2024 Fall General Psychology Midterm 2 Study Guide - PDF

Memory Chapter 7 1  Memory Definition: Memory is the basis for knowing your friends, the English language, yourself, etc.  If memory was nonexistent, everything/everyone would be new to you and even you would be a stranger to yourse...

Memory Chapter 7 1  Memory Definition: Memory is the basis for knowing your friends, the English language, yourself, etc.  If memory was nonexistent, everything/everyone would be new to you and even you would be a stranger to yourself. 2  The Phenomenon of Memory Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information. 3  Studying Memory: Information Processing Models Keyboard Disk Monitor (Encoding) (Storage) (Retrieval) Sequential Process 4  Information Processing The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory, b) short-term memory, and c) long-term memory. Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/ Corbis 5  Modifications to the Three-Stage Model 1. Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically. 2. Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory. 6  Working Memory A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves: conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory 7 Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode 1. Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed. 2. However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort. 8  Automatic Processing We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the following: 1. Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page. 2. Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day. 3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you. 9  Effortful Processing Committing novel information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook. Such processing leads to Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit durable and accessible © Bananastock/ Alamy memories. 10  Rehearsal Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition. http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) 11  Rehearsal The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day 2. 12  Memory Effects 1. Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time. 2. Serial Position Effect: Your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items. 13  Storage: Retaining Information Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below: Sensory Working Long-term Memory Memory Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval 14  Sensory Memory Sensory Working Long-term Memory Memory Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval 15  Whole Report Sperling (1960) R G T “Recall” F M Q RTMZ (44% recall) L Z S 50 ms (1/20 second) The exposure time for the stimulus is so small that items cannot be rehearsed. 16  Partial Report S X T Low Tone “Recall” J R S Medium Tone JRS (100% recall) P K Y High Tone 50 ms (1/20 second) Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally thought. 17  Time Delay A D I Low Tone “Recall” Time N L V Delay Medium Tone N__ (33% recall) O G H High Tone 50 ms (1/20 second) 18  Sensory Memories The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses. Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long Hepatic < 1 sec. long 19  Working Memory Working memory, the new name for short-term memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short duration (20 seconds). Sir George Hamilton observed that he could accurately remember up to 7 beans thrown on the floor. If there were more beans, he guessed. 20  Capacity The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information (1956). Ready? MUTGIKTLRSYP You should be able to recall 7±2 letters. George Miller 21  Chunking The capacity of the working memory may be increased by “chunking.” F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M FBI TWA CIA IBM 4 chunks 22  Duration Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating rehearsal. CHJ 547 MKT 544 CH?? HIJ 541 547 … The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec. 23  Long-Term Memory Sensory Working Long-term Memory Memory Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval 24  Long-Term Memory Essentially unlimited capacity store. R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of buried pine seeds during winter and spring. 25  Memory Stores Sensory Working Feature LTM Memory Memory Encoding Copy Phonemic Semantic Capacity Unlimited 7±2 Chunks Very Large Duration 0.25 sec. 20 sec. Years 26 Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows. 27 Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store. Spanky’s Yearbook Archive Spanky’s Yearbook Archive 28  Measures of Memory In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test requires recognition.) 1. Name the capital of France. a. Brussels b. Rome c. London d. Paris 29  Measures of Memory In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires recall.) 1. The capital of France is ______. 30  Context Effects Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land (Godden & Baddeley, 1975). Fred McConnaughey/ Photo Researchers 31  Interference Learning some new information may disrupt retrieval of other information. 32  Misinformation and Imagination Effects Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when questioned about the event. Depiction of the actual accident. 33  Misinformation Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? 