History of Medieval India (800-1700) PDF

History of Medieval India For our entire range of books please use search strings "Orient BlackSwan", "Universities Press India" and "Permanent Black" in store. History of Medieval India (800-1700) SATISH CHANDRA History of Medieval India Orient Blackswan Private Limited Registered Office 3-6-752 Himayatnagar, Hyderabad 500 029 (A.P.), INDIA e-mail: [email protected] Other Offices Bengaluru, Bhopal, Chennai, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Kolkata, Lucknow, Mumbai, New Delhi, Noida, Patna, Vijayawada © Satish Chandra 2007 First published by Orient Blackswan Pvt. Ltd. 2007 Reprinted 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015 eISBN 978-93-5287-457-6 e-edition: First Published 2018 ePUB Conversion: TEXTSOFT Solutions Pvt. Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests write to the publisher. The external boundaries and coastlines as depicted in the maps are not to scale. They are neither correct nor authentic. Contents Cover Title page Copyright List of Maps Preface 1. India and the World Europe The Arab World Africa 2. Northern India: Age of the Three Empires (800–1000) The Struggle for Domination in North India: The Palas The Pratiharas The Rashtrakutas Political Ideas and Organisation 3. South India: The Chola Empire (900–1200) The Rise of the Chola Empire Age of Rajaraja and Rajendra I Chola Government—Local Self Government Cultural Life 4. Economic and Social Life, Education and Religious Beliefs (800– 1200) Trade and Commerce Nature of Society The Caste System Condition of Women Dress, Food and Amusements Education, Science and Religious Learning Religious Movements and Beliefs 5. The Age of Conflict (Circa 1000–1200) The Ghaznavids The Rajput States The Turkish Conquest of North India The Batde of Tarain Turkish Conquest of the Ganga Valley Causes of the Defeat of the Rajputs 6. The Delhi Sultanat—I (Circa 1200–1300) The Mameluk Sultans (Thirteenth Century) Struggle for the Establishment of a Strong Monarchy Iltutmish (1210–36) Raziya Era of Balban (1246–87) The Mongols and the Problem of the Northwest Frontier Internal Rebellions and the Struggle for Territorial Consolidation of the Delhi Sultanat 7. The Delhi Sultanat— (Circa 1300–1400) The Khaljis and the Tughlaqs The Khaljis (1290–1320) The Tughlaqs (1320–1412) Expansion of the Delhi Sultanat Internal Reforms and Experiments Muhammad Tughlaq’s Experiments Decline arid Disintergration of the Delhi Sultanat: Firuz and his Successors 8. Government, and Economic and Social Life under the Delhi Sultanat The Sultan Central Administration Local Administration Economic and Social Life Peasants and Rural Gentry Trade, Industry and the Merchants The Sultan and the Nobles Town Life: Slaves, Artisans and Others Caste, Social Manners and Customs Nature of the State Religious Freedom under the Sultanat 9. The Age of Vijayanagara and the Bahmanids, and the Coming of the Portuguese (Circa 1350–1565) The Vijayanagara Empire—Its Foundation and Conflict with the Bahmani Kingdom The Bahmani Kingdom —Its Expansion and Disintegration Mahmud Gawan Climax of the Vijayanagara Empire and its Disintegration The Advent of the Portuguese 10. Struggle for Empire in North India—I (Circa 1400–1525) Eastern India—Bengal, Assam and Orissa Western India—Gujarat Mahmud Begarha Malwa, Mewar Northwest and North India—The Sharqis, the Lodi Sultans Kashmir 11. Cultural Development in India (1200–1500) Architecture Religious Ideas and Beliefs The Sufi Movement The Chishti and Suharwardi Silsilahs The Bhakti Movement The Vaishnavite Movement Literature and Fine Arts 12. Struggle for Empire in North India—II Mughals and Afghans (1525–1555) Central Asia and Babur Conquest of India The Battle of Panipat (20 April 1526) The Battle of Khanwa The Afghans Significance of Babur’s Advent into India Humayun’s Conquest of Gujarat and his Tussle with Sher Shah Sher Shah and the Sur Empire (1540–55) Contribution of Sher Shah 13. Consolidation of the Mughal Empire Age of Akbar Early Phase—Contest with the Nobility (1556–67) Early Expansion of the Empire (1560–76) Administration Mansabdari System and the Army Organization of Governrnent Relations with the Rajputs Rebellions and Further Expansion of the Mughal Empire Towards Integration: State, Religion and Social Reforms 14. The Deccan and South India (Up to 1656) Mughal Advance Towards the Deccan Conquest of Berar, Ahmadnagar and Khandesh Rise of Malik Ambar and Frustration of Mughal Attempt at Consolidation Extinction of Ahmadnagar, and Acceptance of Mughal Suzerainty by Bijapur and Golconda Cultural Contribution of the Deccan States 15. India in the First Half of the Seventeenth Century Political and Administrative Developments in India Nur Jahan Shah Jahan’s Rebellion Mahabat Khan Foreign Policy of the Mughals—Shah Jahan’s Balkh Campaign Mughal-Persian Relations—the Last Phase Growth of Administration: Mansabdari System and the Mughal Army The Mughal Army 16. Economic and Social Life under the Mughals Economic and Social Conditions Standard of Living:Pattern of Village Life and the Masses The Ruling Classes: The Nobles and Zainindars Zamindars and the Rural Gentry The Middle Strata Organization of Trade and Commerce Foreign Trade and the European Traders 17. Cultural and Religious Developments Architecture Painting Language, Literature and Music Music Religious Ideas and Beliefs, and Problems of Integration 18. Climax and Disintegration of the Mughal Empire—I Problems of Succession Aurangzeb’s Reign—His Religious Policy Political Developments—North India Northeast and East India Popular Revolts and Movements for Regional Independence: Jats, Afghans and Sikhs Relations with the Rajputs—Breach with Marwar and Mewar 19. Climax and Disintegration of the Mughal Empire—II The Rise of the Marathas Early Career of Shivaji Treaty of Purandar and Shivaji’s Visit to Agra Final Breach with Shivaji—Shivaji’s Administration and Achievements Aurangzeb and the Deccani States (1658–87) The First Phase (1658–68) The Second Phase (1668–84) The Third Phase (1684–87) Aurangzeb, the Marathas and the Deccan—the Last Phase (1687– 1707) Decline of the Mughal Empire—Responsibility of Aurangzeb 20. Assessment and Review Appendix Books for Further Reading List of Maps MAP 1. India during AD 700–AD 1030 MAP 2. Chola Kingdom, AD 1200 MAP 3. India around AD 1200 MAP 4. Sultanates of Delhi in the 13th Century MAP 5. Sultanates of Delhi, mid 14th Century MAP 6. India during the 15th Century MAP 7. India at the Death of Akbar MAP 8. Mughal Empire in South India in AD 1707 Appendix MAP A. Eastern Iran and Central Asia in the later Timurid era MAP B. Ports in the Indian Ocean Preface As a nation grows, it is bound to review its past to see what part of its legacy is relevant, or an inhibiting factor, for growth. The medieval period of Indian history has often been equated to the period of Turkish and Mughal rule over the country. This meant that primacy was given to political factors rather than societal ones. This attitude was also based on the assumption that there has been little change in Indian society down the centuries. This attitude has now begun to change. Historians have traced the evolution of tribe-based society in India to the rise of territorial states, and the gradual formation of classes and castes within this state system. It has also been shown that with the growing trend towards ownership of land, and the desire to dominate and control those engaged in cultivation, a new form of society arose—that is, the feudal mode. It has, however, been recognized that there were vital differences between this social order and the feudal order in Europe. Without trying to investigate these differences in detail, an attempt has been made to trace the evolution of social, economic, political and cultural trends in India from the eight century to the end of the seventeenth century. It is a daunting task to bring all these aspects together in a single volume. An attempt has been made in the hope that the summation of the efforts of many historians during the last four decades to give a new orientation to medieval Indian history would stimulate public interest, and also put in better perspective recent controversies regarding the nature of the state in medieval India, the extent of religious freedom to peoples within it, and the nature of the economic growth during the period. A point has been made in the book that the emergence of large empires followed by their breakdown into smaller components and vice versa did not necessarily mean economic stagnation and cultural decay. Even when larger states emerged subsequently, there was often an active interchange between the new center and the regional states. Thus, Indian history is not just an endless story of the rise and fall of empires without any institutional and cultural growth, as Sir Charles Elliot had postulated in his introduction to the eight-volume History of India as Told by its Own Historians. Indian history is a much more complex web with the center of gravity shifting from north to east, or to the south, and back again, and finally, for a long period the forces of growth triumphing under the Mughals over the forces of disintegration. The process of disintegration during the eighteenth century, and a re-integration under vastly different circumstances under the British and its harmful consequences have not been touched upon here. In the end, I would like to thank Orient Longman for bringing out this work, despite many difficulties. Satish Chandra New Delhi January 2007 ONE India and the World The thousand year period between the eighth and the eighteenth century saw important changes in India and the world. New social and political forms rose in Europe as well as Asia. The new forms also had profound effects on the thinking and living patterns of the peoples. These changes had an impact on India also since India had long-standing trade and cultural relations with countries around the Mediterranean Sea, and the various empires which arose in the area, including the Roman and Persian empires. EUROPE In Europe, the mighty Roman empire had broken into two by the third quarter of the sixth century. The western part with its capital at Rome had been overwhelmed by the Slav and Germanic tribesmen coming from the side of Russia and Germany. These tribes came in many waves, and indulged in a great deal of ravaging and plundering in the territories of the old Roman empire. But, in course of time, these tribes settled down in different parts of Europe, profoundly changing the character of the old population as well as the languages and pattern of governments. The foundations of many of the modern European nations were laid during this period as a result of the commingling of these tribesmen with the local population. The eastern part of the old Roman empire had its capital at Byzantium or Constantinopole. This empire which was called the Byzantine empire included most of eastern Europe as well as modern Turkey, Syria and North Africa, including Egypt. It continued many of the traditions of the Roman empire such as a strong monarchy and a highly centralized administration. However, in belief and ritual, it had many differences with the Catholic Church in the West which had its head quarters at Rome. The church in the East was called the Greek Orthodox Church. It was due to its efforts and those of the Byzantine rulers that Russia was converted to Christianity. The Byzantine empire was a large and flourishing empire which continued to trade with Asia after the collapse of the Roman empire in the West. It created traditions of government and culture many of which were later absorbed by the Arabs when they overran Syria and Egypt. It also acted as a bridge between the Greco-Roman civilization and the Arab world, and later helped in the revival of Greek learning in the West. It disappeared finally in the middle of the fifteenth century when Constantinopole fell to the Turks. For centuries after the collapse of the Roman empire in the West, the cities virtually disappeared in western Europe. One cause of this was the absence of gold which the Romans had obtained from Africa and used for trade with the Orient. The