Feudal Europe PDF

2. PRAY, FIGHT OR WORK THE LAND Feudal Europe You will learn how to… analyse the political, economic and social system known as feudalism. think critically about what medieval society was like. compare sources on the nobility, clergy and peasantry and analyse their relations...

2. PRAY, FIGHT OR WORK THE LAND Feudal Europe You will learn how to… analyse the political, economic and social system known as feudalism. think critically about what medieval society was like. compare sources on the nobility, clergy and peasantry and analyse their relationships and ways of life. identify the characteristics of Romanesque art. make a plan from a drawing.  SITUATE YOUR LEARNING! The invasions (Normans, Muslims and Magyars) and the frequent wars that afflicted Europe in the 9th and 10th centuries helped feudalism to spread. Monarchs, who could not defend their territories, gave lands (fiefdoms) to nobles and the clergy to control and defend. Members of the nobility and clergy then became the monarch's vassals. Peasants needed the protection of a noble and then became his serfs. Society was then structured into three estates: those who went to war (nobility), those who prayed (clergy) and those who worked (peasants and artisans). This period of history, called the Middle Ages, has inspired many works of fiction, which tell stories of knights, ladies, jousting tournaments and magical creatures.  1 Why did the feudal system develop in Europe? Feudalism arose… In the 10th century, a new way of structuring and governing society, known as feudalism, started spreading throughout a deeply rural Europe. The new system was based on relationships of mutual dependence between social groups, with rights and duties on both sides. There were two main relationships: vassalage and servitude. END OF THE CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE AND SECOND INVASIONS...during a time of insecurity… Between the 9th and 10th centuries, the Carolingian Empire was divided into kingdoms. This weakened the monarchs, who clashed with each other. This politically unstable situation was aggravated by a series of invasions that devastated and fragmented Europe. The invaders terrified the people, who felt helpless against the violent attacks, robberies and destruction of villages, bridges and roads....which weakened the monarchs' power The monarchs were unable to cope with this great insecurity. They did not have the means to collect taxes or maintain an army to protect the population. To govern and defend the territory, they delegated some of their power to the nobles, who organised private armies (cavalry) and became the king's vassals. In exchange for loyalty and military help, the nobles received land, known as a fiefdom, and became feudal lords with great power. THE KING AND HIS VASSALS...and led to vassalage… Vassalage was a pact of loyalty between the monarch and nobles or between nobles of different social ranks. High-ranking nobles (lords) had low-ranking nobles as vassals. A lord's vassal could also have his own vassals. Many nobles became feudal lords. At first, this status was given for one lifetime only, but it gradually became hereditary. The lord and vassal took part in a ceremony composed of two parts: the act of homage and the investiture. Homage: The vassal, on his knees, offered the king his hands and promised him loyalty, advice and military help. Investiture: The king gave his vassal land (fiefdom) to govern and exploit economically....and servitude Many peasants were worried that the king could not protect them from the bloody invasions, so they turned to the nobles. The nobles had fortified castles and their own armies, so they offered many peasant families protection. They gave them land to cultivate so they could feed themselves. In return, the peasants had to give part of their harvest to the lord. This meant that the peasants lost their freedom and Miniature showing peasants working for their lord, 14th century. became serfs to the lord. In the 10th century, a new way of structuring and governing society, known as feudalism, started spreading throughout a deeply rural Europe. The new system was based on relationships of mutual dependence between social groups, with rights and duties on both sides. There were two main relationships: vassalage and servitude. Between the 9th and 10th centuries, the Carolingian Empire was divided into kingdoms. This weakened the monarchs, who clashed with each other. This politically unstable situation was aggravated by a series of invasions that devastated and fragmented Europe. WHO WERE THE INVADERS? The Normans (Vikings) came from Scandinavia. Muslims from the south conquered most of the Iberian Peninsula. The Hungarians (Magyars) settled in Hungary. The monarchs were unable to cope with this great