1JV00 Summary - Wesley - 2019-2020 PDF

Summary organization psychology 2.1 Science is the understanding, prediction and control of phenomenon’s of interest. IO psychologists are interested in understanding and influencing behavior related to the workplace. Science is usually based on a hypothesis and data. It should be communicable, ope...

Summary organization psychology 2.1 Science is the understanding, prediction and control of phenomenon’s of interest. IO psychologists are interested in understanding and influencing behavior related to the workplace. Science is usually based on a hypothesis and data. It should be communicable, open and public. Science sets out to disprove theories or hypotheses. One other characteristic of science is disinterestedness. That means that the scientist should be objective and uninfluenced by biases when conducting research. An expert witness is a witness in a lawsuit who is permitted to voice opinions about organizational practices. He may give his opinion. Good theories display the following characteristics: - Offer novel insights - Are interesting - Are focused - Are relevant to important topics - Provide explanations - Are practical The operations that define research are complex and series of decisions need to be made before the research actually begins (pag 51). Research design provides the overall structure or architecture for the research study. Spector has reviewed research designs and breaks designs down into three basic types: experimental, quasi-experimental and nonexperimental. Experimental means that participants of the research are randomly assigned to different conditions. A quasi-experimental research is when participants are assigned to different conditions, but random assignment is not possible. For example when a new pay plan is introduced at a factory. You can only research those people but no other people at other factories because it would be too many people. Nonexperimental means that researchers simply gather information about something without introducing any new condition or a treatment. A treatment is called independent variable and behavior of the research participant is called dependent variable. Two types of nonexperimental research are the observational design and the survey design. With the observational design the researcher watches an employee his behavior and makes a record about what is observed. The survey design let the participants complete a questionnaire. The essence of laboratory research is control over conditions. Another reason for doing no fieldwork is because the experiments can be difficult to do in the field because workers can seldom be randomly assigned. Methods of data collection Quantitative methods rely on tests, rating scales, questionnaires, and physiological measures and results. Qualitative methods of investigations rely on observations, interviews, case studies, and analysis of diaries or written documents and produce flow diagrams and narrative descriptions of events or processes. Introspection is an early scientific method in which the participant was also the experimenter, recording his experiences in completing an experimental task, this is considered very subjective compared by modern standards. The two methods can be used together to get better results. Triangulation is the search for converging information from different sources. Context is of great importance when researching. Many strange outcomes came because lack of context. A very important issue is how widely results can be generalized. An investigator can generalize results to areas that have been sampled in the research study. Job analysis is the process used by IO psychologists to gain understanding of a job. Control Characteristic of research in which possible confounding influences that might make results less reliable or harder to interpret are eliminated. Experimental control is often easier to establish in laboratory studies than in field studies. Statistical control is that the researcher uses statistical techniques to control for the influence of certain variables. Such control allows researchers to concentrate exclusively on the primary interest. With this technique factors as age and gender are not a problem. Ethical standards for IO psychologists are set by the APA, SIOP and the society for human resource management. 2.2 Descriptive statistics Descriptive statistics are statistics that summarize, organize and describe a sample of data. Three measures that can be used to describe any score distributions are measure of central tendency, variability and skew. A measure that shows the median (gemiddelde) or the median of the graph is a measure of central tendency. This include the mean, the mode, and the median. The mean is the average score in a distribution obtained by summing all of the scores in a distribution and dividing by the sample size. The mode is the most occurring score and the median is the middle score of all scores so for example 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 than the median is 4,5 because that is the middle of the scores. Variability is the extent to which the scores in a distribution vary from each other and the skew is a tool to show how easy/difficult something was. A negative skew means that the test was very easy and when a positive skew occurs it was difficult. Standard deviation is the deviation from the mean. Inferential statistics are statistics that are used to aid the researcher in testing hypotheses and making inferences from sample data to a larger sample or population. An inferential statistic can also support a conclusion for example if you have a lower mean with high school pupils than with university students than you can suggest that education is improving mean but with a inferential test this suggestion can become a conclusion. The test that investigate if the students are from high school or university is the inferential test. Statistical significance means that the outcome of the test can’t be wrong because of chance or error. A statistical significance is when the significance level is lower than 0.05 (5 percent) so less than 5 out of 100. If a statistical significance is found than this indicates that the results found are unlikely to have occurred by chance. The null-hypothesis indicates that there is no difference between. There can be slight differences but no big differences between the tests. Statistical power is the likelihood of finding a statistical significant difference when a true difference exists. The power to detect true or real difference is getting lower when the sample size is smaller. So for statistical significance it is important to have a big group. Measurement is assigning numbers to characteristics of individuals according to rules for example for the level of stress. Correlation coefficient is the correlation between a factor and a test. Like IQ and the testing grade. If the IQ is getting bigger and the grade as well than you have a positive correlation coefficient. A negative correlation coefficient means that if x is getting bigger y is getting smaller. The coefficient can range from +/- 0.00 to +/- 1.00. A scatterplot is a graph