period between the sixth and tenth centuries was for long called a ‘Dark Age’ by historians. However, this was also a period of agricultural expansion which prepared the way for the revival of city life from the tenth century, and growth of foreign trade. Between the twelfth and the fourteenth century, western Europe was again able to attain a high level of prosperity. A notable feature of the period was the growth of science and technology, growth of towns, and the establishment of universities in a number of cities, such as Padua and Milan in Italy. The universities played an important part in the growth of new learning and new ideas which were gradually to lead to the Renaissance and the rise of a new Europe. Growth of Feudalism A new type of society and a new system of government rose in western Europe, following the breakup of the Roman empire. The new order that gradually emerged is called feudalism. This is derived from the Latin word feudum which in English became fief. In this society the most powerful elements were the chiefs who, with their military following, dominated large tracts of land and also played an important part in government. The king was just like one of the more powerful feudal chiefs. In course of time, the monarchy became stronger and an attempt was made to limit the power of the chiefs, who constantly fought each other leading to a state of social anarchy. One method of controlling this was that the king swore the chiefs to an oath of loyalty to him as his vassals, and, in return, recognized the tract of land dominated by the chiefs as their fiefs. The chiefs, in turn, could appoint sub-chiefs as vassals, and allot a tract out of their fief to them. The king could, in theory, resume the fief of a disloyal vassal, but, in practice, this was rarely done. Thus, in the feudal system, government was dominated by a landed aristocracy. The aristocracy soon became hereditary and tried its best not to admit outsiders to its fold. But it was never a completely closed aristocracy, with disloyal chiefs being removed, and new ones being appointed, or rising to power. The feudal system is associated with two other features. First is the system of serfdom. A serf was a peasant who worked on the land but could not change his profession, or migrate to any other area or marry without the permission of his lord or master. Associated with this system was the manor. The manor was the house or castle where the lord lived. In many of the European countries, large tracts of land were owned by the lords of these manors. A part of the land was cultivated by the lord directly with the help of serfs who had to divide their time between cultivating their own fields and the fields of their master. The land belonged theoretically to the lord, and the serf had to pay him other dues in cash and kind. The lord of the manor also had the responsibility of maintaining law and order, dispensing justice, etc. Since there was a great deal of lawlessness in those days, even free peasants were sometimes prepared to accept the vassalage of the lord of the manor in return for protection. Some historians think that the system of serfdom and the manor system are vital parts of feudalism, and that it is wrong to speak of feudalism for societies in which these two did not exist. In India, for instance, there was no serfdom and no manor system as such. But the local landed elements (samantas) exercised many of the powers of the feudal lords, and the peasantry was in a dependent position to them. In other words, what mattered was not whether the peasantry was formally free, but the manner and the extent to which it could exercise its freedom. In many countries of western Europe, the manor system, and the system of labour dues by the peasants disappeared after the fourteenth century. The second feature associated with the feudal system in Europe is the system of military organization. The most typical symbol of the feudal system was the armoured knight on horseback. Actually, the system of cavalry warfare can roughly be traced back in Europe only to the eighth century. In the Roman times, the chief wings of the army were the heavy and light infantry, armed with long spears and short swords. Horses were used to draw chariots in which the officers rode. It is generally believed that the mode of warfare changed with the arrival of the Arabs. The Arabs had a large supply of horses and their swift movements and mounted archers made the infantry largely ineffective. The problem of developing and maintaining the organization needed for the new mode of warfare helped in the growth of feudalism in Europe. No king could hope to maintain out of his own resources the large body of cavalry that was needed, and to provide them with armour and equipment. Hence, the army was decentralized, assigning to the fief-holders the responsibility of maintaining a fixed force of cavalry and infantry for the service of the king. Cavalry warfare became the principal mode of warfare on account of two inventions which, though much older, began to be used on a large scale during this period. The first was the iron stirrup. The iron stirrup made it possible for a heavily armoured person to sit firmly on a horse without falling off. It also made possible a cavalry charge with lances held tightly to the body, without the rider being thrown off by the shock of the impact. The earlier device was either a wooden stirrup or a piece of rope which only provided a toe-hold. Another invention was a new type of harness which enabled a horse to d raw twice the amount of load it pulled earlier. It is believed that both these inventions came to Europe from the East, possibly from East Asia. They spread in India from the tenth century onwards. Thus, many factors, political, economic and military, were responsible for the growth of feudalism in Europe. Even when stronger governments emerged after the eleventh century, the tradition had become too strong for the king to reduce easily the power of the feudal chiefs. Apart from the system of feudalism, the pattern of life in Europe during what is called the medieval period was also shaped by the Christian Church. We have already referred to the role of the Greek Orthodox Church in the Byzantine empire and in Russia. In the absence of a powerful empire in the West, the Catholic Church took on some of the functions of the government as well. The Pope, who was the head of the Catholic Church, became not only a religious head, but also a figure who exercised a great deal of political and moral authority. In Europe, as in West Asia and in India, the Medieval Age was an age of religion, and those who spoke on behalf of religion exercised a great deal of power and influence. With the help of grants of land from the princes and feudal chiefs, and donations from rich merchants, many monastic orders and monasteries were set up. Some of these orders, such as that of the Franciscans, served the needy and the poor. Many monasteries, gave medical help, or shelter to the travellers. They also served as centres for education and learning. In this way, the Catholic Church played an important role in the cultural life of Europe. However, some of the monasteries which became exceedingly wealthy began to behave like feudal lords. This led to internal discord, and conflict with the rulers who resented the worldly power of the Church and of the Popes. This conflict was reflected in the Renaissance and Reform movements later on. THE ARAB WORLD The rise of Islam from the seventh century onwards was instrumental in uniting the warring Arab tribes into a powerful empire. The Arab empire founded by the early caliphs embraced, apart from Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, North Africa and Spain. Following internal differences and civil war among the Arab tribes, in the middle of the eighth century the caliph at Damascus was displaced, and a new dynasty, called the Abbasids came to power. They set up their capital at the newly founded city of Baghdad.The Abbasids claimed to belong to the same tribe to which the Prophet Muhammad belonged, and were for that reason considered holy. For about 150 years the Abbasid empire was one of the most powerful and flourishing empire in the world. At its height, it included all the important centres of civilization in the area, viz., parts of North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids controlled not only some of the most important regions of West Asia and North Africa but also commanded the important trade routes linking the Mediterranean world with India. The safety and security which the Abbasids provided to these trade routes was an important factor for the wealth and prosperity of the people in the area, and of the splendour and magnificence of the Abbasid court. The Arabs were keen merchants and quickly emerged as the most enterprising and wealthy merchants and seafarers in the world during the period. Numerous cities, with magnificent buildings, both private and public, arose. The standard of living and the cultural environment of the Arab towns could hardly be paralled in any country in the world during the period. The Arabs also established the gold dinar and the silver dirham which became the currency of trade all over the world. This was made possible by the Arab access to African gold. The Arabs also established double entry book-keeping, advanced accountancy, and large scale and elaborate banking and credit, including bills of exchange (hundis). The most famous caliphs of this period were al-Mamun and Harun al- Rashid. The splendour of their court and their palaces, and of their patronage to men of science and learning, became subjects of numerous stories and legends. During the early period, the Arabs displayed a remarkable capacity of assimilating the scientific knowledge and administrative skills of the ancient civilizations they had overrun. For managing the administration, they had no hesitation in employing non-Muslims, such as Christians and Jews, and also non-Arabs, particularly the Iranians, many of whom were Zoroastrians or even Buddhists. Although the Abbasid caliphs were orthodox Muslims, they opened wide the gate of learning from all quarters as long as it did not challenge the fundamental tenets of Islam. The Caliph al-Mamun set up a ‘House of Wisdom’ (bait-ul- hikmat) at Baghdad for translating into Arabic the learning from various civilizations—Greek, Byzantine, Egyptian, Iranian and Indian. The example set by the Caliphs was followed by individual nobles. In a short space of time, almost all the important scientific works of the various countries had become available in Arabic. We know a good deal about the impact of Greek science and philosophy on the Arabs, largely due to the work done in recent years by a devoted band of European scholars. We are also beginning to have a better idea of the impact of Chinese science and philosophy on the Arab world. Many Chinese inventions such as the compass, paper, printing, gun-powder and even the humble wheel-barrow travelled from China to Europe via the Arabs during this period. The famous Venetian traveller, Marco Polo, travelled to China in order to know more about it, and to breach the Arab monopoly of Europe’s trade with China. Unfortunately, we have only a limited knowledge of India’s economic and cultural relations with the Arab world during the period, and India’s scientific contribution to it. After its conquest by the Arabs in the eighth century, Sind did become a conduit of scientific and cultural links between India and the Arab world. The decimal system which is the basis of modern mathematics and which had developed in India in the fifth century, travelled to the Arab world during this period. During the ninth century it was popularized in the region by the Arab mathematician al-Khwarizmi. It was introduced to Europe in the twelfth century by a monk, Abelard, and became known as the system of Arab numerals! Many Indian works dealing with astronomy and mathematics were also translated into Arabic. The famous work on astronomy, Surya Siddhanta, which had been revised and reformed by Aryabhatta was one of these. Works of Charak and Sushruta dealing with medicine