insecurity To govern and defend the territory, they delegated some of their power to the nobles, who organised private armies and became the king's vassals. In exchange for loyalty and military help, the nobles received land, known as a fiefdom, and became feudal lords with great power. Vassalage was a pact of loyalty between the monarch and nobles or between nobles of different social ranks. High-ranking nobles (lords) had low-ranking nobles as vassals. The lord and vassal took part in a ceremony composed of two parts: the act of homage and the investiture. Many peasants were worried that the king could not protect them. The nobles had fortified castles and their own armies, so they offered many peasant families protection and gave them land to feed themselves. In return, the peasants had to give part of their harvest to the lord. This meant that the peasants lost their freedom and became serfs to the lord.  2 Who benefitted from the estate-based society? A profoundly unequal society Feudal society was divided into estates. Each estate was a closed group with little social mobility. People belonged to a group by birth and for their lifetime. This was considered God's will, and people had to accept their fate. In this society, the laws did not apply equally to everyone. Society was divided into two main groups: the privileged classes (nobility and clergy) and the non-privileged classes (peasants and artisans). The privileged classes had all the privileges and no duties, while the non-privileged classes had all the duties and few rights. At the top of the feudal system was the monarch, who was recognised as the primus inter pares (Latin for 'first among equals'). THE PRIVILEGED CLASSES The privileged classes made up a small part of the population. They had social and economic power and enjoyed many privileges: They owned most of the land (fiefdoms). They did not have to work and lived off rent from their land. They were exempt from paying taxes. They held the top positions in the kingdom. There were two privileged estates: the nobles, who went to war and defended the kingdom, and the clergy, who Group of dancing nobles, 14th century. were dedicated to prayer. THE MONARCHY Monarchs were sacred and were thought to be chosen by God to rule over society and defend Christianity. The monarch's territories made up his kingdom and were considered his personal possessions, which he could divide or unite as he pleased. He shared power with high-ranking nobles (counts, dukes and marquesses) and clerics (bishops and abbots). A group of nobles called the Royal Council (Curia Regis) helped him make decisions. Many monarchs had no fixed residence and moved between cities or castles in their kingdom. THE KING'S RESPONSIBILITIES To lead military campaigns, which vassals and their armies had to join. To collect taxes. To act as supreme judge in legal disputes (without interfering in the fiefdoms of their nobles or the Church). THE NON-PRIVILEGED CLASSES The third estate consisted of the non- privileged classes. Their function was to work and maintain the other two estates. They had no rights and had to pay high taxes. Depending on their activity, they were peasants, who made up the majority, or artisans, who made up a smaller part. Peasants baking bread, 14th century. Feudal society was divided into estates (little social mobility) This was considered God's will, and people had to accepttheir fate. In this society, the laws did not apply equally to everyone. Society was divided into two main groups: the privileged classes (nobility and clergy) and the non-privileged classes (peasants and artisans with few rights). THE PRIVILEGED CLASSES The privileged classes made up a small part of the population. They had social and economic power and enjoyed many privileges: They owned most of the land (fiefdoms). They did not have to work and lived off rent from their land. They were exempt from paying taxes. They held the top positions in the kingdom. Monarchs were sacred. He shared power with high-ranking nobles ( Royal Council) THE NON-PRIVILEGED CLASSES The third estate consisted of the non-privileged classes. Their function was to work and maintain the other two estates. They had no rights and had to pay high taxes.  