 and 1953 Stalin’s control of the government went through a series of phases: Phase 1: 1928-34: Stalin dominated the government, but key rivals remained in the Party. Phase 2: 1934-38: Stalin’s Great Terror removed his rivals, consolidating his dominance of party and state. Phase 3: 1938-53: Stalin used the relationship between the Party and the state to his advantage, in order to stop new rivals emerging. Evaluating Stalin’s Impact Listen and take notes on the BBC Witness History episode ‘Executed in Stalin’s Great Terror in Georgia’, about Stalin’s most brutal purge in Georgia. https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/w3ct5ymg 71 Stalin’s Cult of Personality 72 73 74 75 76 Documentary - Stalin: Three Faces of Evil – The Myth https://clickv.ie/w/aCjr 77 78 79 80 81 82 83  Documentary - Evolution of Evil https://clickv.ie/w/IDGy (from 19.20min – end, covers Stalin’s career and WWII) 84 85 86 87  Stalin’s Impact and Legacy Oversimplified - The Cold War (Part 1) From start up to 10:20 minutes (overview of Stalin’s life) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I79TpDe3t2g 1. In what year did Lenin die? 2. “Stalin reigned with ____________________________.” 3. Which two countries was the Soviet Union allied with in WWII? 4. How did Stalin find out about the development of the A-bomb? Skip from 3 minutes to 3:57 minutes 5. What was the ‘Eastern bloc’? 6. Why do you think Churchill said an “iron curtain” had descended? 7. Why did the Soviets leave Iran? 8. What was the purpose of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) and the Truman Doctrine? 88 9. Why did the USA give so much money to Western European countries? 10. Explain the situation that Berlin was in. 11. What year did the Soviets declare they had developed their own atomic bomb? 12. What do you think the purpose of the Mutual Defence Treaty signed by Communist China and the Soviet Union was? 13. What year did Stalin die? What did he die of? 14. Who replaced Stalin as leader of the USSR? 15. What happened under ‘De-Stalinization’? 89  Judgement Activity Complete the table below. Use the evidence throughout the booklet to decide whether Stalin was good for the USSR, or a disaster for the country. Score Stalin out of ten, but make sure you give your reasons and evidence in the final column. Good or Score Evidence for your score Disaster? /10 Stalin was a unifying force Stalin introduced successful economic reforms Stalin was able to win wars and keep the country safe 90 Stalin improved the lives of the Soviet people Stalin gave the USSR stability and a common goal Stalin was a popular leader 91 92