Child and Adolescent Development PDF

Child and Adolescen Presented by: Ian Jaylord F. Beran,MOP,MST, RPm,CHRA,LPT Ian Jaylord F. Beran,MOP,MST,RPm,LPT,CHRA Guidance Counselor, SNAHS Psychology Instructor What is the essence of the course? The course explores how children and adolescents develop. It focuses on their dev...

Child and Adolescen Presented by: Ian Jaylord F. Beran,MOP,MST, RPm,CHRA,LPT Ian Jaylord F. Beran,MOP,MST,RPm,LPT,CHRA Guidance Counselor, SNAHS Psychology Instructor What is the essence of the course? The course explores how children and adolescents develop. It focuses on their development with emphasis on current research and theory on biological, linguistic, cognitive, social, and emotional dimensions of development.  Why is it important to study child adolescent principles? This course will give you a solid grasp of the main development factors involved in student growth and learning. To be an effective teacher, one must have a good understanding of child and adolescent development and student diversity. What is a child defined as being? Article 1 defines the child as a human being who is below the age of 18 years. Majority is set at age 18 unless, under domestic law, it is attained earlier. In the biological sciences, a child is usually defined as a person between birth and puberty, or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty. What is the difference between adolescent and adolescence? adolescence: (noun) the time period between the beginning of puberty and adulthood. (noun) in the state that someone is in between puberty and adulthood. adolescents: (noun) a juvenile between the onset of puberty and maturity. what is a adolescent? (of a young person) in the process of developing from a child into an adult. Adolescence is the phase of life between childhood and adulthood, from ages 10 to 19. It is a unique stage of human development and an important time for laying the foundations of good health. Adolescents experience rapid physical, cognitive and psychosocial growth. Although the first use of the word “adolescence” appeared in the 15th century and came from the Latin word “adolescere,” which meant “to grow up or to grow into maturity”  Why is adolescence important? Adolescence is a period of life with specific health and developmental needs and rights. It is also a time to develop knowledge and skills, learn to manage emotions and relationships, and acquire attributes and abilities that will be important for enjoying the adolescent years and assuming adult roles. The role of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy): Birth to 18 Months Ego Development Outcome: Trust vs. Mistrust Basic strength: Drive and Hope Erikson also referred to infancy as the Oral Sensory Stage (as anyone might who watches a baby put everything in her mouth) where the major emphasis is on the mother's positive and loving care for the child, with a big emphasis on visual contact and touch. If we pass successfully through this period of life, we will learn to trust that life is basically okay and have basic confidence in the future. If we fail to experience trust and are constantly frustrated because our needs are not met, we may end up with a deep-seated feeling of worthlessness and a mistrust of the world in general. Incidentally, many studies of suicides and suicide attempts point to the importance of the early years in developing the basic belief that the world is trustworthy and that every individual has a right to be here. Not surprisingly, the most significant relationship is with the maternal parent, or whoever is our most significant and constant caregiver. 2. Early Childhood: 18 Months to 3 Years Ego Development Outcome: Autonomy vs. Shame Basic Strengths: Self-control, Courage, and Will During this stage we learn to master skills for ourselves. Not only do we learn to walk, talk and feed ourselves, we are learning finer motor development as well as the much appreciated toilet training. Here we have the opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as we gain more control over our bodies and acquire new skills, learning right from wrong. And one of our skills during the "Terrible Two's" is our ability to use the powerful word "NO!" It may be pain for parents, but it develops important skills of the will. (See Use of the Will from He Hit Me Back First!) It is also during this stage, however, that we can be very vulnerable. If we're shamed in the process of toilet training or in learning other important skills, we may feel great shame and doubt of our capabilities and suffer low self-esteem as a result. The most significant relationships are with parents. 3. Play Age: 3 to 5 Years Ego Development Outcome: Initiative vs. Guilt Basic Strength: Purpose During this period we experience a desire to copy the adults around us and take initiative in creating play situations. We make up stories with Barbie's and Ken's, toy phones and miniature cars, playing out roles in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for what we believe it means to be an adult. We also begin to use that wonderful word for exploring the world—"WHY?" While Erikson was influenced by Freud, he downplays biological sexuality in favor of the psychosocial features of conflict between child and parents. Nevertheless, he said that at this stage we usually become involved in the classic "Oedipal struggle" and resolve this struggle through "social role identification." If we're frustrated over natural desires and goals, we may easily experience guilt. The most significant relationship is with the basic family 4. School Age: 