3 How was a fiefdom organised? A fiefdom… A fiefdom was the land given to a vassal by the king or a noble, who became a feudal lord, lived off rent and exercised authority over the peasants who lived there. It was not private property; it was entailed property. This meant that the lord could not sell the land, but he could profit from it and pass it on to his descendants. This system involved mutual obligations between the lord and his serfs. In return for protecting the peasants, the lord had certain privileges: Economic rights (territorial lordship): He received rent from the peasants for a plot of land to cultivate. Judicial rights (jurisdictional lordship): He had full authority in his fiefdom. FEUDAL LORD Duties To protect the population. To guarantee food during famines. To supply seeds and farming tools. Rights To make rules and laws. To judge the peasants, pass sentences and issue fines. To create taxes and tolls....and its peasants Peasants lived in small villages or on isolated farms. Although they led very similar lives, there were two kinds: Free peasants owned their land (holdings) and were not subject to a lord. They were allowed to get married, leave the fiefdom, work in a trade, etc. Serfs had to work the lord's land and had no personal freedom. They could not leave the land, marry or leave an inheritance without their lord's permission. SERF (PEASANT) Duties To work a few days every year in the lord's castle and demesne. To give the lord part of the harvest. To offer him the first fruits of the harvest. To pay him to use the oven, mill, blacksmith's, press and other services. Rights To cultivate and live off the land. To have a home for his family. The fiefdom was divided into two parts: The lord's demesne consisted of the best land, which he kept for his own use, and usually included his castle. Holdings were parcels of land given to serfs or free peasants to cultivate and build their homes on in exchange for rent. Sometimes fiefdoms also included small plots of land owned by free peasants (holdings), as well as communal forests and pastures for the peasants' use. A fiefdom was the land given to a vassal by the king or a noble. It was not private property; it was entailed property. This system involved mutual obligations between the lord and his serfs. In return for protecting the peasants, the lord had certain privileges: Economic rights He received rent from the peasants Judicial rights : He had full authority in his fiefdom. FEUDAL LORD Duties To protect the population. Rights To make rules and laws. To judge the peasants, pass sentences and issue fines. To create taxes and tolls. Peasants lived in small villages or on isolated farms. Two kinds: Free peasants owned their land (holdings) and were not subject to a lord. Serfs had to work the lord's land and had no personal freedom. They could not leave the land, marry or leave an inheritance without their lord's permission. Duties To work a few days every year in the lord's castle and demesne. To give the lord part of the harvest. To pay him to use the oven, mill, blacksmith's, press and other services. Rights To cultivate and live off the land. To have a home for his family. The fiefdom was divided into two parts: The lord's demesne consisted of the best land ( for his own use) Holdings were parcels of land given to serfs or free peasants to cultivate and build their homes on in exchange for rent. Sometimes fiefdoms also included communal forests and pastures for the peasants' use.  4 How did the nobles live? The nobles were a privileged group who provided society with military protection. The income from their fiefdoms allowed them to live in castles and own horses and weapons. The nobles included dukes, marquesses, counts and barons, and their power depended on the land they owned and their vassals. Nobles, knights… The nobles' most important activity was training for battle, so they took part in jousts and tournaments against other knights. When the king summoned them to war, they came to his aid with their army. Their daily routine consisted of inspecting the fiefdom on horseback, receiving their vassals, imparting justice, collecting taxes and food from their serfs, and checking security posts and weapons. Sometimes they attended banquets or parties where minstrels and troubadours told stories, juggled, sang songs or performed music. They ate meat and drank wine and beer. They ate with their hands because cutlery was not common until the 16th century. They also went hunting on horseback, accompanied by serfs and dogs, and used spears to kill wild boar, deer and foxes. They practised falconry, which involved training a bird of prey (a falcon) to hunt....and ladies The lady of the castle was responsible for perpetuating the lineage and teaching the children. Many brought a large dowry when they married, which gave them power and influence. When the lord was absent or died, the lady often took over responsibility for the castle and lands. A lady's daily routine consisted of organising the household, horse riding in the woods and hunting. Many could read, write and play instruments, and were well educated. Therefore, troubadours and minstrels were often invited to the court to recite poetry. WHO WERE KNIGHTS? Nobles were warriors by trade and formed the order of knighthood. Their training began at six years of age, when they were sent to