34  Memory Construction A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UtwWM8Or1wo 35 Developing Through the Life Span Chapter 8 36  Prenatal Development Fetal Alcohol Sydrom FAS Drinking during pregnancy has consequences on brain development/abnomalities Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company 37  The Competent Newborn Infants are born with reflexes that aid in survival, including rooting reflex which helps them locate food. 38  The Competent Newborn Offspring cries are important signals for parents to provide nourishment. In animals and humans such cries are quickly attended to and relieved. Carl and Ann Purcell/ Corbis Lightscapes, Inc. Corbis 39  Developing Brain Infants’ psychological development depends on their biological development. To understand the emergence of motor skills and memory, we must understand the developing brain. At birth, most brain cells are present. After birth, the neural networks multiply resulting in: increased physical and mental abilities. 40  Schemas The maturing brain builds Schemas that are mental molds into which we pour our experiences.  By adulthood we have a lot of schemas 41  Assimilation and Accommodation The process of assimilation involves incorporating new experiences into our current understanding Bill Anderson/ Photo Researchers, Inc. (schema). The process of adjusting a schema and modifying it is called accommodation. Jean Piaget with a subject 42  Sensorimotor Stage (0 to 2 y.o.) In the sensorimotor stage, babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping. Children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp object permanence, i.e., objects that are out of sight are also out of mind. Doug Goodman 43  Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 y.o.) Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to about 6-7 years old, children are in the preoperational stage—too young to perform mental operations. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLj0IZFLKvg 44 Concrete Operational Stage 7 to 11 y.o. In concrete operational stage, given concrete materials, 6- to 7-year-olds grasp conservation problems and mentally pour liquids back and forth into glasses of different shapes conserving their quantities. Children in this stage are also able to transform mathematical functions. So, if 4 + 8 = 12, then a transformation, 12 – 4 = 8, is also easily doable. 45  Formal Operational Stage 12 y.o. and older Around age 12, our reasoning ability expands from concrete thinking to abstract thinking. We can now use symbols and imagined realities to systematically reason. Piaget called this formal operational thinking. Algebra 46  Social Development Stranger anxiety is the fear of strangers that develops at around 8 months. This is the age at which infants form schemas for familiar faces and cannot assimilate a new face. © Christina Kennedy/ PhotoEdit 47  Origins of Attachment Harlow (1971) showed that infants bond with Harlow Primate Laboratory, University of Wisconsin surrogate mothers because of bodily contact and not because of nourishment. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E2M6XBJEEFQ 48  Origins of Attachment Like bodily contact, familiarity is another factor that causes attachment. In some animals (goslings), imprinting is the cause of attachment. Alastair Miller 49  Attachment Differences Placed in a strange situation, 60% of children express secure attachment, i.e., they explore their environment happily in the presence of their mothers. When their mother leaves, they show distress. The other 30% show insecure attachment. These children cling to their mothers or caregivers and are less likely to explore the environment. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DH1m_ZMO7GU 50  Brain Development Until puberty, neurons increase their connections. However, at adolescence, selective pruning of the neurons begins. Unused neuronal connections are lost to make other pathways more efficient. 51  Frontal Cortex During adolescence, neurons in the frontal cortex grow myelin, which speeds up nerve conduction. The frontal cortex lags behind the limbic system’s development. Hormonal surges and the limbic system may explain occasional teen impulsiveness. 52 Motivation and Emotion Chapter 9 53  Motivation Motivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal. Aron Ralston was AP Photo/ Rocky Mountain News, Judy Walgren motivated to cut his arm in order to free himself from a rock that pinned him down. Aron Ralston 54  1. Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixed patterns throughout different species and are not learned (Tinbergen, 1951). Tony Brandenburg/ Bruce Coleman, Inc. © Ariel Skelley/ Masterfile Where humans builds different kinds of houses the bird builds only one kind of nest. 55  2. Drives and Incentives When the instinct theory of motivation failed, it was replaced by the drive-reduction theory. A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. 56  The Physiology of Hunger Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger. 57  Stomachs Removed Tsang (1938) removed rat stomachs, connected the esophagus to the small intestines, and the rats still felt hungry (and ate food). 58  Body Chemistry & the Brain Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, and intestines. They send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain. Rat Hypothalamus 59  Hypothalamic Centers The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger (stimulation). Destroy the LH, and the animal has no interest in eating. The reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in the LH, which leads rats to eat ravenously. 