used to plot the scatter of scores on two variables. It is used to display the correlational relationship between two variables. All scores are marked on the graph. All these scores are the foundation for the regression line. This is the line that best fit all the scores. So the line in the middle of the scores. A regression line is a linear line (straight). But a correlation can also be nonlinear. The correlation coefficient can be 0.00 but there is correlation (65, fig 2.7). Multiple correlation coefficient is the statistic that represent the overall linear association between several variables on the one hand and a single variable on the other hand. When concluding things researchers have to be careful because a correlation is not always the same as causation. It may be that people who earn a lot will turn bold but this is because people who earn more are older people. Two important criteria when evaluating measurement instruments are reliability (consistency or stability of a measure) and validity (does the instrument actually measure what it is supposed to measure?). Big data is a term that describes using large data sets to make organizational decisions based on such data. Meta-analysis is a statistical method for combining results from many studies to draw a general conclusion. Statistical artifacts are characteristics (small sample size, unreliable measures) of a particular study that distort (verdraaien) the observed results. Researchers can correct for artifacts to arrive at a statistic that represent the “true” relationship between the variables of interest. Micro-research is the study of individual behavior. Macro-research is the study of collective behavior and meso-research is the study of the interaction of individuals and collective behavior. 2.3 Two important criteria when evaluating measurement instruments are: reliability (consistency or stability of a measure) and validity (does the instrument actually measure what it is supposed to measure?). Reliability A graph can show measurement 1 on the y-as and measurement 2 on the x-as. These two should give the same results thus a straight line with dots in the middle. If this is true the test has a high test-retest reliability. If the two measurements don’t match then the test-retest reliability is low (72, fig 2.8). Equivalent forms reliability means that a type of reliability calculated by correlating measurements from a sample of individuals who complete two different forms of the same test. Example: so the questions are different and the researchers investigate if the tests are of equal level. Internal consistency reliability is a test that shows if the questions in a test are of the same level. One group makes all the even questions and one all the odd questions and if the grades are the same than we can speak of internal consistency. A test is reasonable reliable if the reliability is between.70 to.80 or higher (until 1.00). The Generalizability theory is a sophisticated approach to the question of reliability that simultaneously considers all types of error in reliability estimates (test-retest equivalent and internal consistency). Validity IO psychology gather validity evidence using three common designs. These are Criterion- related validity, content-related validity and construct-related validity. (75, fig 2.9) A picture of a validation process. A predictor is a test chosen or developed to assess abilities identified as important for successful job performance. An outcome variable that describes important aspects or demands of the job is a criterion. This is the value that we want to predict. Criterion-related validity Validity approach that is demonstrated by correlating a test score with a performance measure. By correlating these test scores with the performance data you would be calculating what is known as a validity coefficient. This is thus the correlation coefficient between a test score (predictor) and a performance measure (criterion). A predictive validity design is a criterion-related validity design in which there is a time lag between collection of the test data and the criterion data. So you don’t look to the test data for months and then you compare the criterion (performance) with the tests. The concurrent validity design has no time delay between gathering the test scores and the performance data. This design has a disadvantage because only people who scored good on the test will get hired all others don’t have a chance and the company won’t know if they would be better. Content-related validity A content-related validation design is a design that demonstrates that the content of the selection procedure represent an adequate sample of important work behaviors and activities/KSAOs (worker knowledge, skills and abilities). So choices can be made by testing applicants on important work behaviors and activities. Construct-related validity Construct validity is an approach in which investigators gather evidence to support decisions or inferences about psychological constructs. Often begins with investigators demonstrating that a test designed to measure a particular construct correlates with other tests in the predicted manner. A construct is a psychological concept or characteristic that a predictor is intended to measure. Examples are intelligence, personality, and leadership (78, 2.10) (79, 2.11). 3.1 Individual differences are dissimilarities between or among two or more people. Psychology began in a laboratory in Germany in 1876. In 1890 an American called Cattell developed the concept of a mental test. This is an instrument designed to measure a subjects ability to reason, plan, and solve problems (intelligence test). Differential psychology is the scientific study of differences between or among two or more people. Cattell used the mental test to measure the intelligence of incoming college students. He measured the ability to learn and adapt to an environment. He had learned to measure mental ability (capability to reason, plan and solve) and placing it on a scale or metric (standard of measurement). As a result the actual measurement of abilities became known as psychometrics. Later the US introduced a intelligence test for the army. These days there are psychometricians. This is a psychologist trained in measuring characteristics such as mental ability. Cognitive ability (mental ability) is most important. ‘g’ is an abbreviation for general mental ability. This is the nonspecific capacity to reason, learn and solve in any way. Varieties of individual differences From 1993 there was a tendency that Sternberg and Wagner called the g-ocentric model to understand and predict the behavior of workers simply by examining ‘g’. Psychologists now consider individual differences in physical abilities (bodily powers as muscular strength), personality (individual behavioral and emotional characteristics), interests (preferences or likings), knowledge (facts about topics) and emotion (an effect or feeling displayed in reaction to an event). 