the castle of another nobleman or the king. First, they served as pages. Then, they began their military training as squires. At 18 years of age, they were knighted in a formal ceremony. The ideal knight was courageous, loyal, honest and prepared to defend the weakest members of society. Courtly love was a noble, sincere, idealised and chivalrous expression of love that inspired the poems of troubadours. THE INVESTITURE CEREMONY The lord leant over and attached a spur to his right foot. The squires surrounded him to arm him. The lord picked up the sword, placed it on his waist and embraced him. With that, he was granted the highest distinction, the order of knighthood. The lord said, 'Brother, remember this. Whenever you engage in combat and your enemy begs for mercy, do not kill him deliberately'. Investiture of Lancelot du Lac in a miniature from A KNIGHT'S WEAPONS Knights were difficult to recognise because of their chain mail and helmets. Therefore, each one held a shield with colours and symbols to identify him. COURTLY LOVE A knight's behaviour towards his lady was similar to a vassal's behaviour towards his lord. My lady, my power comes from my heart, which depends on you; you have taken the power from my heart, which has been captivated by your beauty. This beauty has made me fall in love with you and I cannot imagine a greater love. CHRÉTIEN DE TROYES: The Knight of the Lion, 12th century. Miniature from the library of El Escorial, 14 th century. The nobles were a privileged group who provided society with military protection The nobles' most important activity was training for battle. They also went hunting The lady of the castle was responsible for perpetuating the lineage and teaching the children. Many brought a large dowry Nobles were warriors by trade and formed the order of knighthood. First, they served as pages. Then, they began their military training as squires. At 18 years of age, they were knighted in a formal ceremony.  5 Were castles built for defence? The castle: the lord's home The castle was the centre of the fiefdom and provided refuge for its inhabitants (peasants, artisans and clergy) during attacks. It was usually located on high ground so that it could be defended more easily. It was surrounded by high walls up to 2.5 metres thick. To serve as a refuge in the event of an attack, it had to be self-sufficient, with wells, artisans' workshops and storerooms for supplies. Inside the castle it was dark and cold, with few luxuries or comforts. Tapestries sometimes decorated the walls and there was some furniture (tables, benches, chests and beds with straw mattresses). The only warmth came from fireplaces, and torches were used at night. Several family members slept in the same room, in four-poster beds. The servants slept on pallets on the ground. PARTS OF A CASTLE The castle was the centre of the fiefdom and provided refuge for its inhabitants. It was usually located on high ground so that it could be defended more easily. It was surrounded by high walls. In the centre was the keep, the castle's tallest, strongest and safest tower, where the lord lived with his family.  6 How did the peasants live? The peasants cultivated the land… The peasants worked from sunrise to sunset and most were very poor. Their life was monotonous, and year after year they cultivated the land as the seasons came and went. The whole family participated in the farm work. The men carried out the more difficult jobs (ploughing, reaping, pruning and cutting down trees, etc.). The women helped with the harvest, took care of the vegetable garden and looked after the poultry. Because the techniques and tools were very basic, yields were low. To avoid depleting the soil, they practised crop rotation; first the two-field system and later the three-field system. This meant that part of the land was left unplanted (fallow). They grew cereals to make bread. They also planted legumes (beans, chickpeas, etc.), vines and olive trees. They grew vegetables and fruit trees....and produced low yields The peasants carried out subsistence agriculture (they produced only enough food for themselves). Their harvest could be spoiled by a drought or frost, which could cause them to starve. Poor diet, a lack of hygiene and regular famines meant that there was a very high mortality rate. Trade was uncommon and families made their own products (tools, clothes, shoes, etc.). Sometimes they had to buy products such as salt and iron or copper utensils. Their diet was poor and lacked variety. They ate dark bread, porridge, vegetable stews (cabbage, beans and carrots), legumes (chickpeas and lentils), cheese and eggs. They only ate meat occasionally (e.g. pork, chicken and liver). THE AGRICULTURAL CALENDAR THE PEASANT'S AGRICULTURAL CALENDAR A PEASANT HOME The peasants worked from