60  Hypothalamic Centers The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses hunger (stimulation). Destroy the VMH, and the animal eats excessively. Richard Howard 61 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Mmsah0v9Qc  3. Optimum Arousal Human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of arousal, not to eliminate it. Young monkeys and children are known to explore the environment in the absence of a need-based drive. Harlow Primate Laboratory, University of Wisconsin Randy Faris/ Corbis 62  3. Optimum Arousal Sensory deprivation experiments have shown that human sensory modalities need to be stimulated regularly. 63  4. A Hierarchy of Motives Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that certain needs have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing, thirst, and hunger come before psychological needs such as achievement, self-esteem, and the need for recognition. (1908-1970) 64  Joe Skipper/ Reuters/ Corbis David Portnoy/ Getty Images for Stern 65 Hurricane Survivors Mario Tama/ Getty Images Menahem Kahana/ AFP/ Getty Images Hierarchy of Needs  Theories of Emotion Emotions are our body’s adaptive response. Emotions are a mix of 1) physiological activation, 2) expressive behaviors, and 3) conscious experience. 66  James-Lange Theory William James and Carl Lange proposed an idea that was diametrically opposed to the common- sense view. The James-Lange Theory proposes that physiological activity precedes the emotional experience. 67  Cannon-Bard Theory Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard questioned the James- Lange Theory and proposed that an emotion-triggering stimulus and the body's arousal take place simultaneously. 68  Two-Factor Theory Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed yet another theory which suggests our physiology and cognitions create emotions. Emotions have two factors–physical arousal and cognitive label. 69  Embodied Emotion We know that emotions involve bodily responses. Some of these responses are very noticeable (butterflies in our stomach when fear arises), but others are more difficult to discern (neurons activated in the brain). 70  Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System During an emotional experience, our autonomic nervous system mobilizes energy in the body that arouses us. 71  Arousal and Performance Arousal in short spurts is adaptive. We perform better under moderate arousal, but optimal performance varies with task difficulty. 72  Physiological Similarities Physiological responses related to the emotions of fear, anger, love, and boredom are very similar. M. Grecco/ Stock Boston Excitement and fear involve a similar physiological arousal. 73  Physiological Differences Physical responses, like finger temperature and movement of facial muscles, change during fear, rage, and joy. The amygdala shows differences in activation during the emotions of anger and rage. Activity of the left hemisphere (happy) is different from the right 74 (depressed) for emotions.  Physiological Differences Physical responses, like finger temperature and movement of facial muscles, change during fear, rage, and joy. 75  Cognition and Emotion What is the connection between how we think (cognition) and how we feel (emotion)? Can we change our emotions by changing our thinking? 76  Cognition Can Define Emotion An arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event. AP Photo/ Nati Harnik Reuters/ Corbis Arousal from a soccer match can fuel anger, which may lead to rioting. 77  Cognition Does Not Always Precede Emotion When fearful eyes were subliminally presented to subjects, fMRI scans revealed higher levels of activity in the amygdala (Whalen et al. 2004). Courtesy of Paul J. Whalen, PhD, Dartmouth College, www.whalenlab.info 78  Detecting Emotion Hard-to-control facial muscles reveal signs of emotions you may be trying to conceal. A feigned smile may continue for more than 4-5 seconds while a genuine smile will have faded by then. Dr. Paul Elkman, University of California at San Francisco Which of Paul Ekman’s smiles is genuine? 79  them are present in infancy, except for contempt, 80 Izard (1977) isolated 10 emotions. Most of Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Michael Newman/ PhotoEdit Experienced Emotion Patrick Donehue/ Photo Researchers, Inc. Marc Grimberg/ The Image Bank shame, and guilt. Tom McCarthy/ Rainbow Nancy Brown/ The Image Bank Lew Merrim/ Photo Researchers, Inc. Personality Chapter 10 81  Personality An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. Each dwarf has a distinct personality. 82  Psychoanalytic Perspective In his clinical practice, Freud encountered patients suffering from nervous disorders. Their complaints could not be explained Culver Pictures in terms of purely physical causes. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) 83  Psychoanalytic Perspective Freud’s clinical experience led him to develop the first comprehensive theory of personality, which included: -the unconscious mind, - psychosexual stages, Culver Pictures - and defense mechanisms. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) 84  Psychosexual Stages Freud divided the development of personality into five psychosexual stages. 