3.2 Abilities Edwin Fleishman made a comprehensive list (taxonomy) of mental and physical abilities. This list can be divided in cognitive, physical and perceptual-motor abilities. Perceptual- motor abilities are physical attributes that combine the senses (seeing, hearing) and motion (coordination). And this abilities do not cover personality, affect (the conscious, subjective aspect of emotions), or interest. IQ stands for intelligence quotient and that is a measure of intelligence obtained by giving a subject a standardized IQ test. Meta-analyses show that there is a relation between “g” and job performance. If the complexity of the job increases than a person with low “g” is less likely to be successful than a person with higher “g”. But someone with high “g” can also fail if interpersonal skills are needed. Carroll proposed that there are three layers to intelligence. The highest layer is “g” the next layer has the seven broad abilities. And the third layer includes abilities that are tied to the seven broad abilities. (90, fig 3.1) Physical demanding jobs require strength, flexibility and stamina. Hogan proposed a seven- measure taxonomy of physical abilities and combined these seven measure to form three higher-order physical abilities: muscular strength, cardiovascular endurance and movement quality. A physical test is not fair for female (because they have less muscle) and older people because we lose muscle, stamina (ability to supply muscles with oxygenated blood) and flexibility when we age. Fluid intelligence means that you are quick in understanding things and crystallized intelligence is your data base of knowledge. Sensory abilities Sensory abilities are the physical functions of vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell and kinesthetic feedback (feedback from your body about position etc.). Americans with disabilities act says that an employer can’t test areas such as sensory or physical abilities that may be considered disabilities. A division of sensory abilities is psychomotor abilities. This is: reaction time, coordination, dexterity, arm-hand steadiness and wrist-finger speed. An increased interest in personality measurement began with the development of the big five or the five-factor model (FFM). The five factors are: - Conscientiousness (responsible, persistent, planful) - Extraversion (sociable, assertive) - Agreeableness (cooperative, trusting) - Emotional stability (secure, calm, relaxed) - Openness to experience (curious, imaginative, independent) Certain combinations of the factors are good combinations for work. So this introduces the idea of a functional personality at work. For example people who are more agreeableness (easy to get along) and emotional stable (displaying little emotion) tended to have higher integrity (quality of being honest, ethical and reliable). Conscientiousness is most important in work situations. Achievement is a facet of conscientiousness consisting of hard work, persistence and desire to do good work. Conscientiousness is a combination of achievement and dependability (being disciplined, well organized, honest and respectful of laws). An important skill (practiced act) is the people skill, a nontechnical term that includes negotiating skills and communicating. Occupational information network (O*NET) is a collection of electronic databases based on well-developed taxonomies. An other kind of knowledge is called tacit knowledge. This is action-oriented, goal directed knowledge acquired without direct help from others to achieve goals you value. Procedural knowledge) is knowing how to solve something (so tacit knowledge) and declarative knowledge is understanding what is required to perform a task (so having information like O*NET), knowing information about a job task. Competencies are sets of behaviors that are necessary for a job. With a job analysis competencies needed for the job can be investigated. Emotional intelligence (EI) is a kind of intelligence focused on peoples awareness of their own and others emotions. Emotional intelligence can be measured by an emotional intelligence quotient (EQ). 3.3 A test is an objective and standardized procedure for measuring a psychological construct using a sample of behavior. The test score has a meaning after norming. Norming is comparing a score to other relevant test scores. A group that is chosen to be compared with is the norm group. A test can be a test battery, this is a collection of test that usually asses a variety of different attributes. Different kind of tests A speed test is a test with rigid and demanding time limits. Most test takers will be unable to finish the test in the allotted time. A power test is a test without time limit. Group test can be handy to screen candidates simultaneously. It reduces the costs of testing. Individual test can be handy if the company want to assess a candidates style of problem solving and when the examiner needs to establish an interpersonal rapport. A paper-and-pencil test is a test with only questions and the participant needs to fill them in. A performance test is a test with a assignment. The better the assignment was done the higher score. In discussing test there are three terms bias, fairness and culture. A test can be biased for example if it underpredict the job performance of women. Fairness plays a role as the question can rise if making the decision based on the test alone is sufficient and culture means that a test taker needs the opportunity to get familiar with the tasks/subject matter. An other test is the cognitive ability test that allows individuals to demonstrate what they know, perceive, remember, understand, or can work with mentally. 3.4 The cognitive ability test can also be a battery and then is known as multiple-aptitude test batterie. If a test is a knowledge test than it only asses the extent to which you know things. The psychomotor ability test is a test that also involves the coordinated movement of the limbs. Personality Screen-out test is a test used to eliminate candidates who are clearly unsuitable for employment. Tests of psychopathology are examples of screen-out test in the employment setting. A screen-in test is a test used to add information about the positive attributes of a candidate that might predict outstanding performance. A personality test is a example of a screen-in test. To test someone his integrity this can be done by a overt integrity test or a personality-based integrity test. A overt integrity test asks directly about past honesty behavior as well as attitudes toward behaviors. A personality based integrity test infers honesty and integrity from questions dealing with broad personality constructs (social responsibility, conscientiousness). An integrity test predicts overall performance better than FFM but is worse at predicting counterproductive work behavior than FFM. Interviews There are two types of interviews. The structure interview consist of very specific questions asked of each candidate. This includes tightly crafted scoring schemes with detailed outlines for the interviewer with respect to assigning ratings or scores based on interview performance. The situational interview (part of structured interview) is an assessment procedure in which the interviewee is asked to describe in specific and behavioral detail how he or she would respond to a hypothetical situation. The unstructured interview is an interview format that includes questions that may vary by candidate and that allows the candidate to answer in any form preferred. Assessment center Assessment centers are collections of procedures for evaluation. It’s done in groups. Multiple assessors. It’s a combination of different methods. Problems are inter-rater reliability, that assessors do not always agree with each other and it’s expensive because there are many assessors. Advantage is that it has a relatively high predictive validity. Work sample tests A work sample test is an assessment procedure that measures job skills by taking samples of behavior under realistic job-like conditions. A form of this is the situational judgment test. This is a test where the candidate get a written scenario and the candidate should choose the best response from a series of alternatives. 