were also translated. Indian traders and merchants continued to visit the marts of Iraq and Iran, and Indian physicians and master-craftsmen were received at the caliph’s court at Baghdad. A number of Sanskrit literary works, such as Kalila wa Dimma (Panchatantra) were also translated into Arabic and formed the basis of Aesop’s Fables in the West. A more detailed study of the impact of Indian sciences and philosophy on the Arab world and of the Arab sciences on India is now being made. By the beginning of the tenth century, the Arabs had reached the stage when they could make their own contribution to the various sciences. The growth of geometry, algebra, geography, astronomy, optics, chemistry, medicine, etc., in the Arab world during this period made it the leader in the field of science. The writings of Arab geographers, and their maps advanced knowledge about the world. The Arabs also helped to develop new devices for travelling across the open sea. These devices continued to be used till the fifteenth century. The accounts of the Arab traders about India and the neighbouring countries during this period is a useful source of information for us. Some of the best stocked libraries in the world, and the leading scientific laboratories were established in the Arab world during the period. However, it is necessary to remember that many of these achievements were the result of work done by people outside Arabia, in Khurasan, Egypt, Spain, etc. The Arab science was truly international. It has been called Arab science because Arabic was the language of literature and thought in the entire area, and the people from various countries could move freely and work or settle down anywhere they liked. The remarkable degree of intellectual and personal freedom enjoyed by scientists and scholars as well as the patronage extended to them was an important factor in the remarkable growth of Arab science and civilization. Such freedom was not available in Europe at that time due to the rigid attitude of the church. Perhaps, conditions in India were similar, for hardly any of the Arab sciences could filter into India, and the growth of Indian science slowed down during the period. Arab science began to decline after the twelfth century partly due to political and economic developments affecting the area, but even more on account of growing orthodoxy which stifled free thought. But it continued to grow in Spain until the fourteenth century. AFRICA The Arabs also brought Africa more closely into the Indian Ocean and Middle Eastern trade. Arab migrations and mercantile activity along the east coast of Africa increased enormously, extending upto Malindi, Zanzibar etc. However, the Arab trade included large scale export of slaves, as also gold, ivory, etc. There was in Africa a powerful Ethiopian kingdom of long standing which had many towns. The Ethiopians were engaged in the Indian Ocean trade across Aden to India. The Ethiopians, called Habshis, were Christians. They were closely allied to the Byzantine empire in the Indian Ocean trade. Their economic position weakened with the decline of the Byzantine empire. EAST AND SOUTHEAST ASIA China’s society and culture had attained a climax in the eighth and ninth centuries under Tang rule. The Tang rulers extended their overlordship over large parts of Sinkiang in Central Asia, including Kashgar. This helped in giving a fillip to the overland trade across what is called the Silk Road. Not only silk, but fine quality porcelain, and works in jade—a semi-precious stone —were exported to West Asia, Europe and India across this road. Foreign traders were welcome in China. Many of them—Arabs, Persians and Indians —came to South China, across the land and the seas, and settled down in Canton. The Tang empire declined in the middle of the ninth century, and was replaced in the tenth century by another dynasty, the Sung, which ruled over China for about one hundred years. Its growing weakness gave an opportunity to the Mongols to conquer China in the thirteenth century. The Mongols wrought great death and destruction in China. But due to their highly disciplined and mobile cavalry forces, the Mongol rulers were able to unify north and south China under one rule for the first time. For some time, they also brought under their sway Tonkin (north Vietnam) and Annam (south Vietnam). In the north, they overran Korea. Thus, the Mongols established one of the largest empires in East Asia. The Venetian traveller, Marco Polo, who spent some time at the court of Kublai Khan, the most famous of the Mongol rulers of China, has left a picturesque account of his court. Marco Polo returned to Italy by sea, visiting Malabar in India on the way. Thus, already different parts of the world were coming closer together, and their commercial and cultural contacts were increasing. The countries of Southeast Asia had to meet the expansionist urges of some of the Chinese rulers, China having developed a strong navy by this time. But during most of the time, the Southeast Asian states remained independent. The two most powerful kingdoms which flourished in the region during the period were the Sailendra and Kambuja empires. The Sailendra dynasty which arose in the seventh century, and constituted the Sri Vijaya empire, flourished till the tenth century. At its height, the empire included Sumatra, Java, the Malaya peninsula, parts of Siam (modern Thailand) and even the Philippines. According to a ninth century Arab writer, the empire was so large that even the fastest vessel could not complete a round trip of it in two years. The Sailendra rulers had a powerful navy, and dominated the sea trade to China. The Sri Vijaya empire was replaced by the Majapahit empire in the eleventh century. It further extended the limits of the Sri Vijaya empire and continued till the fourteenth century. The Pallavas of south India also had a powerful navy. The Pallava navy was especially active in the Bay of Bengal. The sea trade with the countries of Southeast Asia and China was so important that in the tenth century, a Chola ruler sent a series of naval expeditions to Sumatra and Malaya to keep the sea lanes of communications open. Since the early centuries of the Christian era and even before, India had close trade and cultural contacts with the countries of the area. Many Chinese and Indian scholars visited Palembang, the capital of the empire, which was located in Sumatra, and which had been a Sanskrit and Buddhist centre of study even earlier. The rulers built magnificent temples during the period, the most famous of them being the temple of Borobodur in east Java dedicated to the Buddha. It is a whole mountain carved into nine stone terraces, surmounted by a stupa. Indian epics, such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata are displayed in the panels of the temple. These epics continued to provide the themes for literature, folk-art, puppet-plays, etc. The Kambuja empire extended over Cambodia and Annam (south Vietnam) and replaced the Hinduized kingdom of Funan which had dominated the area earlier. The Kambuja empire flourished till the fifteenth century and attained a high level of cultural development and prosperity. Its most magnificent achievement may be considered the group of temples near Ankor Thom in Cambodia. Begun in the tenth century, each ruler built a new temple there to commemorate his memory till about two hundred temples were built in an area of 3.2 square kilometres. Of these, the largest is the temple of AnkorWat. It has three kilometres of covered passages containing beautiful statues of Hindu gods, goddesses and nymphs (apsaras), and skillfully executed panels containing scenes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. This entire group of buildings had been completely forgotten by the outside world and been largely taken over by the jungle, till it was ‘discovered’ by a Frenchman in 1860. It is interesting to note that the most vigorous period of temple building activity was the period from the tenth to the twelfth century, which was also the most magnificent period of temple building activity in India. Many Indian traders went to south China, after travelling overland from the port of Takkala in the Malaya peninsula to the South China Sea. Many brahmans, and later Buddhist monks settled in countries of Southeast Asia and in south China. Buddhism travelled from China to Korea and Japan. Indian monks reached Korea and influenced the evolution of a Korean script near to the Indian one. While Buddhism declined in India, in course of time, it continued to flourish in Southeast Asia. In fact, it assimilated the Hindu gods into the Buddhist fold, and even took over the Hindu temples—a movement opposite to what was happening in India at that time. Thus, India had close commercial and cultural contacts both with the West, Southeast Asia, China, as also Madagascar and countries on the east coast of Africa. The various kingdoms in Southeast Asia acted as a kind of a bridge for commercial and cultural contacts between India and China, and the outside world. Though deeply influenced by Indian civilization and culture, they were able to attain a distinctive culture of their own of a very high order. Arab traders who had been trading with south India and with the countries of Southeast Asia earlier, became even more active after the establishment of the Abbasid empire. But the Arabs did not displace the Indian traders and preachers. In the early phase, they did not make any special effort to convert the people of the area to Islam. Thus, a remarkable degree of religious freedom and tolerance, and the commingling of various cultures marked these countries, a characteristic they have retained even today. The conversion of Indonesia and Malaya to Islam took place gradually, after Islam had consolidated its position in India. Elsewhere, Buddhism continued to flourish. Commercial and cultural contacts between India and these countries were snapped only with the establishment of the Dutch rule in Indonesia, the English rule in India, Burma and Malaya, and later, the French rule in Indo-China. TWO Northern India: Age of the Three Empires (800–1000) After the decline of Harsha’s empire in the seventh century, a number of large states arose in north India, the Deccan and south India. Unlike the Gupta and Harsha’s empire in north India, none of the other kingdoms in north India were able to bring the entire Ganga valley under its control. The Ganga valley with its population and other resources was the basis on which the Gupta rulers and Harsha had been able to extend their control over Gujarat which, with its rich sea ports and manufacturers, was important for overseas trade. Malwa and Rajasthan were the essential links between the Ganga valley and Gujarat. This defined the geographical limits of an empire in north India. In south India, the Cholas were able to bring the Krishna, Godavari and the Kaveri deltas under their control. This was the basis of their supremacy in south India. Large states arose in north India and the Deccan between AD 750 and 1000. These were the Pala empire, which dominated eastern India till the middle of the ninth century; the Pratihara empire, which dominated western India and the upper Gangetic valley till the middle of the tenth century, and the Rashtrakuta empire, which dominated the Deccan and also controlled territories in north and south India at various times. Each of these empires, although they fought among themselves, provided stable conditions of life over large areas, extended agriculture, built ponds and canals, and gave patronage to arts and letters, including temples. Of the three, the Rashtrakuta empire lasted the longest. It was not only the most powerful empire of the time, but also acted as a bridge between north and south India in economic as well as in cultural matters. THE STRUGGLE FOR DOMINATION IN NORTH INDIA: THE PALAS The period following the death of Harsha was a period of political confusion. For some time, Lalitaditya, the ruler of Kashmir brought the Punjab under his control and even controlled Kanauj which, since the days of Harsha, was considered the symbol of the sovereignty of north India—a