85  The Neo-Freudians Like Freud, Adler believed in childhood tensions. However, these tensions were social in nature and not sexual. National Library of Medicine A child struggles with an inferiority complex during growth and strives for superiority and power. Alfred Adler (1870-1937) 86  Assessing Unconscious Processes Evaluating personality from an unconscious mind’s perspective would require a psychological instrument (projective tests) that would reveal the hidden unconscious mind. 87  Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes. Lew Merrim/ Photo Researcher, Inc. 88  Rorschach Inkblot Test The most widely used projective test uses a set of 10 inkblots and was designed by Hermann Rorschach. It seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. Lew Merrim/ Photo Researcher, Inc. 89  The Trait Perspective An individual’s unique constellation of durable dispositions and consistent ways of behaving (traits) constitutes his or her personality. Examples of Traits Honest Dependable Moody Impulsive 90  Exploring Traits Each personality is uniquely made up of multiple traits. Allport & Odbert (1936), identified almost 18,000 words representing traits. One way to condense the immense list of personality traits is through factor analysis, a statistical approach used to describe and relate personality traits. 91  Assessing Traits Personality inventories are questionnaires (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors assessing several traits at once. 92  MMPI The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. It was originally developed to identify emotional disorders (e.g., schizophrenia). The MMPI was developed by empirically testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminated between diagnostic groups. 93  Evaluating the Trait Perspective The Person-Situation Controversy Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traits may be enduring, but the resulting behavior in various situations is different. Therefore, traits are not good predictors of behavior. 94  Social-Cognitive Perspective Bandura (1986, 2001, 2005) believes that personality is the result of an interaction that takes place between a person and their social context. Albert Bandura 95  Personal Control Social-cognitive psychologists emphasize our sense of personal control, whether we control the environment or the environment controls us. External locus of control refers to the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate. Internal locus of control refers to the perception that we can control our own fate. 96 Social Psychology Chapter 11 97  Focuses in Social Psychology “We cannot live for ourselves alone.” Herman Melville Social psychology scientifically studies how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. 98  1) Social Thinking Social thinking involves thinking about others, especially when they engage in doing things that are unexpected. Social psychologists focus on situation  Why do people act differently in different situations? 99  Attributing Behavior to Persons or to Situations Attribution Theory: Fritz Heider (1958) suggested that: we have a tendency to give causal explanations for someone’s behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition. Fritz Heider  How do we tend to explain others’ behavior and our own? 100  Fundamental Attribution Error The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate the impact of the situations in analyzing the behaviors of others leads to the fundamental attribution error. We see Joe as quiet, shy, and introverted most of the time, but with friends he is very talkative, loud, and extroverted. 101  Effects of Attribution How we explain someone’s behavior affects how we react to it. 102 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mDhiyPAD6NQ  Attitudes & Actions Attitudes are beliefs and feelings that predisposes a person to respond in a particular way to objects, other people, and events. If we believe a person is mean, we may feel dislike for the person and act in an unfriendly manner. Does what we think predict what we do, or does what we do affect what we think? 103  Attitudes Can Affect Actions Actually, our attitudes predict our behaviors imperfectly because other factors, including the external situation, also influence behavior. 104  Actions Can Affect Attitudes Not only do people stand for what they believe in (attitude), they start believing in what they stand for. 105 Cooperative actions can lead to mutual liking (beliefs).  Role Playing Affects Attitudes Zimbardo (1972) assigned the roles of guards and prisoners to random students and found that guards and prisoners developed role- appropriate attitudes.  movie: The experiment (2010) https://www.youtube 106  Actions Can Affect Attitudes  Why do actions affect attitudes? One explanation is that when our attitudes and actions are opposed, we experience tension. This is called cognitive dissonance. To relieve ourselves of this tension we bring our attitudes closer to our actions (Festinger, 1957). 107  2) Social Influence The greatest contribution of social psychology is its study of attitudes, beliefs, decisions, and actions and the way they are molded by social influence. NON SEQUITER © 2000 Wiley. Dist. by Universal Press Syndicate Reprinted with Permission 108  Conformity & Obedience Behavior is contagious, modeled by one followed by another. We follow behavior of others to conform. Other behaviors may be an expression of compliance (obedience) toward authority. Conformity Obedience 109  The Chameleon Effect Conformity: is the adjustment of one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=N7jUJUa77kk 110  The elevator experiment  Group Pressure & Conformity Suggestibility is a subtle type of conformity, adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some group standard. Asch’s experiment https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=sno1TpCLj6A 111  Reasons for Conforming Normative Social Influence: is the influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid rejection. Informational Social Influence: The group may provide valuable information and it might pay to follow their lead. However stubborn people will never listen to others. 