6.1 – staffing decisions Staffing decisions are decisions associated with recruiting, selecting, promoting, and separating employees. The goal s to get the right person on the right time and right place in the organization, in order to execute the planned activities and projects. High performance work practices are practices that include the use of formal job analyses, selection from within for key positions, merit-based promotions, and the use of formal assessment devices for selection. Stakeholders in the staffing process are the line managers and co-workers. The line manager gathers information from applicants usually in the form of one or more interviews. When the decision is made the line manager will be expected to supervise the new member. The co-workers are of importance because they have to work with the new member. The applicant him self also has a feeling about the staffing process. If staffing is taking place on a big international scale than this is called multinational staffing. Other persons are the personnel department, recruitment agency, society and applicant’s family. 6.2 The selection ratio (SR) is a ratio that shows how many people are hired and how many people are assessed. So a low SR is good because the company then has a lot of choice and can choose the best candidate. The index has a range between 0 and 1 and the best is 0.01. When validity coefficients are less than 1 there will be some error in the predictions. If the error is a false positive this means that we falsely predicted that a positive outcome would occur and it did not. The second type of error is a false negative this means that we falsely predicted a negative outcome would occur and it did not, person succeeded. The hiring manager can also make two correct decisions. The true negative is an accurate prediction that someone will be a poor performer and a true positive is an accurate prediction that someone will be a good performer and will succeed. A cut score is, is a score that separate people who will be hired and which one will be rejected. So if the candidate is below the cut score it will be rejected. By lowering the cut score we would reduce the amount of wrongly rejected people but increase the percentage of poor performers among the candidates. A criterion-referenced cut score is a cut score that has been adapted to the desired level of performance. Norm-referenced cut scores are not tied to any expected level but are based on the average of the test takers’ score. Norm stands for normal so the average of the test takers. If a person feels unfairness about the staffing procedure he might take actions and this cost the organization time and money. A utility analysis is a technique that assesses the economic return on investment of human resource interventions such as staffing and training. The base rate is the percentage of the current workforce that is performing successfully. If the base rate is very high than a new member is not capable of changing the rate a lot. If you combine different test methods you can get the highest validity. 6.3 If the company has a very comprehensive staffing model than the model probably gathers enough high-quality information about candidates to predict the likelihood of their success on the varied demands of the job. Combining information Clinical decision making is a method that uses judgement to combine information and to make a decision about the relative value of different candidates or applicants. Statistical decision making is a method that combines information according to a mathematical formula. If several tests are used than a compensatory system is used. This is a model in which a good score on one test can compensate for a lower score on another test. A hurdle system is a non-compensatory strategy in which an individual has no opportunity to compensate at a later assessment stage for a low score in an earlier stage of the assessment process. A multiple hurdle system means that with every test a minimum should be achieved for further consideration so no compensation is possible between tests. Multiple regression analysis is a method of analysis that results in an equation for combining test scores into a composite based on the correlations among the test scores and the correlations of each test score with the performance score. Cross-validation is a process used with multiple regression techniques in which a regression equation developed on a first sample is tested on a second sample to determine if it still fits well. Deselection Termination for cause is job loss that occurs when an individual is fired from an organization for a particular reason. The individual has usually been warned one or more times about a problem and either cannot or will not correct it. Layoffs are different. Layoffs is job loss due to employer downsizing or reduction in force. Often comes without warning that the workforce will be reduced. Lare-scale staffing projects will often require standard and well-established selection strategies. In small staffing projects, managers are encouraged to choose a selection and decision-making strategy that is rational and job related. Newer research suggest that selection in the 21st centure should center less on the individual and more on work performance in context. 4.1 – A basic model of performance Performance are actions and behaviors relevant to the organizations goals. Measured in terms of each individuals proficiency (bekwaamheid). Performance is what the organization hires an employee to do and to do well. Effectiveness is the evaluation of the results of performance (so the results). Often controlled by factors beyond the actions of an individual. Like the total sales. Productivity is the ratio of effectiveness to the cost of achieving that level of effectiveness. A profit margin is a index of productivity. The Campbell’s determinants of job performance is a model of job performance. Declarative knowledge (DK) is understanding what is required to perform a task. Knowing information about a job or task. Procedural knowledge and skill (PKS) is knowing how to perform a job or task. Often developed through practice and experience. Motivation (M) is the conditions responsible for variations in intensity, persistence, quality and direction of ongoing behavior (so if you like it). DK, PKS and M are determinants of performance. Campbell’s research identified eight basic performance components (147, fig 4.1). Criterion deficiency is a situation that occurs when an actual criterion is missing information that is part of the behavior one is trying to measure. Criterion contamination is a situation that occurs when an actual criterion includes information unrelated to the behavior one is trying to measure. If all aspects of performance are measured in an ideal world than this is called ultimate criterion (theoretical criterion), but since we can never measure all aspects we settle for an actual criterion (an actual measurement). 