6 to 12 Years Ego Development Outcome: Industry vs. Inferiority Basic Strengths: Method and Competence During this stage, often called the Latency, we are capable of learning, creating and accomplishing numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense of industry. This is also a very social stage of development and if we experience unresolved feelings of inadequacy and inferiority among our peers, we can have serious problems in terms of competence and self-esteem. As the world expands a bit, our most significant relationship is with the school and neighborhood. Parents are no longer the complete authorities they once were, although they are still important 5. Adolescence: 12 to 18 Years Ego Development Outcome: Identity vs. Role Confusion Basic Strengths: Devotion and Fidelity Up to this stage, according to Erikson, development mostly depends upon what is done to us. From here on out, development depends primarily upon what we do. And while adolescence is a stage at which we are neither a child nor an adult, life is definitely getting more complex as we attempt to find our own identity, struggle with social interactions, and grapple with moral issues. Our task is to discover who we are as individuals separate from our family of origin and as members of a wider society. Unfortunately for those around us, in this process many of us go into a period of withdrawing from responsibilities, which Erikson called a "moratorium." And if we are unsuccessful in navigating this stage, we will experience role confusion and upheaval. A significant task for us is to establish a philosophy of life and in this process we tend to think in terms of ideals, which are conflict free, rather than reality, which is not. The problem is that we don't have much experience and find it easy to substitute ideals for experience. However, we can also develop strong devotion to friends and causes. It is no surprise that our most significant relationships are with peer groups 6. Young adulthood: 18 to 35 Ego Development Outcome: Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation Basic Strengths: Affiliation and Love In the initial stage of being an adult we seek one or more companions and love. As we try to find mutually satisfying relationships, primarily through marriage and friends, we generally also begin to start a family, though this age has been pushed back for many couples who today don’t start their families until their late thirties. If negotiating this stage is successful, we can experience intimacy on a deep level. If we're not successful, isolation and distance from others may occur. And when we don't find it easy to create satisfying relationships, our world can begin to shrink as, in defense, we can feel superior to others. Our significant relationships are with marital partners and friends. 7. Middle Adulthood: 35 to 55 or 65 Ego Development Outcome: Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation Basic Strengths: Production and Care Now work is most crucial. Erikson observed that middle-age is when we tend to be occupied with creative and meaningful work and with issues surrounding our family. Also, middle adulthood is when we can expect to "be in charge," the role we've longer envied. The significant task is to perpetuate culture and transmit values of the culture through the family (taming the kids) and working to establish a stable environment. Strength comes through care of others and production of something that contributes to the betterment of society, which Erikson calls generativity, so when we're in this stage we often fear inactivity and meaninglessness. As our children leave home, or our relationships or goals change, we may be faced with major life changes—the mid-life crisis—and struggle with finding new meanings and purposes. If we don't get through this stage successfully, we can become self-absorbed and stagnate. Significant relationships are within the workplace, the community and the family 8. Late Adulthood: 55 or 65 to Death Ego Development Outcome: Integrity vs. Despair Basic Strengths: Wisdom Erikson felt that much of life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage and the last stage is recovering from it. Perhaps that is because as older adults we can often look back on our lives with happiness and are content, feeling fulfilled with a deep sense that life has meaning and we've made a contribution to life, a feeling Erikson calls integrity. Our strength comes from a wisdom that the world is very large and we now have a detached concern for the whole of life, accepting death as the completion of life. On the other hand, some adults may reach this stage and despair at their experiences and perceived failures. They may fear death as they struggle to find a purpose to their lives, wondering "Was the trip worth it?" Alternatively, they may feel they have all the answers (not unlike going back to adolescence) and end with a strong dogmatism that only their view has been correct. The significant relationship is with all of mankind—"my-kind."  