sunrise to sunset and most were very poor. The whole family participated in the farm work. Because the techniques and tools were very basic, yields were low. To avoid depleting the soil, they practised crop rotation; first the two-field system and later the three-field system. This meant that part of the land was left unplanted (fallow). The peasants carried out subsistence agriculture (they produced only enough food for themselves). Poor diet, a lack of hygiene and regular famines. Trade was uncommon and families made their own products. Their diet was poor and lacked variety. THE FALLOW TECHNIQUE 7 What was the role of the Church in feudal society? In the Middle Ages, most people in Europe were Christians. Religious beliefs guided people's behaviour and community life. The Church regulated social life… The church was the most important building in any village or city. The bells became part of the rhythm of daily life. They announced prayers, warned of dangers and called resident meetings. The Church organised ceremonies to mark major life events (baptisms, marriages and funerals) and established holidays (Christmas, Easter, etc.). Christians had to fulfil their religious duties, practise charity and lead a virtuous life. They were also expected to make pilgrimages to holy sites such as Rome, Jerusalem and Santiago de Compostela. The Church aimed to protect society from violence. Through the 'Peace of God', it punished knights who attacked defenceless people, and its 'Truce of God' suspended allwarfare from Thursday to Sunday. HIERARCHY OF THE CHURCH All the men and women who dedicated their lives to the Church constituted the clergy. At the top of the hierarchy was the Pope, who lived in Rome. Depending on their destiny and work, the clergy was divided into: secular clergy: priests, pastors, bishops and cardinals, who served the faithful. regular clergy: monks and nuns, who were dedicated to work and prayer. They lived in monasteries or convents. Not all clerics enjoyed the same standard of living: The high clergy (cardinals, bishops, abbots) enjoyed the same privileges as nobles. The low clergy (rural pastors, monks) led a similar life to peasants....and owned large estates The power of the Church was not only spiritual. It also owned land and buildings (monasteries, convents, churches, etc.), which gave it numerous benefits. It received feudal rents and tithes (a tenth of the harvest) from peasants, and donations from its parishioners, some of whom left their property to the Church when they died. The Church also fulfilled an important social and cultural task. It was responsible for helping the poor, caring for the sick and teaching in monastic schools. WHAT WERE THE CRUSADES? In the Middle Ages, military expeditions were organised. These were known as the Crusades. The Pope called on thousands of warriors (crusaders) to go to the Middle East to liberate the Holy Land from the Muslims. He promised them eternal salvation in return. The crusaders took control of some territories (such as Antioch), but were expelled by the Muslims in the 13th century. The church was the most important building in any village or city. Their bells announced prayers or danger. The Church organised ceremonies to mark major life events (baptisms, marriages and funerals) and established holidays (Christmas, Easter, etc.) Christians had to fulfil their religious duties, practise charity. The Church aimed to protect society from violence. Through the 'Peace of God' HIERARCHY OF THE CHURCH All the men and women who dedicated their lives to the Church constituted the clergy. At the top of the hierarchy was the Pope, who lived in Rome. The clergy was divided into: secular clergy: priests, bishops, who served the faithful. regular clergy: monks and nuns, who were dedicated to work and prayer. They lived in monasteries. Not all clerics enjoyed the same standard of living: The high clergy (cardinals,) same privileges as nobles. The low clergy (rural pastors, monks) similar life to peasants. Church also owned land and buildings (monasteries, churches, etc.), which gave it numerous benefits. It received feudal rents and tithes. In the Middle Ages, military expeditions were organised. These were known as the Crusades.  