4.2 Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is behavior that goes beyond what is expected. The investigation saw two types of OCB. Altruism is helpful behaviors directed towards individuals or groups within the organization such as offering to help a co-worker who is up against a deadline. Generalized compliance is behavior that is helpful to the broader organization such as upholding company rules. OCB is largely a social phenomenon. So OCB is beyond task performance (activities that are part of the job). OCB can also be dangerous as initiative might increase the risk of an accident. There is correlation between conscientiousness and OCB. Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) is voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and threatens the well-being of the organization and its members. Other models of CWB is the SOD model: - S, behavior done for self-gain - O, behavior done for organizational gain - D, behavior that is destructive Dishonesty is not only theft of goods but also theft of time by arriving late or leaving early and dishonest communications with customers, co-workers or management. Absenteeism is a type of counterproductive behavior that involves failure of an employee to report for or remain at work as scheduled. An employee can also sabotage the company. Sabotage is an act that damage, disrupt, or subvert the organizations operations for personal purpose of the saboteur by creating unfavorable publicity, damage to property or destruction of working relationships. The Lordstown syndrome was sabotage to the general electric plant. CWB can be cured with the following: - Punishment that is prompt - Quick and genuine apologies to individuals who are unjustly treated - Exposure to co-workers who do not engage in CWB - Training in social and communication skills for individuals who tend to interact in a provocative manner. - Putting angry people in a better mood by using humor or expressing empathy. Another performance component to consider is the adaptive performance component. This component includes flexibility and the ability to adapt to changing circumstances. The eight adaptive performance areas are: An expert performance is a performance exhibited by those who have been practicing for at least 10 years and have spent an average of four hours per day in deliberate practice. Types of performance measures Objective performance measure are usually a quantitative count of the results of work, such as sales volume, complaint letters, and output. Judgmental measures are evaluations made of the effectiveness of an individuals work behavior. Judgment most often made by supervisors in the context of a performance evaluation and the personnel measures are measures typically kept in a personnel file, including absences, accidents, tardiness, rate of advancement, disciplinary actions, and commendations of meritorious behavior (goed gedrag). 4.3 Job analysis is a process that determines the important tasks of a job and the human attributes necessary to successfully perform those tasks. The results of a job analysis can be used for many different purposes: - Job description - Recruiting - Selection - Training - Compensation o If a job is very difficult to do than the company might pay more as a compensation for the good and difficult work. - Promotion/job assignment o By job analyzing the company can investigate if there is job ladder or job family. This means that there are jobs that similar to each other. Accounting jobs and budgeting is a job family/job ladder. - Job design o A comprehensive job analysis can assist in design changes for eliminating or automating tasks in a job. - Workforce reduction/restructuring - Criterion development o Criterion is the behavior that constitutes or defines successful performance of a given task. - Performance evaluation - Litigation o When a lawsuit is ongoing it is important that the employer truly knows what critical tasks are needed to perform the tasks. Types of job analysis The task-oriented job analysis is an approach that begins with a statement of the actual task as well as what is accomplished by those tasks. The worker-oriented job analysis is an approach that focuses on the attributes of the worker necessary to accomplish the tasks. KSAOs are individual attributes of knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics that are required to successfully perform job tasks. How job analysis is done Subject matter expert (SME) is an employee who provides information about a job in a job analysis interview or survey. Some common methods of job analysis include: - Observation - Interviews - Critical incidents and work diaries  o Critical incident technique, an approach in which subject matter experts are asked to identify critical aspects of behavior or performance in a particular job that led to success or failure. o Let workers keep a log of their activities over a prescribed period of time this is called a work diary. - Questionnaires/surveys for workers a very famous questionnaire is the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ). 4.4 Electronic performance monitoring is the monitoring of work processes with electronic devices. Can be very cost effective and has the potential for providing detailed and accurate work logs. It’s cost effective because no SME has to work. Cognitive task analysis Experts have suggested that cognitive task analysis is a needed extension of traditional job analysis. Cognitive task analysis is a process that consist of methods for decomposing job and task performance into discrete, measurable units, with special emphasis on eliciting mental processes and knowledge content. The think-aloud protocol is a precursor (voorlooper) of the cognitive task analysis. This is an approach used by cognitive psychologists to investigate the thought processes of experts who achieve high levels of performance. An expert performer describes in words the thought process that he or she uses to accomplish a task. To improve the job analyses the personality-related position requirements form (PPRF) is handy. This is a job analysis instrument devoted to identifying personality predictors of job performance. It is not replacing job analysis but examines important personality attributes in jobs. Dictionary of occupational titles (DOT) is a document that includes job analysis and occupational information used to match applicants with job openings. O*NET is the replacement of the DOT. Just as job analysis seeks to define jobs ands work in terms of the match between required task and human attributes, competency modeling seeks to define organizational units in terms of the match between the goals and missions of those units and the competencies required to meet those goals and accomplish those missions. Thus, competency modeling is a natural extension of the job analysis logic rather than a replacement for job analysis. 