Learning Theories: Five Theories of Learning in Education What Are Learning Theories? In simple terms, theories of learning are ideas about the ways students learn and retain information. As Cynthia Schubert- Irastorza, Ed. D., Academic Program Director for Inspired Teaching and Learning for the Sanford College of Education, explains, “Learning theories help educators understand the process of learning. Understanding and application of these theories is essential for effective instruction and successful curriculum development”. These principles provide different frameworks that teachers can use to adapt to students’ diverse learning styles and academic needs  In addition to helping students absorb the information being taught, learning theories can also help teachers manage students’ behavior. This empowers educators to create an atmosphere that’s more inclusive and conducive to learning — a skill that’s essential whether teaching online or in a traditional classroom setting. There are significant differences between most theories of learning. However, what all of them share in common is that they seek to understand and explain the learning process so that educators can act accordingly, taking approaches to teaching that are appropriate, effective, and efficient. So how and when did this field get started? While humans have been pondering the process of learning and the nature of knowledge throughout history — notably including philosophers like Plato and Descartes — the first formal research on learning was conducted by psychologists during the 1800s. As fields like psychology have continued to develop, various learning theories have been proposed overtime, from the principles of Cognitivism developed during the 1950s to the Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) proposed by David Kolb in 1984. More recently, Connectivism has emerged as “the 21st century’s new learning theory.”  There are numerous theories of learning, with new ones sure to emerge in the future while others fade and become obsolete. Although most sources tend to identify three to five core theories — a few of which, like Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism, Connectivism, and Humanism are discussed in detail here — some identify as many as 31 learning theories in total! (For instance, some of the theories not covered in this guide include Pragmatic Education Theory, Self-Determination Theory, and Flow Theory.) One of the most significant learning theories is the theory of social learning put forth by psychologist Albert Bandura in 1977, when his influential book Social Learning Theory was published. Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (SLT)  Social learning proposes that individuals learn through the observation of “models,” such as friends and family members, movie and television characters, or — most significantly for educators — their teachers and other authority figures at school. According to Social Learning Theory, observers process and think about what they witness being modeled, which — combined with environmental factors — results in the assimilation and imitation of positive or negative behaviors. During the 1980s, Bandura broadened and renamed his theory to “Social Cognitive Theory,” or SCT. SLT (and its offshoot, SCT) remain relevant to contemporary educators at all grade levels — not to mention brands and corporations. For example, according to one study, “Due to the affinity that Generation Z learners show toward technology advances and supporting social learning tools, the overall teaching-learning experience was perceived [as] more positive and rewarding.” The same research, which was published last year in Frontiers in Education, found that “social learning tools can enhance the teaching-learning experience of generation Z learners.” Some organizations, such as the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL), are even dedicated to advancing social learning as a driver of better and more equitable educational opportunities for children. What Are the 5 Major Learning Theories? Behaviorism Founded by John B. Watson (but widely associated with Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner), Behaviorism is the idea that — like Bandura’s Social Learning Theory — children learn by observing the behavior of others, whether adults and authority figures or friends and peers their own age. In Behaviorism, the learner’s mind is a “blank slate” ready to absorb knowledge — and repetition and reinforcement play a key role in communicating with students.  For instance, the teacher will use either negative or positive reinforcement, which respectively means subtracting (“negative”) or adding (“positive”) something, in order to reinforce the desired behavior (or discourage an undesired behavior). An example of positive reinforcement might be rewarding or praising a behavior like volunteering during group discussions. Cognitivism Introduced during the middle of the 20th century, Cognitivism shifts away from Behaviorism to place a heavier emphasis on the internal thoughts of the observer, as opposed to merely observing others’ behavior and responding to stimuli. In contrast to Behaviorism, Cognitivism holds that learning chiefly takes place while the student is working to break down and organize new information in their mind. Journaling is frequently suggested as a helpful classroom exercise that uses the principles of Cognitivism. We’ll explore some additional ways of applying Cognitivism and other learning theories at the end of this guide. Constructivism According to Constructivist Learning Theory, or CLT, students learn new information by building upon — or in other words, constructing — knowledge they’ve already gained. This represents a more active approach to learning, as opposed to an approach like Behaviorism, where students arguably take a more passive role in learning. Cognitive Constructivism is associated with Jean Piaget, while Social Constructivism is linked to pioneer Lev Vygotsky. Humanism Founded by pioneers like Carl Rogers, James F. T. Bugental, and Abraham Maslow (whose famous “Hierarchy of Needs” Humanist Learning Theory (HLT) is a learner-centric approach to education. Humanist Learning Theory places a heavier emphasis on the learner themselves — and their untapped potential — rather than the methods of learning or the materials being taught. Built on the premise that humans are fundamentally good and will act appropriately if their basic needs are met, HLT prioritizes meeting the unique emotional and academic needs of each learner so that they are empowered to take greater control over their own education. Connectivism Connectivism, as we mentioned above, has been called a learning theory for the 21st century. But, other than its relatively recent introduction as a theory of learning, what makes Connectivism so useful and relevant to the modern student — and educator? Critically, Connectivist Learning Theory makes effective use of technology, which is an essential tool for learning — particularly among Generation Z students and future generations. Connectivism also places a strong emphasis on the ability to find and sift through information in order to conduct reliable research. Some examples of a Connectivist approach to teaching might be to have your students write a blog or launch a podcast together — activities that merge technology with group and community interaction. The Role of Motivation in Learning Ever wonder why some students are extremely engaged, and others seem to drift? A lot of it comes down to motivation. Think of it like the fuel that keeps the learning engine running. There are two main types of motivation: intrinsic motivation, which is about internal personal interest, and extrinsic motivation, which revolves around external factors such as rewards, grades, or praise.  Teachers play a large role in sparking that motivation. One great way to do this is by giving students choices—when they feel they have a say, they’re more likely to get excited about their work. Providing clear goals is another way to inspire motivation. When students know exactly what they’re aiming for, it’s easier for them to stay focused and driven. It’s all about striking the right balance between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators to not only help students succeed academically but also to cultivate a genuine love for learning.  The Importance of Understanding Learning Theory Why are learning theories important, and what value do they hold for educators and students? Put simply, they provide actionable insight into how learning occurs — insight which, ideally, should be used to drive and inform each educator’s approach to teaching and interacting with their students. Here are a few of ways that you and your students can benefit when you bring learning theories into your classroom or curriculum:  Theories of learning can provide clarity and direction by offering a set of principles or guidelines to build your teaching approach around. The more theories of learning you’re familiar with, the more strategies you’ll have to connect with a diverse range of students who come from different backgrounds, learn at different paces, and face different academic challenges or obstacles. Learning theories facilitate clear communication between teachers and students (including nonverbal communication like body language, as we saw in the section on Behaviorism), along with parents, families, and school administrators. As learning outcomes improve, students will also build confidence and self-esteem. Considering their value and significance, how are learning theories actually used by educators in the real world? Keep reading for tips on how to apply learning theories in the classroom. How to Implement Learning Theories in the Classroom Now that you’re more familiar with some core theories of learning, such as Humanism, you’re probably starting to think about how educators — including yourself — might put them to work in the classroom. So how can learning theories be applied to help teachers do their jobs more effectively so that students can achieve better outcomes? Here are 10 ways educators can implement various theories of learning more successfully. Ways to Apply Behaviorism Provide positive reinforcement, like rewards and recognition, to students who show outstanding improvement, effort, or performance. Repeatedly use body language and nonverbal or physical cues to reinforce and manage behavior — for instance, one educator suggests folding your arms and moving to a specific area of your classroom when your students are becoming disruptive to the learning environment. Ways to Apply Cognitivism Engage your students in group or class discussions. Encourage your students to identify links between concepts or events. Ways to Apply Humanism Identify ways to provide your students with more control over the direction and pace of their learning. Provide ample support, encouragement, and motivation to your students to help them build confidence and connect with the material. Ways to Apply Connectivism Bring more educational technology into the classroom. Teach students how and where to find quality information and conduct solid research — a critical skill that will aid them with tasks like writing and studying throughout their whole academic careers. The Bigger Picture Every student learns differently. Theories of learning, like Constructivism and Connectivism, provide teachers with tools they can utilize to better meet the diverse academic needs of their students. By incorporating theories of learning into their teaching methods and course materials, educators can help students stay more engaged and achieve greater success in — and beyond — the classroom.