8 What were the duties of monastic life? Medieval monastery Monasteries were inhabited by monks or nuns. They were governed by an abbot or abbess, who had authority over them but had to consult the community on the most important issues. The monks and nuns were subject to rules on how the monastery should be organised and how they should live. To live in a monastery, nuns and monks had to carry out a period of training called the novitiate. After that, they had to take vows of obedience, poverty and chastity. From then on, they had to wear a habit that identified their order and follow monastic rules. The most important order was the Benedictines. It was founded in Italy in the 6th century by Benedict of Nursia, and then spread throughout Europe. A branch of the Benedictines, known as the Cistercians, emerged in the 12th century. MONK WORKING IN A SCRIPTORIUM MONASTIC LIFE The monastic rules dictated the monks' and nuns' habits, meals and tasks, which focused on prayer and work (ora et labora). They carried out different tasks. Some copied manuscripts in the scriptorium, while others worked in the garden, cared for the sick and took care of the guest rooms. They had to stay silent most of the day, they received few visitors and they ate together in the refectory while one of them read from the Bible or another sacred book. The cloister was a place where they could walk, read, meditate and communicate with each other. A MONASTERY The church was the main building in the monastery. It was surrounded by a set of outbuildings such as bedrooms, a refectory, stables and a wine cellar. The monastery administered the land within its jurisdiction. Like any other fiefdom, it had serfs and received rent from the peasants, and its abbots behaved like feudal lords. Monasteries were inhabited by monks or nuns. They were governed by an abbot or abbess. Monks and nuns had to take vows of obedience, poverty and chastity. They had to wear a habit that identified their order and follow monastic rules The most important order was the Benedictines. They carried out different tasks. Some copied manuscripts in the scriptorium, while others worked in the garden, cared for the sick and took care of the guest rooms. The monastery administered the land within its jurisdiction. Like any other fiefdom, it had serfs and received rent from the peasants, and its abbots behaved like feudal lords.  9 Romanesque architecture: a distinctly European style? A new artistic style… In feudal Europe, a style known as Romanesque art and architecture developed between the 11th and 13th centuries. After the great invasions ended, the population grew and the construction of churches in villages began. Therefore, from the 11th century, Christian Europe was filled with churches built in the new Romanesque style. Due to the enormous social influence of religion, the Romanesque style celebrated God's glory and promoted the Christian faith. The spread of the Benedictine order, which originated in Cluny Abbey (France), played a major role in the development and expansion of the Romanesque style....whose main buildings were churches The main buildings constructed in the new style were churches and monasteries. Churches throughout Europe had similar features: A floor plan in the shape of a Latin cross to symbolise where Jesus died. The short arm was called the transept, and the junction between the two arms was called the crossing. The lantern tower was usually built over the crossing. The end of the church, the apse, was normally semi-circular. Sometimes the side aisles extended and surrounded it to form an ambulatory. The roof consisted of solid barrel vaults supported by thick walls and huge columns, joined by semi- circular arches. Since the stone vaults were very heavy, the walls had to be very thick, with few gaps. Buttresses were attached to the external walls to reinforce them. A bell tower was usually built on the outside, either attached to or separate from the church. This was used to announce the time for prayer and as a watchtower. Semi-circular arches were used for the doors and windows. These were supported by columns, often with decorated capitals. ROMANCE LANGUAGES In the early Middle Ages, Romance languages (Castilian, Catalan, Galician, French, Italian, etc.) began to be spoken. They came from the Vulgar Latin spoken by the people in the Empire of ancient Rome. This was different from the literary and cultured Latin and varied depending on the area The oldest known texts in Castilian are the Glosas emilianenses, dating from the 10th century. They where it was spoken. are kept in the monastery of Yuso (San Millán de la Cogolla, La Rioja). THE EXPANSION OF ROMANESQUE ART THE ROMANESQUE CHURCH The churches were built of stone blocks, which is why many have survived to this day The apse was the end of the church and housed the altar table. It was usuallysemi- circular or polygonal. Collegiate Church of Santa María la Mayor in Toro th (Zamora), 12 century. In feudal Europe, a style known as Romanesque art and architecture developed between the 11th and 13th centuries.Romanesque style celebrated God's glory and promoted the Christian faith. The main buildings constructed in the new style were churches and monasteries and had similar features: A floor plan in the shape of a Latin cross to symbolise where Jesus died. The short arm was called the