position which Delhi was to acquire later. Control of Kanauj also implied control of the upper Gangetic valley and its rich resources in trade and agriculture. Lalitaditya even invaded Bengal or Gaud, and killed its reigning king. But his power waned with the rise of the Palas and the Gurjara-Pratiharas. The Palas and the Pratiharas clashed with each other for the control of the area extending from Banaras to south Bihar which again had rich resources and well developed imperial traditions. The Pratiharas also clashed with the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The Pala empire was founded by Gopala, probably in AD 750 when he was elected king by the notable men of the area to end the anarchy prevailing there. Gopala was not born in a high, much less a royal family, his father probably being a soldier. He unified Bengal under his control, and even brought Magadha (Bihar) under his control. Gopala was succeeded in AD 770 by his son, Dharamapala, who ruled till AD 810. His reign was marked by a tripartite struggle between the Palas, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas for the control of Kanauj and north India. The Pratihara ruler advanced upon Gaud (Bengal), but before a decision could be taken, the Pratihara ruler was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler, Dhruva, and was forced to seek refuge in the deserts of Rajasthan. Dhruva then returned to the Deccan. This left the field free for Dharmapala who occupied Kanauj and held a grand darbar which was attended by vassal rulers from Punjab, eastern Rajasthan, etc. We are told that the rule of Dharmapala extended upto the furthest limit of India in the northwest and, perhaps, included Malwa and Berar. Apparently, this implied that the rulers of these areas accepted the suzerainty of Dharmapala. The triumphal career of Dharmapala may be placed between AD 790 and 800. Dharmapala could not, however, consolidate his power in north India. The Pratihara power revived under Nagabhatta II. Dharmapala fell back, but was defeated near Mongyr. Bihar and modern east Uttar Pradesh remained a bone of contention between the Palas and the Pratiharas. However, Bihar, in addition to Bengal, remained under the control of the Palas for most of the time. Failure in the north compelled the Pala rulers to turn their energies in other directions. Devapala, the son of Dharmapala, who succeeded to the throne in AD 810 and ruled for 40 years, extended his control over Pragjyotishpur (Assam) and parts of Orissa. Probably a part of modern Nepal was also brought under Pala suzerainty. Thus, for about a hundred years, from the middle of the eighth to the middle of the ninth century, the Pala rulers dominated eastern India. For some time, their control extended upto Varanasi. Their power is attested to by an Arab merchant, Sulaiman, who visited India in the middle of the ninth century, and wrote an account of it. He calls the Pala Kingdom Ruhma, (or Dharma, short for Dharmapala), and says that the Pala ruler was at war with his neighbours, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas, but his troops were more numerous that his adversaries. He tells us that it was customary for the Pala king to be accompanied by a force of 50,000 elephants, and that 10,000– 15,000 men in his army were employed ‘in fulling and washing clothes’. Even if these figures may be exaggerated, we can assume that the Palas had a large military force at their disposal. But we do not know whether they had a large standing army, or whether their forces consisted largely of feudal levies. Information about the Palas is also provided to us by Tibetan chronicles, although these were written in the seventeenth century. According to these, the Pala rulers were great patrons of Buddhist learning and religion. The Nalanda university which had been famous all over the eastern world was revived by Dharmapala, and 200 villages were set apart for meeting its expenses. He also founded the Vikramasila university which became second only to Nalanda in fame. It was located on the top of a hill, on the banks of the Ganga in Magadha, amidst pleasant surroundings. The Palas built many viharas in which a large number of Buddhist monks lived. The Pala rulers also had close cultural relations with Tibet. The noted Buddhist scholars, Santarakshita and Dipankara (called Atisa), were invited to Tibet, and they introduced a new form of Buddhism there. As a result, many Tibetan Buddhists flocked to the universities of Nalanda and Vikramsila for study. Although the Palas were supporters of Buddhism, they also extended their patronage to Saivsm and Vaishnavism. They gave grants to large numbers of brahmans from north India who flocked to Bengal. Their settlements helped in the extension of cultivation in the area, and the transformation of many pastoralists and food-gatherers to settle down to cultivation. The growing prosperity of Bengal helped in extending trade and cultural contacts with countries of Southeast Asia—Burma, Malaya, Java, Sumatra, etc. The trade with Southeast Asia was very profitable and added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala empire and led to the incursion of gold and silver from these countries into Bengal. The powerful Sailendra dynasty, which was Buddhist in faith and which ruled over Malaya, Java, Sumatra and the neighbouring islands, sent many embassies to the Pala court and sought permission to build a monastery at Nalanda, and also requested the Pala ruler, Devapala, to endow five villages for its upkeep. The request was granted and bears testimony to the close relations between the two empires. THE PRATIHARAS The Pratiharas who ruled over Kanauj for a longtime are also called Gurjara- Pratiharas. Most scholars consider that they originated from the Gurjaras who were pastoralists and fighters, like the Jats. The Pratiharas established a series of principalities in central and eastern Rajasthan. They clashed with the Rashtrakutas for the control of Malwa and Gujarat, and later for Kanauj which implied control of the upper Ganga valley. The Pratiharas who first had their capital at Bhinmal gained prominence under Nagabhatta I who offered stout resistance to the Arab rulers of Sind who were trying to encroach on Rajasthan, Gujarat, the Punjab, etc. The Arabs made a big thrust towards Gujarat but were decisively defeated by the Chalukyan ruler of Gujarat in 738. Although small Arab incursions continued, the Arabs ceased to be a threat thereafter. The efforts of the early Pratihara rulers to extend their control over the upper Ganga valley and Malwa were defeated by the Rashtrakuta rulers Dhruva and Gopal III. In 790 and again in 806–07, the Rashtrakutas defeated the Pratiharas, and then withdrew to the Deccan, leaving the field free for the Palas. Perhaps the main interest of the Rashtrakutas was the domination of Malwa and Gujarat. The real founder of the Pratihara empire and the greatest ruler of the dynasty was Bhoja. We do not know much about the early life of Bhoja, or when he ascended the throne. He rebuilt the empire, and by about AD 836 he had recovered Kanauj which remained the capital of the Pratihara empire for almost a century. Bhoja tried to extend his sway in the east, but he was defeated and checkmated by the Pala ruler, Devapala. He then turned towards central India and the Deccan and Gujarat. This led to a revival of the struggle with the Rashtrakutas. In a sanguinary battle on the bank of the Narmada, Bhoja was able to retain his control over considerable parts of Malwa, and some parts of Gujarat. But he could progress no further in the Deccan. Hence, he turned his attention to the north again. According to an inscription, his territories extended to the western side of the river Sutlej. Arab travellers tell us that the Pratihara rulers had the best cavalry in India. Import of horses from Central Asia and Arabia was an important item of India’s trade at that time. Following the death of Devapala and the weakening of the Pala empire, Bhoja also extended his empire in the east. The name of Bhoja is famous in legends. Perhaps, the adventures of Bhoja in the early part of his life, his gradual reconquest of his lost empire, and his final recovery of Kanauj struck the imagination of his contempories. Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu, and adopted the title of ‘Adivaraha’ which has been found inscribed in some of his coins. He is sometimes called Mihir Bhoja to distinguish him form Bhoja Paramara of Ujjain who ruled a little later. Bhoja probably died in about 885. He was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala I. Mahendrapala, who ruled till about 908–09 maintained the empire of Bhoja and extended it over Magadha and north Bengal. His inscriptions have also been found in Kathiawar, east Punjab and Awadh. Mahendrapala fought a battle with the king of Kashmir but had to yield to him some of the territories in the Punjab won by Bhoja. The Pratiharas, thus, dominated north India for over a hundred years, from the early ninth to the middle of the tenth century. Al- Masudi, a native of Baghdad, who visited Gujarat in 915–16, testifies to the great power and prestige of the Pratihara rulers and the vastness of their empire. He calls the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom al-Juzr (a corrupt form of Gurjara), and the king Baura, probably a mispronounciation of Adivaraha the title used by Bhoja, although Bhoja had died by that time. AlMasudi says that the empire of Juzr had 1,80,000 villages, cities and rural areas and was about 2000 km in length and 2000 km in breadth. The king’s army had four divisions, each consisting of 7,00,000 to 9,00,000 men: ‘with the army of the north he fights against the ruler of Multan and other Muslims who align themselves with him.’ The army of the south fought against the Rashtrakutas, and that of the east against the Palas. He had only 2000 elephants trained for war, but the best cavalry of any king in the country. The Pratiharas were patrons of learning and literature. The great Sanskrit poet and dramatist, Rajashekhar, lived at the court of Mahipala, a grandson of Bhoja. The Pratihara also embellished Kanauj with many fine buildings and temples. During the eighth and ninth centuries, many Indian scholars went with embassies to the court of the caliph at Baghdad. These scholars introduced Indian sciences, especially mathematics, algebra and medicine to the Arab world. We do not know the names of the Indian kings who sent these embassies. The Pratiharas were well-known for their hostility to the Arab rulers of Sind. Despite this, it seems that the movement of scholars and goods between India and West Asia continued even during this period. Between 915 and 918, the Rashtrakuta king, Indra III, again attacked Kanauj, and devastated the city. This weakened the Pratihara empire, and Gujarat probably passed into the hands of the Rashtrakutas, for al-Masudi tells us that the Pratihara empire had no access to the sea. The loss of Gujarat, which was the hub of the overseas trade and the main outlet for north Indian goods to West Asian countries, was another blow to the Pratiharas. Another Rashtrakuta ruler, Krishna III, invaded north India in about 963 and defeated the Pratihara ruler. This was followed by the rapid dissolution of the Pratihara empire. THE RASHTRAKUTAS While the Palas and the Pratiharas were ruling over north India, the Deccan was being ruled by the Rashtrakutas, a remarkable dynasty which produced a long line of warriors and able administrators. The kingdom was founded by Dantidurga who set up his capital at Manyakhet or Malkhed near modem Sholapur. The Rashtrakutas soon dominated the entire area of northern Maharashtra. They also engaged with the Pratiharas for the overlordship of Gujarat and Malwa as we have seen above. Although their raids did not result in the extension of the Rashtrakuta empire to the Ganga valley, they brought rich plunder, and added to the fame of the Rashtrakutas. The Rashtrakutas also fought constantly against the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (in modern Andhra Pradesh) and in the south against the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai. Probably the greatest Rashtrakuta rulers were Govinda III (793–814) and Amoghavarsha (814–878). After a successful expedition against Nagabhatta of Kanauj and the annexation of Malwa, Govinda III turned to the south. We are told in an inscription that Govinda ‘terrified the Kerala, Pandya and the Chola kings and caused the Pallavas to wither. The Ganga (of Karnataka), who became dissatisfied through baseness, were bound down with fetters and met with death.’ The king of Lanka and his minister who had been negligent of their own interests, were captured and brought over as prisoners to Halapur. Two statues of the lord of Lanka were carried to Manyakhet, and installed like pillars of victory in front of a Siva temple. Amoghavarsha ruled for 64 years but by temperament he preferred the pursuit of religion and literature to war. He was himself an author and is credited with writing the first Kannada book on poetics. He was a great builder, and is said to have built the capital city Manyakhet so as to excel the city of Indra. There were many rebellions in the far flung Rashtrakuta empire under Amoghavarsha. These could be barely contained, and began afresh after his death. His grandson, Indra III, (915–927) re-established the empire. After the defeat of Mahipala and the sack of Kanauj in 915, Indra III was the most powerful ruler of his times. According to al-Masudi who visited India at that time, the Rashtrakuta king, Balhara or Vallabharaja, was the greatest king of India and most of the Indian rulers accepted his suzerainty and respected his envoys. He possessed large armies and innumerable elephants. Krishna III (934–963) was the last in a line of brilliant rulers. He was engaged in a struggle against the Paramaras of Malwa and the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He also launched a campaign against the Chola ruler of Tanjore, who had supplanted the Pallavas of Kanchi. Krishna III defeated the Chola king, Parantaka I (AD 949), and annexed the northern part of the Chola empire. He then pressed down to Rameshwaram and set up a pillar of victory there and built a temple. After his death, all his opponents united against his successor. The Rashtrakuta capital, Malkhed, was sacked and burnt in 972. This marked the end of the Rashtrakuta empire. The Rashtrakuta rule in the Deccan thus lasted for almost two hundred years, till the end of the tenth century. The Rashtrakuta rulers were tolerant in their religious views and patronised not only Saivism and Vaishnavism but Jainism as well. The famous rock-cut temple of Siva at Ellora was built by one of the Rashtrakuta kings, Krishna I, in the ninth century. His successor, Amoghavarsha, is said to have been a Jain but be also patronised other faiths. The Rashtrakutas allowed Muslim traders to settle, and permitted Islam to be preached, in their dominions. We are told that the Muslims had their own headman, and had large mosques for their daily prayers in many of the coastal towns in the Rashtrakuta empire. This tolerant policy helped to promote foreign trade which enriched the Rashtrakutas. The Rashtrakuta kings were great patrons of arts and letters. In their courts, we find not only Sanskrit scholars, but also poets and others who wrote in Prakrit and in the apabhramsha, the so-called corrupt languages which were the fore-runners of the various modern Indian languages. The great apabharamsha poet, Svayambhu, and his son probably lived at the Rashtrakuta court. POLITICAL IDEAS AND ORGANISATION The system of administration in these empires was based on the ideas and practices of the Gupta empire, Harsha’s kingdom in the north, and the Chalukyas in the Deccan. As before, the monarch was the centre of all affairs. He was the head of the administration as well as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. He sat in a magnificent darbar. Squadrons of infantry and cavalry were stationed in the courtyard. Captured war-elephants and horses were paraded before him. He was attended by royal chamberlains, who regulated the coming and going of vassal chiefs, feudatories, ambassadors, and other high officials who regularly waited on the king. The king also dispensed justice. The court was not only a centre of political affairs and justice, but cultural life as well. Dancing girls and skilled musicians attended the court. Women of the King’s household also attended the darbar on festive occasions. In the Rashtrakuta empire, according to Arab writers, women did not veil their faces. The king’s position was generally hereditary. Thinkers of the time emphasized absolute loyalty and obedience to the king because of the insecurity of the times. Wars were frequent between kings, and between kings and their vassals. While kings strove to maintain law and order within their kingdoms, their arms rarely extended far enough. Vassal rulers and autonomous chiefs often limited the area of the direct administration of the king, although the kings adopted high sounding titles such as Maharajadiraj param-bhattaraka etc., and claimed to be chakravartin, or supreme, of all Indian rulers. A contemporary writer, Medhatithi, thinks that it was the right of an individual to bear arms in order to defend himself against thieves and assassins. He also thinks that it was right to oppose an unjust king. Thus, the extreme view of royal rights and privileges, put forward mainly in the Puranas, was not accepted by all the thinkers. The rules about succession were not rigidly fixed. The eldest son often succeeded, but there are many instances when the eldest son had to fight his younger brothers, and sometimes lost to them. Thus, the Rashtrakuta rulers Dhruva and Govinda IV, deposed their elder brothers. Sometimes, rulers designated the eldest son or another favourite son as their Yuvaraj or successor. In that case, the Yuvaraj stayed at the capital and helped in the task of administration. Younger sons were sometimes appointed provincial governors. Princesses were rarely appointed to government posts, but we do have an instance when a Rashtrakuta princess, Chandrobalabbe, a daughter of Amoghavarsha I, administered the Raichur doab for sometime. Kings were generally advised by a number of ministers. The ministers were chosen by the king, generally from leading families. Their position was often hereditary. Thus, in the case of the Pala kings, we hear that a brahmana family supplied four successive chief ministers to Dharmapala and his successors. In such cases, the minister could become very powerful. Although we hear of a number of departments of the central government, we do not know how many of them were there and how they worked. From epigraphic and literary records, it appears that in almost every kingdom, there was a minister of correspondence which included foreign affairs, a revenue minister, treasurer, chief of the armed forces (senapati), chief justice, and purohita. More that one post could be combined in one person, and perhaps one of the ministers was considered the chief or the leading minister on whom the king leaned more than the others. All the ministers, except the purohita, were expected to lead military campaigns as well when called upon to do so. We also hear of officials of the royal household (antahpur). Since the king was the fountain head of all power, some of the officers of household became very powerful. The armed forces were very important for the maintenance and expansion of the empire. We have already cited evidence from Arab travellers that the Pala, Pratihara and Rashtrakuta kings had large and well-organised infantry and cavalry, and large number of war- elephants. Elephants were supposed to be elements of strength and were greatly prized. The largest number of elephants was maintained by the Pala kings. Large numbers of horses were imported both by Rashtrakuta and Pratihara kings by sea from Arabia and West Asia, and over land from Khurasan (east Persia), and Central Asia. The Pratihara kings are believed to have had the finest cavalry in the country. There are no reference to war-chariots which had fallen out of use. Some of the kings, especially the Rashtrakutas, had a large number of forts. They were garrisoned by special troops, and had their own independent commanders. The infantry consisted of regular and irregular troops, and of levies provided by the vassal chiefs. The regular troops were often hereditary and sometimes drawn from different regions all over India. Thus, the Pala infantry consisted of soldiers from Malwa, Khasa (Assam), Lata (south Gujarat) and Karnataka. The Pala kings, and perhaps the Rashtrakutas, had their own navies, but we do not know much about their strength and organisation. The empires consisted of area administered directly and areas ruled over by the vassal chiefs. The latter were autonomous as far as their internal affairs were concerned, and had a general obligation of loyalty, paying a fixed tribute and supplying the quota of troops to the overlord. Sometimes, a son of a vassal chief was required to stay in attendance of the overlord to guard against rebellion. The vassal chiefs were required to attend the darbar of the overlord on special occassions, and sometimes they were required to marry one of their daughters to the overlord or to one of his sons. But the vassal chiefs always aspired to be independent and wars between them and the overlord were frequent. Thus, the Rashtrakutas had to fight constantly against the vassal chiefs of Vengi (Andhra) and Karanataka; the Pratiharas had to fight against the Paramaras of Malwa and the Chandellas of Bundelkhand. The directly administered territories in the Pala and Pratihara empires were divided into bhukti (provinces), and mandala or visaya (districts). The governor of a province was called uparika and the head of a district, visayapati. The uparika was expected to collect land revenue and maintain law and order with the help of the army. The visayapati was expected to do the same within his jurisdiction. During the period, there was an increase of smaller chieftains, called samantas or bhogapatis, who dominated over a number of villages. The visayapatis and these smaller chiefs tended to merge with each other, and later on the word samanta began to be used indiscriminately for both of them. In the Rashtrakuta kingdom, the directly administered areas were divided into rashtra (provinces), visaya and bhukti. The head of rashtra was called rashtrapati, and he performed the same functions as the uparika did in the Pala and Pratihara empires. The visaya was like a modern district, and the bhukti was a smaller unit to it. In the Pala and Pratihara empires, the unit below the visaya was called pattala. The precise role of these smaller units is not known. It seems that their main purpose was the realization of land revenue and some attention to law and order. Apparently all the officials were paid by giving them grants of rent-free land. This tended to blur the distinction between local officials and the hereditary chiefs and smaller vassals. Similarly, the rashtrapati or governor sometimes enjoyed the status and title of a vassal king. Below these territorial divisions was the village. The village was the basic unit of administration. The village administration was carried on by the village headman and the village accountant whose posts were generally hereditary. They were paid by grants of rent-free lands. The head man was often helped in his duties by the village elders called grama mahajana or grama mahattara. In the Rashtrakuta kingdom, particularly in Karnataka, we are told that there were village committees to manage local schools, tanks, temples and roads. They could also receive money or property in trust, and manage them. These sub-committees worked in close cooperation with the headman and received a percentage of the revenue collection. Simple disputes were also decided by these committees. Towns had similar committees, to which the heads of trade guilds were also associated. Law and order in the towns and in areas in their immediate vicinity was the responsibility of the koshta pala or kotwal—a figure made familiar through many stories. An important feature of the period was the rise in the Deccan of hereditary