112  Obedience People comply to social pressures but, how Courtesy of CUNY Graduate School and University Center would they respond to outright command? Stanley Milgram designed a study that investigates the effects of authority on obedience. Stanley Milgram (1933-1984) 113  Both Photos: © 1965 By Stanley Miligram, from the film Obedience, dist. by Penn State, Media Sales Milgram’s Study https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yr5cjyokVUs 114  Individual Resistance However, a third of the individuals in Milgram’s study resisted social coercion. AP/ Wide World Photos An unarmed individual single-handedly challenged a line of tanks at Tiananmen Square. 115  Lessons from the Conformity and Obedience Studies In both Asch’s and Milgram’s studies, participants were pressured to choose between following their standards and being responsive to others. In Milgram’s study, participants were torn between hearing the victims pleas and the experimenter’s orders. 116  Group Influence How do groups affect our behavior? Social psychologists study various groups: 1. One person affecting another 2. Families 3. Teams 4. Committees 117  Individual Behavior in the Presence of Others Social facilitation: Refers to improved performance on tasks in the presence of others. Triplett (1898) noticed cyclists’ race times were faster when they Michelle Agnis/ NYT Pictures competed against others than when they just raced against the clock. 118  Social Loafing On the other hand, in a group, individuals present the tendency to exert less effort toward attaining a common goal than when tested individually (Latané, 1981). 119  Deindividuation The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. Mob behavior 120  HAWKES LEARNING Industrial Psychology: Selecting and Evaluating Employees Introduction to Psychology Industrial psychology involves selecting and evaluating employees.  Job Analysis Task Worke Frequency Knowledge r Difficulty Skills Importance Abilities One way to select an employee would be to perform a job analysis in which the job or person bested suited to the job is described. A job analysis can be approached in two ways: 1.One is task-oriented in which the task is described in terms of frequency, difficulty, and importance. 2.The second is worker-oriented, which describes the knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary for the job.  Selection Potential candidates then need to be narrowed down, and this process can involve testing, interviews, or work samples. Essentially, the goal is to find the right person for the specific job.  Interviews One way to determine fit is through interviews. 1.Unstructured interviews include questions that were not predetermined, whereas a 2.structured interview does use predetermined questions. Standardized questions are scored for each candidate, so the best person can be selected.  Training Once employees are selected, they usually undergo training to orient individuals to the new workplace and job requirements. In some cases, individuals will receive mentoring in which an experienced employee guides the work of the new employee. Mentoring can have positive benefits for both the one mentoring and the one being mentored.  Job-person Appraisal match Perform better Training needs I/O psychologists develop performance appraisal systems, so corporations can determine the degree to which employees are meeting their job requirements. Fairly evaluated work helps employees perform better, improves the likelihood of job-person match, and identifies training needs.  Appraisals Performance appraisals involve documenting work behaviors and a face-to-face meeting with a supervisor regarding performance. One approach is the 360-degree feedback appraisal in which the employee’s ratings derive from supervisors, peers, employees that are under the target employee, and from the employee him/herself. HAWKES LEARNING Organizational Psychology: The Social Dimension of Work Introduction to Psychology In organizational psychology, the focus is on the social dimension of work.  Job Satisfaction One of the primary areas of interest in organizational psychology is job satisfaction, the degree to which someone enjoys his or her job. Job satisfaction can encompass both what we think about our work and what we feel about our work. Organizations often assess these ratings to determine how their employees are feeling.  Job Satisfaction Variety Difficulty Role clarity Research has shown that job satisfaction is related to variety, difficulty level, and role clarity of the job. Pay level is less important than these other factors when it comes to job satisfaction. It probably isn’t surprising that job satisfaction is related to job performance.  Job Stress Another important aspect in organizational psychology is the impact of job stress. It can come in a variety of different forms, one of which is job insecurity. This can result from downsizing in which corporations cut the number of employees as a cost-saving measure. In other cases, companies may merge, and some employees will be redundant and, therefore, let go.  