8.1 Motivation is the conditions responsible for variations in intensity, persistence, quality, and direction of ongoing behavior. The first idea of motivation came from instincts. Instincts is an inborn tendencies that are thought to direct behavior. As well as instincts needs were thought to be inborn and universally present in humans. Drives were the nonhuman equivalent of motives and needs. The behaviorist approach placed the emphasis for behavior directly on the environment rather than on any internal needs or instincts. Field theory is an approach developed by Kurt Lewin, who proposed that various forces in the psychological environment interacted and combined to yield a final course of action. Lewin’s approach was also known as group dynamics. There are two metaphors for motivation. The person as a machine metaphor is that people’s behaviors/actions are reflexive and involuntary and are performed without conscious awareness. Mostly response to needs and drives. The person as scientist metaphor suggests that people are active information gatherers and analysts who seek knowledge and understanding as a way of mastering their environment. Some people conclude that people have limited rationality. This is the inability of humans to reason and make decisions in perfectly rational ways. The person as judge metaphor says that individuals seek information about the extent to which the person and others are perceived as responsible for positive and negative events. The person looks for evidence of intention in the action of others and considers those intentions in choosing a personal course of action. The performance formula: (motivation x ability) – situational constraints (the situation good/bad) = performance So situational constraints is for example if the microphone quits than you leaf the course because you can’t hear and learn properly. Work-life balance is a field of research that investigates whether the satisfaction that one experiences at work is in part affected by the satisfaction that one experiences in non-work and vice versa, particularly to the extent that one environment has demands that conflict with the other. Motivation is not unlimited. Locus of control is the extent to which an individual views events as resulting from his or her own actions (an internal LOC) or from outside causes (an external LOC). 8.2 Person-as-machine Person-as-machine metaphor has for internal three theories. These are need theory from Maslow, the two-factor theory from Herzberg and the ERG theory from Alderfer. Maslow need theory proposed that all humans have a basic set of needs and that these needs express themselves over the life span of the individual as internal drives. Identified five basic needs sets: physiological, security, love or social, esteem and self-actualization. The two-factor theory proposed by Herzberg suggests that there were really two basic needs and that they were not so much hierarchically arranged as independent of each other. These two needs are hygiene needs (Maslow’s physical and security needs) and motivator needs (Maslow’s social, esteem and actualization needs). The hygiene needs are often factors related to dissatisfaction and the motivator needs are often factors related to satisfaction. The reinforcement theory proposes that behavior depends on three simple elements: stimulus, response, and reward. Proposed that if a response in the presence of a particular stimulus is rewarded that response is likely to occur again in the presence of that stimulus. Learn the three pictures! They are important. There are two different types of rewards. The intermittent reward means that a reward is given for only some correct responses and the continuous reward is a reward that is presented every time a correct response occurs. When a reward depends on a response like intermittent reward and continuous reward it is called contingent reward. Person-as-scientist The four theories of the person-as-scientist metaphor are the path-goal theory from Georgopoulos, the VIE theory from Vroom, the Dissonance theory (Festinger) and the equity theory from Adams. The path-goal theory is the first formal work motivation theory to suggest that people weighed options before choosing among them. Reasoned that if a worker saw high productivity as a path to the goal of desired rewards or personal goals, he or she would likely be a high producer. The Vie theory assumed that individuals rationally estimate the relative attractiveness and unattractiveness of different rewards or outcomes, the probability that performance will lead to particular outcomes or rewards (instrumentality) and the probability that effort will lead to performance (expectancy). Instrumentality means the perceived relationship between performance and the attainment of a certain outcome. Expectancy means an individuals belief that a particular behavior will lead to higher performance. Valence is the value of the outcome (reward). Thus Motivation = Expectancy * Instrumentality * Valence The dissonance theory observed that tension exists when individuals hold dissonant cognitions (incompatible thoughts). This approach assumes that individuals always seek some sense of balance and that they will direct their behavior toward reducing the tension resulting from dissonant cognitions (tegenstrijdige overtuigingen). The equity theory suggests that individuals look at their world in terms of comparative inputs and outcomes. Individuals compare their inputs and outcomes with others by developing an input/outcome ratio. Input is the training, effort, skills and abilities that employees bring to or invest in their work. Outcomes are the compensations, satisfactions and other benefits. Comparison other is a co-worker or idealized other person to which the individual compares himself. 