revenue officers called nad gavundas or desa gramakutas. They appear to have discharged the same functions as the deshmukhs and deshpandes of later times in Maharashtra. This development, along with the pettry chieftainships in north India which we have just mentioned, had an important bearing on society and politics. As the power of these hereditary elements grew, the village committees became weaker. The central ruler also found it difficult to assert his authority over them and to control them. This is what we mean when we say that the government was becoming ‘feudalised’. Another point to bear in mind is the relationship of state and religion during the time. Many of the rulers of that time were devout followers of Siva or Vishnu, or they followed the teachings of Buddhism or Jainism. They made handsome donations to the Brahmans, or the Buddhist viharas or the Jain temples. But, generally, they gave patronage to all the faiths, and did not persecute anyone for his or her religious beliefs. Muslims were also welcomed and allowed to preach their faith by the Rashtrakuta kings. Normally, a king was not expected to interfere with the customs, or with the code of conduct prescribed by the law books called the Dharmashastras. But he did have the general duty of protecting Brahmans and maintaining the division of society into four states or varnas. The purohita was expected to guide the king in this matter. But it should not be thought that the purohita interfered with state affairs or dominated the king. Medhatithi, the foremost expounder of Dharmashastra in this period, says that the king’s authority was derived both from the Dharmashastras, including the Vedas, and from Arthashastra or the science of polity. His public duty or rajadharma was to be based on the Arthshastra, that is, on principles of politics. This really meant that politics and religion were, in essence, kept apart, religion being essentially a personal duty of the king. Thus, the kings were not dominated by the priests, or by the sacred law expounded by them. Religion was, however important for legitimizing and strengthening the position of the rulers. Many of the rulers therefore built grand temples, often at their capitals, and gave handsome land-grants for the maintenance of the temples and to the Brahmans. THREE South India: The Chola Empire (900-1200) Powerful kingdoms had risen in south India during the sixth and eighth centuries. The most important among them were the Pallavas and the Pandyas who dominated modern Tamil Nadu, the Cheras of modern Kerala, and the Chalukyas who dominated the Maharashtra area or the Deccan. It was the Chalukyan king, Pulakesin II, who had defeated Harsha and not allowed him to expand his kingdom towards the Deccan. Some of these kingdoms, such as the Pallava and Pandya, had strong navies. They also played an important role in strengthening economic, religious and cultural relations with the countries of Southeast Asia, and with China. Their navies enabled them to invade and rule some parts of Sri Lanka for some time. The Chola empire which arose in the ninth century brought under its concrol a large part of the peninsula. The Cholas developed a powerful navy which enabled them to conquer Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Its impact was felt even by the countries of Southeast Asia. The Chola empire may be said to mark a climax in south Indian history. THE RISE OF THE CHOLA EMPIRE The founder of the Chola empire was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in AD 850. And by the end of the ninth century, the Cholas had defeated both the Pallavas of Kanchi (Tondaimandalam) and weakened the Pandyas, bringing the southern Tamil country under their control. But the Cholas were hard put to defend their position against the Rashtrakutas. As we have noted in a previous chapter, Krishna III defeated the Chola king, and annexed the northern part of the Chola empire. This was a serious set-back to the Cholas, but they rapidly recovered, particularly after the death of Krishna III in 965 and the downfall of the Rashtrakuta empire. AGE OF RAJARAJA AND RAJENDRA I The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985–1014) and his son Rajendra I (1014–1044). Rajaraja destroyed the Chera navy at Trivandrum, and attacked Quilon. He then conquered Madurai and captured the Pandyan king. He also invaded Sri Lanka and annexed its northern part to his empire. These moves were partly motivated by his desire to bring the trade with the Southeast Asian countries under his control. The Coromandel coast and Malabar were the centres for India’s trade with the countries of Southeast Asia. One of his naval exploits was the conquest of the Maldives. Rajaraja, annexed the northwestern parts of the Ganga kingdom in Karnataka, and overran Vengi. Rajendra had been appointed heir apparent in his father’s life-time, and had considerable experience in administration and warfare before his accession to the throne. He carried forward the annexationist policy of Rajaraja by completely overrunning the Pandya and Chera countries and including them in his empire. The conquest of Sri Lanka was also completed, with the crown and royal insignia of the king and the queen of Sri Lanka being captured in a battle. Sri Lanka was not able to free herself from the Chola control for another 50 years. Rajaraja and Rajendra I marked their victories by erecting a number of Siva and Vishnu temples at various places. The most famous of these was the Brihadishwara temple at Tanjore which was completed in 1010. The Chola rulers adopted the practice of having inscriptions written on the walls of these temples, giving a historical narrative of their victories. That is why we know a great deal more about the Cholas that their predecessors. One of the most remarkable exploits in the reign of Rajendra I was the march across Kalinga to Bengal in which the Chola armies crossed the river Ganga, and defeated two local kings. This expedition, which was led by a Chola general, took place in 1022 and followed in reverse the same route which the great conqueror Samudragupta had followed. To commemorate this occasion, Rajendra I assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (‘the Chola who conquered the Ganga’). He built a new capital near the mouth of the Kaveri river and called it Gangaikondacholapuram (‘the city of the Chola who conquered the Ganga’). An even more remarkable exploit in the time of Rajendra I were the naval expeditions against the revived Sri Vijaya empire. The Sri Vijaya empire, which had been revived in the 10th century, extended over the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the neighbouring islands, and controlled the overseas trade route to China. The rulers of the Sailendra dynasty of the Sri Vijaya kingdom were Buddhists and had cordial relations with the Cholas. The Sailendra ruler had built a Buddhist monastery at Nagapatnam and, at his instance, Rajendra I had endowed a village for its upkeep. The cause of the breach between the two apparently was the Chola eagerness to remove obstacles to Indian traders, and to expand trade with China. The expeditions led to the conquest of Kadaram or Kedah and a number of other places in the Malay peninsula and Sumatra. The Chola navy was the strongest in the area, and for some time the Bay of Bengal was converted into a ‘Chola lake’. The Chola rulers also sent a number of embassies to China. These were partly diplomatic and partly commercial. Chola embassies reached China in 1016 and 1033. A Chola embassy of 70 merchants reached China in 1077 and, according to a Chinese account, received ‘81,800 strings of copper-cash’, that is, more than four lakhs of rupees in return for the articles of‘tribute’ comprising ‘glass-ware, camphor, brocades, rhinoceros horns, ivory, etc.’ Tribute was the word used by the Chinese for all articles brought for trade. The Chola rulers fought constantly with the Chalukyas who had succeeded the Rashtrakutas. These are called the later Chalukyas and their capital was at Kalyani. The Cholas and the later Chalukyas clashed for the overlordship ofVengi (Rayalaseema), the Tungabhadra doab, and the Ganga ruled country in northwest Karnataka. Neither side was able to gain a decisive victory in this contest and ultimately it exhausted both the kingdoms. It also appears that the wars were becoming harsher during this time. The Chola rulers sacked and plundered Chalukyan cities including Kalyani, and massacred the people, including Brahmans and children. They adopted a similar policy in the Pandya country, settling military colonies to overawe the population. They destroyed Anuradhapura, the ancient capital of the rulers of Sri Lanka, and treated their king and queen harshly. The se are blots in the history of the Chola empire. However, once they had conquered a country, the Cholas tried to set up a sound system of administration in it. One of the remarkable features of the Chola administration was their encouragement to local self- government in the villages all over their empire. The Chola empire continued to flourish during the twelfth century, but it declined during the early part of the thirteenth century. The later Chalukyan empire in the Maharashtra area had also come to an end during the twelfth century. The place of the Cholas was taken by the Pandyas and the Hoysalas in the south, and the later Chalukyas were replaced by the Yadavas and the Kakatiyas. All these states extended patronage to arts and architecture. Unfortunately, they weakened themselves by continually fighting against each other, sacking the towns and not even sparing the temples. Ultimately, they were destroyed by the sultans of Delhi at the beginning of the fourteenth century. CHOLA GOVERNMENT—LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT The king was the most important person in the Chola administration. All authority rested in his hands, but he had a council of ministers to advise him. The kings often went on tours in order to oversee the administration. The Cholas maintained a large army consisting of elephants, cavalry and infantry which were called the three limbs of the army. The infantry was generally armed with spears. Most of the kings had bodyguards who were sworn to defend the kings even at the cost of their lives. The Venetian traveller, Marco Polo, who visited Kerala in the thirteenth century, says that all the soldiers who were bodyguards burnt themselves in the funeral pyre of the monarch when he died—a statement which may well be an exaggeration. The Cholas also had a strong navy, as we have seen, which dominated the Malabar and Coromandel coast and, for some time, the entire Bay of Bengal. The Chola state included area of central control, and loosely administered areas under different types of local control. The state was interpersed with hill people and tribals. The basic unit of administration was the nadu which consisted of a number of villages having close kinship ties and other close associations. The number of nadus increased as fresh lands were brought under cultivation by means of irrigation works such as ponds, wells, etc., and by converting hill or tribal people into agriculturists. Grants to Brahmans and temples increased, both of which helped in expanding cultivation. In the Chola kingdom, nadus were grouped into valanadus. The Chola state was divided into four mandalams or provinces. Sometimes, princes of the royal family were appointed governors of provinces. Officials were generally paid by giving them assignments of revenue- bearing lands. The Chola rulers built a network of royal roads which were useful for trade as well as for the movement of the army. Trade and commerce flourished in the Chola empire, and there were some gigantic trade guilds which traded with Java and Sumatra. The Cholas also paid attention to irrigation. The river Kaveri and other rivers were used for the purpose. Many tanks for irrigation were built. Some of the Chola rulers carried out an elaborate survey of land in order to fix the government’s share of the land revenue. We do not know what precisely the government’s share was. In addition to land tax, the Chola rulers drew their income from tolls on