transept, and the junction between the two arms was called the crossing. The end of the church, the apse, was normally semi-circular. Sometimes the side aisles extended and surrounded it to form an ambulatory. The roof consisted of solid barrel vaults supported by thick walls and huge columns, joined by semi- circular arches. Since the stone vaults were very heavy, the walls had to be very thick, with few gaps. Buttresses were attached to the external walls to reinforce them. A bell tower was usually built on the outside, either attached to or separate from the church. This was used to announce the time for prayer and as a watchtower. Semi-circular arches were used for the doors and windows. These were supported by columns, often with decorated capitals.  10 Romanesque painting and sculpture:an essentially religious movement? Romanesque paintings and sculptures were religious in nature and closely connected to architecture. In addition to their decorative function, they also had an educational purpose (they related the sacred events of the Bible and the lives of the saints) and a moralistic purpose (they helped people distinguish good from evil). In the Middle Ages, most people were unable to read the Bible for themselves. Therefore, the images took the place of books to teach worshippers about religion. PAINTING Paintings covered the walls and apses of churches. They were highly expressive, but technically very simple, with thick dark outlines and uniform colours. There was no depth, volume or perspective, and the figures were arranged according to the architectural features. The characters were depicted in hierarchical terms, with the most important figures larger than the others. There was also a tendency to fill all empty spaces (horror vacui). Frescoes Paintings were created using the fresco technique, where a layer of plaster was spread on the wall and painted while it was still wet to fix the colours. Panels Romanesque churches also had paintings on panels covered with a thin layer of plaster. Panel paintings were used to cover altar frontals and apses. CHRIST PANTOCRATOR The most common motif in Romanesque art was Christ Pantocrator (Christ in Majesty). These paintings were located in the apse and occupied a central position in the church. They always followed the same model: The figure of Christ appears within an almond-shaped frame called a mandorla. He blesses with his right hand and holds a book in his left hand, with the phrase: 'I am the light of the world'. He is surrounded by symbols of the four evangelists. Pantocrator of Santa María de Mur (Lleida),11 th century. Altar frontal in Santa María de Cardet church (Lleida), 12th century. SCULPTURE Sculpture was heavily dependent on architecture. The figures had the proportions and shape of the surface on which they were carved. The themes were religious and the figures were rigid, with no perspective. They were usually found on doorways, columns and capitals. Capitals were also decorated with plant and geometric motifs and scenes from everyday life. Religious wooden carvings painted in bright colours were also common. These were usually placed on the altars of churches or monasteries. The main themes were the crucifixion of Christ, the Virgin Mary with baby Jesus on a throne and images of saints. DOORWAYS: A BIBLE IN STONE Most sculptures decorated the doorways of churches. Since the doorway was the first thing people saw when they went to church, it had to be powerful: The main scene was found on the tympanum. This was usually Christ in Majesty, who was larger than the other characters. The lintel, mullion and archivolts showed scenes from the Bible, saints, animals and geometric motifs. Doorway of Santo Domingo church (Soria), 12 th century. Romanesque paintings and sculptures were religious in nature and closely connected to architecture. Educational purpose (Bible) and a moralistic purpose.In the Middle Ages, most people were unable to read the Bible Paintings covered the walls and apses of churches. They were highly expressive, but technically very simple, with thick dark outlines and uniform colours. There was no depth. The characters were depicted in hierarchical terms, with the most important figures larger than the others. Frescos, miniatures and panels were the main techniques. Sculpture was heavily dependent on architecture. The themes were religious and the figures were rigid, with no perspective. They were usually found on doorways, columns and capitals. Religious wooden carvings painted in bright colours were also common placed on altars. Most sculptures decorated the doorways of churches. Since the doorway was the first thing people saw when they went to church, it had to be powerful. The main scene was found on the tympanum. Create a plan from a drawing EUROPEAN MEDIEVAL CASTLES