8.3 Person-as-judge, person-as-intentional The person-as-intentional approach assumes that individuals are intentional in their behavior and the most representative theory is the goal-setting theory. This is proposed by Locke and the theory says that the general concept of a goal is adapted to work motivation. In this approach, a goal is seen as a motivational force, and individuals who set specific, difficult goals perform better than individuals who simply adopt a “do your best goal” or no goal at all. A feedback loop is a connection between knowledge of results and the intermediate states that occur between goal commitment and performance. If the goal is very hard to achieve than the performance is better than if the goal is easy to achieve. The control theory is based on the principle of a feedback loop that assumes that an individual compares a standard to actual outcome and adjusts behavior to bring the outcome into agreement with the standard. A same sort regulation is the self-regulation process by which individuals take in information about behavior and make adjustments or changes based on that information. These changes, in turn, affect subsequent behavior. The self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capability to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal. If you think you can do it you will set a higher goal. Self-efficacy can be raised with: - Mastery experiences (you know how to do it because you already did it) - Modeling (you see someone else who does it so you compare and think yes I can) - Social persuasion (someone says that you can do it!) - Physiological state (make sure that the environment to work is good) Action theory (Frese, Gollwitzer) is about the action you planned and the execution. So you establish a goal and then you plan everything. There is a difference between setting the goal and implementing the goal. And action theory is not about setting but about implementing. 8.4 Motivational interventions Job enrichment is a motivational approach that involves increasing the responsibility and interest level of jobs in order to increase the motivation and job satisfaction of employees performing these jobs. ProMES is the productivity measurement and enhancement system. This is a motivational approach that utilizes goal setting, rewards, and feedback to increase motivation and performance. Indicators are needed. This are quantitative measures of how well each objective is being met in the ProMES approach. 5.1 Basic concepts in performance measurement Objective performance measure is usually a quantitative count of the results of work such as sales volume, complaint letters, and output. Judgmental performance measures are an evaluation made of the effectiveness of an individual’s work behavior, most often by supervisors in the context of a yearly performance evaluation. Hands-on performance measurement is a type of measurement that requires an employee to engage in work- related tasks, usually includes carefully constructed simulations of central or critical pieces of work that involve single workers. Walk-through testing is a type of measurement that requires an employee to describe to an interviewer in detail how to complete a task or job- related behavior. Employee may literally walk trough the facility, answering questions as he or she actually sees the displays or controls in questions. Electronic performance monitoring is a monitoring work processes with electronic devise. It can be very cost effective and has the potential for providing detailed and accurate work logs. Performance management is a system that emphasizes the link between individual behavior and organizational strategies and goals by defining performance in the context of those goals. Jointly developed by managers and the people who report to them. 5.2 performance rating – substance Tasked based ratings is a way of rating where the rater is asked to indicate the effectiveness of an employee on individual critical tasks often called duties. Duties are groups of similar tasks. Each duty involves a segment of work directed at one of the general goals of a job. Critical incidents are examples of behavior that appear critical in determing whether performance would be good, average, or poor in specific performance areas. A graphic ratings scale is a graphic display of performance scores that runs from high on one end to low on the other end. So people can see how they should behave to get a good score. A checklist is a list of behaviors presented to a rater, who places a check next to each of the items that best describe the ratee. A weighted checklist is a checklist that includes items that have values or weights assigned to them that are derived from the expert judgements of incumbents and supervisors of the position in question (just when something is important). The forced-choice format is a format that requires the rater to choose two statements out of four that could describe the ratee. The behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) is a rating format that includes behavioral anchors describing what a worker has done or might be expected to do in a particular duty area. The advantages are that it is based on job analysis, transparent and is useful for feedback. The disadvantages are that it is time-consuming to construct good scale, anchors represent expected behavior (not always observed) and the usefulness for feedback is not high. The behavioral observation scale (BOS) is a format that asks the rater to consider how frequently an employee has been seen to act in a particular way. Employee comparison method is a form of evaluation that involves the direct comparison of one person with another. The simple ranking is when employees are ranked from top to bottom according to their assessed proficiency. Paired comparison is a technique in which each employee in a work group or a collection of individuals with the same job title is compared with every other individual in the group on the various dimensions being considered. The formula for calculating the number of paired comparisons is n(n-1)/2 with n is the number of individuals to be compared. 5.3 – performance rating – process 360-degree feedback is a process of collecting and providing a manger or executive with feedback from man sources, including supervisors, pers, subordinates, customers, and suppliers. Different forms of rating are: self-rating, subordinate rating (evaluating the boss) and customer and supplier ratings. Using these ratings together you get a 360-degree evaluation. Rating distortions Rating errors are inaccuracies in ratings that may be actual errors or intentional or systematic distortions. A central tendency error means that a rater chooses a middle point on the scale to describe performance, even though a more extreme point might better describe the employee. This occurs when the rater don’t want to give more information about why it wasn’t average if this is necessary. A leniency error is an error that occurs with raters who are unusually easy in their ratings. The severity error is an error that occurs with raters who are unusually harsh in their ratings. A halo error is an error that occurs when a rater assigns the same rating to an employee by only looking to the overall impression and not to the actual performance in various categories. This creates a halo or aura that surrounds all of the ratings causing them to be similar. First impression error means that the first impression determines the rating. Similar-to-me error means that the supervisor judges employees that are similar to him more positively. Contrast error is an error that develops when the rater is comparing the ratee with other ratee’s. Rater training An administrative training is a training to get basic knowledge about how to conduct a rating for different ratings like BARS or BOS. An psychometric training is a training that makes raters aware of common rating errors (central tendency, leniency/severity, and halo) in the hope that this will reduce the likelihood of errors. A frame-of-reference training (FOR) is a training based on the assumption that a rater needs a context or frame for providing a rating. This includes: Providing information on the multidimensional nature of performance. Ensuring that raters understand the meaning of anchors on the scale. Engaging in practice rating exercises. Providing feedback on practice exercises. 