trade, taxes on professions, and also from the plunder of the neighbouring territories. The Chola rulers were wealthy, and could afford to build a number of towns and magnificent monuments, including temples. We have already referred to local self-government in the villages in some areas in the Rashtrakuta empire. We know more about village government in the Chola empire from a number of inscriptions. We hear of two assemblies, called the ur, and the sabha or mahasabha. The ur was a general assembly of the village. However, we know more about the working of the mahasabha. This was a gathering of the adult men in the Brahman villages which were called agraharams. These were villages with Brahman settlements in which most of the land was rent-free. These villages enjoyed a large measure of autonomy. The affairs of the village were managed by an executive committee to which educated persons owning property were elected either by drawing lots or by rotation. These members had to retire every three years. There were other committees for helping in the assessment and collection of land revenue, for maintenance of law and order, justice, etc. One of the important committees was the tank committee which looked after the distribution of water to the fields. The mahasabha could distribute new lands, and exercise ownership rights over them. It could also raise loans for the village and levy taxes. The self-government enjoyed by these Chola villages was a very fine system. To some extent this system worked in the other villages as well. However, the growth of feudalism which is discussed in an earlier chapter, restricted their autonomy. CULTURAL LIFE The Chola rule saw the further growth and climax of the bhakti movement The Chola rule saw the further growth and climax of the bhakti movement which we have discussed separately. The movement was closely linked to temples. The extent and resources of the Chola empire enabled the rulers to build great capitals, such as Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram, Kanchi, etc. The rulers maintained large households and large palaces with banquet halls, spacious gardens and terraces. Thus, we learn of seven or five-storeyed houses for their chiefs. Unfortunately, none of the palaces of the period have survived. The Chola capital, Gangaikondacholapuram, is now just a small village near Tanjore. However, descriptions of the magnificent palaces of the rulers and their ministers, and of equally magnificent houses in which the wealthy merchants lived, are to be found in the literature of the period. Temple architecture in the south attained its climax under the Cholas. The style of architecture which came into vogue during this period is called Dravida, because it was confined largely to south India. The main feature of this style was the building of many storeys above the garbhagriha (the innermost chamber where the chief deity resides). The number of storeys varied from five to seven, and they had a typical style which came to be called the vimana. A pillared hall called mandap, with elaborately carved pillars and a flat roof, was generally placed in front of the sanctum. It acted as an audience hall and was a place for various other activities such as ceremonial dances which were performed by the devadasis—the women dedicated to the service of the gods. Sometimes, a passage ran around the sanctum so that the devotees could go round it. Images of many other gods could be put in this passage. This entire structure was enclosed in a courtyard surrounded by high walls, which were pierced by lofty gates called gopurams. In course of time, the vimanas rose higher and higher, the number of courtyards were increased to two or three, and the gopurams also became more and more elaborate. Thus the temple became a miniature city or a palace, with living-rooms for priests and many others being provided in it. The temples generally enjoyed revenue-free grants of lands for their expenses. They also received grants and rich donations from the wealthy merchants. Some of the temples became so rich that they entered business, lent money, and took part in business enterprises. They also spent money on improving cultivation, digging tanks, wells, etc., and providing irrigation channels. An early example of the Dravida style of temple architecture is the eighth An early example of the Dravida style of temple architecture is the eighth century temple of Kailasanath at Kanchipuram. One of the finest and most elaborate examples of the style is, however, provided by the Brihadiswara temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I. This is also called the Rajaraja temple because the Cholas were in the habit of installing images of kings and queens in the courtyards of the temples. The temple at Gangaikondacholapuram, though in a dilapidated condition, is another fine example of temple architecture under the Cholas. A large number of temples were also built at other places in south India. However, it may be well to remember that the proceeds for some of these activities were obtained from the plunder of the population of the neighbouring areas by the Chola rulers. After the fall of the Cholas, temple building activity continued under the Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Hoysalas. The district of Dharwar and the Hoysala capital, Halebid, had a large number of temples. The most magnificent of these is the Hoysalesvara temple. It is the best example of what is called the Chalukyan style. Apart from the images of gods and their attendants, both men and women (yaksha and yakshini), the temples contain finely sculptured panels which show a busy panorama of life, including dance, music and scenes of war and love. Thus, life was closely integrated with religion. For the common man, the temples were not merely a place for worship but the hub of social and cultural life as well. The art of sculpture attained a high standard in south India during this period. One example of this was the giant statue of Gomateswara at Sravana Belgola. Another aspect was image-making which reached its zenith in the dancing figure of the Siva, called Nataraja. The Nataraja figures of this period, particularly those in bronze, are considered masterpieces. Many fine examples of this are to be found in museums in India and abroad. The rulers of the various dynasties also patronized arts and letters during this period. While Sanskrit was regarded as the language of high culture and a number of kings as well as scholars and court poets wrote in it, a remarkable feature of the period was the growth of literature in the local languages of India. A number of popular saints called Nayanmars and Alvars who were devotees of Siva and Vishnu respectively, flourished in the Tamil kingdoms between the sixth and the ninth centuries. They composed their works in Tamil. The writings of the Saivite saints, which were collected into eleven volumes under the name Tirumurai in the early part of the twelfth century, are considered sacred and are looked upon as the fifth Veda. The age of Kamban who is placed in the second half of the eleventh and the early part of the twelfth century is regarded as a golden age in Tamil literature. Kamban’s Ramayana is considered a classic in Tamil literature. Kamban is believed to have lived at the court of a Chola king. Many others too took their themes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata, thus bringing these classics nearer to the people. Though younger than Tamil, Kannada also became a literary language during this period. The Rashtrakuta, the Chalukya and the Hoysala rulers patronized Kannada as well as Telugu. The Rashtrakuta king, Amoghavarsha, wrote a book on poetics in Kannada. Many Jain scholars also contributed to the growth of Kannada. Pampa, Ponna and Ranna are regarded as the three gems of Kannada poetry. Although they were under the influence of Jainism, they also wrote on themes taken from the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Nanniah, who lived at the court of a Chalukyan king began the Telugu version of the Mahabharata. The work begun by him was completed in the thirteenth century by Tikkanna. Like the Tamil Ramayana, the Telugu Mahabharata is a classic which inspired many subsequent writers. Many folk or popular themes are also to be found in these literatures. Popular themes which were not derived from Sanskrit and which reflect popular sentiments and emotions are called desi or rural in Telugu. We can, thus, see that the period from the eighth to the twelfth century was not only remarkable for the growth of regional kingdoms and regional integration, but was also a period of cultural growth, and the development of trade and commerce and agriculture in south India. Merchants and artisans increased their strength with the development of foreign trade under the Cholas. FOUR Economic and Social Life, Education and Religious Beliefs (800-1200) Although we have not yet studied political developments in north India from 1000 to 1200, the entire period from 800 to 1200 may be regarded as one for the purpose of studying economic and social life,and religious beliefs. Economic and social life, ideas and beliefs change much more slowly than political life. That is why many of the earlier features which existed before the ninth century continued during this period also. At the same time, there were a number of new factors which made the period different from the earlier one. Generally speaking, new elements as well as elements of continuity are found in every historical period, but the extent and direction of change varies. TRADE AND COMMERCE The economic situation, especially trade and commerce in the country during this period is a matter of debate among historians. Some consider it to be a period of stagnation and decline, a set back both of foreign trade and long distance trade within the country, decline of towns, and greater localism and regionalism. The virtual absence of gold coins till the tenth century is considered to be a proof of this. We can hardly examine here all these points in detail. Suffice it to say that the fall of the Roman empire did not seriously affect India’s trade with the West since two large empires, the Byzantine empire with its base in Constantinople, and the Sassanid empire based in Iran rose during the subsequent period. Both of them took keen interest in trade with India and the Indian Ocean region. After the rise of the Arab empire in the seventh century, the Arabs expanded the trade of the West to India, Southeast Asia and China. There is no reason to believe that Indian traders were excluded from this expanded trade. Hence, gold and silver continued to come to India in return for its favourable trade. That is why India continued to be considered a country full of gold and silver, and hence an attractive prize for foreigners to invade and trade with. Why the gold and silver was used for decorating temples and palaces, or for jewellery, or simply buried for future use, and not used for coinage, is a question to which no satisfactory answer is available. We have seen how a large number of states arose in the country during the period, and the growing power and authority of those holding superior rights in land. Many of these kingdoms expanded agriculture by building bunds, wells, etc. In some instances, as in Bengal, Sind and the Tamil country, in order to strengthen their own positions, the rulers invited Brahmans to settle down by giving them grants of rent-free lands. Since the bulk of these lands were uncultivated, many tribesmen who were nomads, or cattle-rearers or food-gatherers were induced to settle down to agriculture. Such expansion of cultivation further strengthened the position of the local chiefs, samantas, etc. We do not know the impact of this development on internal trade. The growth of small towns which catered to local trade, along with greater local self-sufficiency seems to have gone hand in hand. In north India, in particular, the decline of long distance trade within the country apparently led to the decline of trade guilds or shrenis and sanghs. The guilds had often consisted of people belonging to different castes. They had their own