Work-Life Balance Many people juggle the demands of work with the demands of their home lives in an attempt to achieve work-life balance. We have a limited amount of time each day, and these two responsibilities often battle for attention. Women often have greater family demands, which causes increased work-family conflict.  Work-Life Balance Work-family conflict can be decreased by having a support system and having assistance at home. In addition, having understanding supervisors or leave with pay can Support system Understanding help. Flextime or telecommuting might Assistance supervisor be more difficult, as working Paid leave from home often makes the work-home conflict more evident. HAWKES LEARNING Human Factors Psychology and Workplace Design Introduction to Psychology In this section, we will focus on human factors psychology and workplace design.  Human Factors This field is concerned with ensuring that the workplace supports the worker, specifically by researching and designing machines that fit human requirements. Software design, testing, evaluation, and determination of regulations all fall within this realm of psychology.  Safety No injuries Workplace safety is a big concern. Psychologists in this area study safety in order to prevent work related injuries. Safety checklists are one measure that these psychologists have developed.  Safety Safety concerns also led to Attention limits on how long an Decision operator could work before Task analysis making taking a break. Psychologists consider factors such as attention, decision-making, and task analysis and how these are affected by long hours. Stress, Lifestyle and Happiness Chapter 13 138  Stress and Health Psychological states cause physical illness. Stress is any circumstance (real or perceived) that threatens a person’s well-being. Lee Stone/ Corbis When we feel severe stress, our ability to cope with it is impaired. 139  Stress and Health Stress can be adaptive. In a fearful or stress- causing situation, we can run away and save our lives. 140  The Stress Response System Cannon proposed that the stress response (fast) was a fight-or-flight response marked by the outpouring of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the inner adrenal glands, increasing heart and respiration rates, mobilizing sugar and fat, and dulling pain. 141  Stress and Health Stress can be adaptive. In a fearful or stress- causing situation, we can run away and save our lives. Stress can be maladaptive. If it is prolonged (chronic stress), it increases our risk of illness and health problems. 142  Stress and the Heart Stress that leads to elevated blood pressure may result in coronary heart disease, a clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle. Plaque in Artery coronary artery clogged 143  Personality Types Type A is a term used for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people. Type B refers to easygoing, relaxed people (Friedman and Rosenman, 1974). Type A personalities are more likely to develop coronary heart disease. 144  Health-Related Consequences Stress can have a variety of health-related consequences. Kathleen Finlay/ Masterfile 145  Coping with Stress Reducing stress by changing events that cause stress or by changing how we react to stress is called problem-focused coping. Emotion-focused coping is when we cannot change a stressful situation, and we respond by attending to our own emotional needs. 146  Aerobic Exercise Can aerobic exercise boost spirits? Many studies suggest that aerobic exercise can elevate mood and well- being because aerobic exercise raises energy, increases self- confidence, and lowers tension, depression, and anxiety. 147  Biofeedback, Relaxation, and Meditation Biofeedback systems use electronic devices to inform people about their physiological responses and gives them the chance to bring their response to a healthier range. Relaxation and meditation have similar effects in reducing tension and anxiety. 148  Happiness People who are happy perceive the world as being safer  mindset. They are able to make decisions easily, are more cooperative, rate job applicants more favorably, and live healthier, energized, and more satisfied lives. 149  Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon When we feel happy we are more willing to help others. 150  Subjective Well-Being Subjective well-being is the self-perceived feeling of happiness or satisfaction with life. Research on new positive psychology is on the rise. http://web.fineliving.com 151  Does Money Buy Happiness? Wealth is like health: Its utter absence can breed misery, yet having it is no guarantee of happiness. Happiness seems to increase until $75,000. After, it does not seem to make a difference. 152  Happiness & Satisfaction Subjective well-being (happiness + satisfaction) measured in 82 countries shows Puerto Rico and Mexico (poorer countries) at the top of the list. 153  Values & Life Satisfaction Students who value love more than money report higher life satisfaction. 154  Happiness & Prior Experience Adaptation-Level Phenomenon: Like the adaptation to brightness, volume, and touch, people adapt to income levels. “Satisfaction has a short half-life” (Ryan, 1999). 155  Happiness & Others’ Attainments Happiness is not only relative to our past, but also to our comparisons with others. Relative Deprivation is the perception that we are relatively worse off than those we compare ourselves with. Use of social media inversely correlated to subjective happiness. 156  Predictors of Happiness Why are some people generally more happy than others? 157