rules of conduct which the members were legally bound to obey, and were entitled to lend or borrow money or receive endowments. With the decline of long distance trade and commerce, these bodies lost their former importance. We find very few references in north India during the period to guilds receiving endowments. In the course of time, some of the older shrenis emerged as sub- castes. For example, the Dvadasashreni, which was a guild, became a subcaste of the Vaishyas. Jainism, which was patronized by the mercantile sections, also received a set back in north India. In some of the Dharamshastras which were written during this period, a ban is put on travel beyond the areas where the munja grass does not grow or where the black gazelle does not roam, that is, outside India proper. Travel across the salt seas was also considered polluting. These bans were not taken seriously, for we have accounts of Indian merchants, philosophers, medical men and craftsmen visiting Baghadad and other Muslim towns in West Asia during this period. Perhaps, the ban was meant for Brahmans only, or was meant to discourage too many Indians going to the areas dominated by Islam in the West and Buddhism in the East for fear of their bringing back heretical religious ideas which may be embarrassing and unacceptable to the Brahmans and the ruling groups. The ban on sea travel did not interfere with the growth of India’s overseas trade with the countries of Southeast Asia and China. A brisk trade between south India and the countries of Southeast Asia had started from the sixth century onwards. The growing geographical knowledge about the countries of the area is reflected in the literature of that time. The peculiar features of the languages of the area, their dresses, etc., are mentioned in the books of the period such as Harisena’s Brihatkatha-kosh. There are many stories about the adventures of the Indian merchants in the magical waters of the area, stories which became the basis of the well-known story of Sindbad the Sailor. The Indian merchants were organised in guilds, the most famous of them being the Manigraman and the Nandesi which had been active since early times. These guilds displayed a spirit of enterprise, engaging in retail and whoselsale trade in many foreign countries. They also gave handsome grants to temples, which became centres of social and cultural life, and sometimes also advanced money for trade. Many of the Indian traders settled down in these countries. Some of them took wives from the local population. The priests followed the traders. In this way, both Buddhist and Hindu religious ideas were introduced in the area. The Buddhist temple of Borobudur in Java and the Hindu temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia testify to the spread of both these religions there. Some of the ruling families of the area were semi-Hinduized, and they welcomed trade and cultural relations with India. In this way, Indian culture mingled with the local culture to establish new literary and cultural forms. Some observers think that the material prosperity of the Southeast Asian countries, the growth of civilization, and establishment of large states was based in large measure on the introduction of the Indian technique of irrigated rice cultivation. The chief Indian port for sailing to Java, Sumatra, etc., was Tamralipti (Tamluk) in Bengal. In most of the stories of the period, merchants start for Suvarnadvipa (modern Indonesia) or to Kataha (Kedah in Malaya) from Tamralipti. A fourteenth century writer in Java speaks of people from Jambudvipa (India), Karnataka (south India), and Gaud (Bengal) coming unceasingly in big numbers in large ships. Traders from Gujarat also took part in this trade. On account of its prosperity, China had become a main focus of trade in the Indian Ocean. The Chinese consumed enormous quantities of spices, which were imported from Southeast Asia and India. They also imported ivory, the best of which came from Africa, and glassware which came from West Asia. To these were added medicinal herbs, lac, incense, and all types of rare commodities. Generally, products from Africa and West Asia did not go beyond Malabar in South India. Nor did many Chinese ships go beyond the Moluccas in Southeast Asia. Thus, both India and Southeast Asia were important staging centres for trade between China and the countries of West Asia and Africa. Indian traders - especially from the Tamil country and Kalinga (modern Orissa and Bengal) — played an active role in this trade, along with Persians, and at a later stage, the Arabs. Much of the trade to China was carried in Indian ships, the teakwood of Malabar, Bengal and Burma providing the basis of a strong tradition of ship building. The weather conditions were also such that it was not possible for a ship to sail straight from the Middle East to China. The ships would have to wait for a long period in ports in between for favourable winds which blew from the west to the east before the monsoon, and from east to west after the monsoon. Indian and Southeast Asian ports were preferred by the merchants for the purpose. The main seaport for foreign trade in China during this period was Canton, or Kanfu as the Arab travellers called it. Buddhist scholars went from India to China by the sea route. The Chinese chroniclers tell us that the number of Indian monks in the Chinese court towards the close of the tenth and the beginning of the eleventh century was the highest in Chinese history. A Chinese account of a slightly earlier period tells us that the Canton river was full of ships from India, Persia and Arabia. It says that in Canton itself there were three Hindu temples in which Indians resided. The presence of Indians in the Chinese Sea is testified to by Japanese records which give the credit of introducing cotton into Japan to two Indians who were carried over to the country by the black current. Indian rulers, particularly the Pala and Sena rulers of Bengal, and the Pallava and Chola rulers of south India, tried to encourage this trade by sending a series of embassies to the Chinese emperors. The Chola ruler, Rajendra I, sent a naval expedition against Malaya and the neighbouring countries to overcome their interference in the trade with China. The embassy sent to China by Rajendra I travelled in an Indian ship. There is evidence to show that there were many shipyards which were located on the west coast, including Gujarat. Thus, growth of India’s foreign trade in the area was based on a strong maritime tradition, including ship building, and the skill and enterprise of its traders. The Chinese trade was very favourable to the countries engaged in it, so much so that in the thirteenth century, the Chinese government tried to restrict the export of gold and silver from China. Indian ships gradually gave way to the Arabs and the Chinese ships which were bigger and faster. We are told that the Chinese ships were several storeys high and carried 600 passengers apart from 400 soldiers. An important factor in the growth of the Chinese ships was the use of the mariner’s compass—an invention which later travelled from China to the West. Already Indian science and technology were being left behind. Thus, India’s trade with the western areas and with Southeast Asia and China grew steadily. The lead in this trade was taken by south India, Bengal and Gujarat. This was an important factor in the wealth and prosperity of these areas. Condition of the People There was no decline in the high standard of Indian handicrafts such as textiles, work on gold and silver, metallurgy, etc., during the period., Indian agriculture also continued to be in a flourishing condition. Many of the Arab travellers testify to the fertility of the soil and the skill of the Indian peasant. All the literary works of the period tell us that the ministers, officials and feudal chiefs lived in great ostentation and splendour. They aped the ways of the king in having fine houses which sometimes were three to five storeys high. They used costly foreign apparel such as imported woollen clothes, Chinese silk, and costly jewels and ornaments made of gold and silver to adorn their bodies. They maintained a large number of women in their households and had a train of domestic servants to look after them. Whenever they moved out, a large number of attendants accompanied them. They assumed high-sounding titles, such as mahasamantadhipati, and had their own distinctive symbols, such as banners, decorated umbrellas and the yak-tail to whisk away flies. Big merchants also aped the ways of the king, and sometimes their living was quite royal. Of a millionare (kotisvara) in the Chalukyan empire, we are told that huge banners with ringing-bells were hoisted over his house, and that he owned a large number of horses and elephants. The main building was approached by a staircase of crystal, and had a temple of crystal floor and walls which were adorned by religious paintings containing an image in crystal. Vastupala and Tejahpala who were ministers in Gujarat are reputed to have been the richest merchants of their times. We cannot, however, assume from the above that there was prosperity all round. While food stuffs were cheap, there were many poor people in the cities who could not get enough to eat. The author of the Rajatarangini (written in Kashmir in the twelfth century) has them in mind when he says that whereas the courtiers ate fried meat and drank cooled wine perfumed with flowers, the ordinary people had to be content with rice and utpala-saka (a wild vegetable of bitter taste). There are many stories of the hard lot of poor men and women, some of whom took to a life of robbery and plunder. As for the villages where the large bulk of the population lived, we have to get information about the life of the peasants from literary works, grants of land, inscriptions, etc. The commentators on Dharmashastras tell us that the rate of the revenue demand from the peasant was one- sixth of the produce as before. However, from some of the grants we learn of a large number of additional cesses, such as grazing tax, tax on ponds, etc. The peasants had to pay these taxes over and above the land-revenue. In addition, some of the grants gave the grantees the right to levy fixed or unfixed, proper or improper taxes on the peasants. The peasants also had to render forced labour (vishti). In some cases, as in central India and Orissa, we find some villages being given to the Brahmans, and other donees along with artisans, herdsmen and cultivators who were tied to the soil like serfs in medieval Europe. In literary works we hear of chiefs realising money on every opportunity that offered itself. We are told of a Rajput chief that he made money even from sparrows, dead birds, pig dung and the shrouds of dead bodies. Another writer tells us of a village which was depopulated due to the actions of a chief (samanta). To this may be added the frequent recurrence of famines and wars. In the wars, destruction of water reservoirs, burning of villages, seizure by force of all the cattle or the grains stored in granaries and destruction of cities were normal features, so much so that they are considered legitimate by the writers of the period. Thus, the growth of a society which may be called feudal increased the burdens on the common man. NATURE OF SOCIETY A number of important changes took place in Indian society during this period. One of these was the growing power of a class of people who are variously called samanta, ranak, rautta (rajput), etc., by the contemporary writers. Their origins were very different. Some were government officers who were increasingly paid not in cash but by assigningto them revenue- bearing villages. Others were defeated rajas and their supporters who continued to enjoy the revenue of limited areas. Still others were local hereditary chiefs or military adventurers who had carved out a sphere of authority with the help of armed supporters. Still others were tribal or clan leaders. Thus, there was a hierarchy among them. But their actual position varied, depending o

History of Medieval India (800-1700) PDF

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