5.4 – the social and legal context of performance evaluation Goals of a rater with an evaluation can be: Task performance: using appraisal to maintain or enhance performance. Interpersonal: using appraisal to maintain or improve interpersonal relation. Strategic: using appraisal to enhance standing of the supervisor. Internalized: using appraisal to confirm the rater’s view of himself as a person of high standards. Organizational goals can be: Between-person uses: salary administration, promotion. Within-person uses: identification of training needs, performance feedback. Systems-maintenance uses: manpower planning, organizational development. Constructive criticism used to describe negative feedback but has a dark side. Destructive criticism is negative feedback that is cruel, sarcastic, and offensive. It usually is general rather than specific and often directed toward personal characteristics of the employee rater than job-relevant behaviors. For 360-degree feedback there are 5 guidelines these are available to learn on page 215. Reliability and validity of evaluation Inter-rater reliability is low. Different raters have different perspectives and combination of sources is needed to get a compete picture. Validity of evaluation requires including important aspects of work behavior, requires good scales and require training of raters. Module 7.1 Training is the systematic acquisition of skills that result in improved performance. Improvement of performance results from learning. Three broad categories of learning outcomes are: Cognitive outcome: knowledge of rules, facts and principles. Skill-based outcome: the development of motor or technical skills. Affective outcome: attitudes and beliefs that predispose a person to behave in a certain way. Before a training can be done a training needs analysis should be conducted to know where it is needed and how. This is normally a three-step process. The organizational analysis is a component that examines organizational goas, available resources, and the organizational environment. It helps to determine where training should be directed. The task analysis is a component that examines what employees must do to perform the job properly. The person analysis is a component that investigate where training is needed. The learning process in training Trainee readiness refers to whether the employees have the personal characteristics necessary to acquire knowledge from a training program and apply it to the job. Performance in training can be predicted by the general mental ability (“g”). “g” has a validity of +.56 in predicting training outcomes. An other indicator of trainee readiness is goal orientation. Individuals with a performance orientation are concerned about doing well in training and being evaluated positively. Mastery orientation means that individuals are concerned with increasing their competence for the task at hand. They view errors and mistakes as part of the learning process. If the trainee is low experienced he will benefit more from longer and more structured training so experience level is important. Trainee motivation is the extent to which trainees are interested in attending training, learning from training, and transferring the skills back to the job. Expectancy framework is an approach in which employees expectations about the relationship between how much effort they expend and how well they perform are important to their motivation and learning (so if too much time spend for too little performance than less motivation). Positive reinforcement occurs when desired behavior is followed by a reward, which increases the probability that the behavior will be repeated. This is part of the reinforcement theory. Cognitive and social learning theories Social learning theory is a cognitive theory that proposes that there are many ways to learn, including observational learning, which occurs when people watch someone perform a task and then rehearse those activities mentally until they have an opportunity to try them out. Part of the social learning theory is behavioral modeling. Behavioral modeling is a learning approach that consist of observing actual job incumbents who demonstrate positive modeling behaviors, rehearsing the behavior using a role-playing technique, receiving feedback on the rehearsal, and trying out the behavior on the job. Social learning theory is a broad approach including: Self-efficacy: belief in one’s capability to perform a specific task. Goal setting: motivational approach in which specific, difficult goals direct attention an improve performance int training and the job. Feedback: knowledge of the results of one’s action. Principles of learning Active practice is an approach that involves actively participating in a training or work task rather than passively observing. Automaticity is a result that occurs when tasks can be performed with limited attention when employee is overlearned. Likely to develop when learners are given extra learning opportunities after they have demonstrated mastery of a task. Fidelity is an extent to which the task trained is similar to the task required on the job. Physical fidelity: extent to which the training task mirrors the physical features of th task performed on the job. Psychological fidelity: extent to which the training task helps trainees to develop the knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAOs) necessary to perform the job. Whole learning is a training approach in which the entire task is practiced at once, effective with high relation between subtasks. Part learning is a training approach in which subtasks are practiced separately and later combined, effective when weak relation between subtasks. Massed practice is a conditions in which individuals practice a task continuously and without rest. Distributed practice is a condition that provides individuals with rest intervals between practice sessions, which are spaced over a longer period of time, results in more efficient learning. Learning organization is a company that emphasizes continuous learning, knowledge sharing, and personal mastery. 7.2 – Content and methods of training On-site training methods On-the-job training involves assigning trainees to jobs and encouraging them to observe and learn from more experienced employees. Apprenticeship is a formal program used to teach a skilled trade, this is a form of on-the-job training. Job rotation is an approach that involves moving employees to various departments or areas of company or to various jobs within a single department. Off-site training methods Classroom lecture is a training method in which the trainer communicates through spoken words and audiovisual materials what trainees are supposed to learn. Also commonly used to efficiently present a large amount of information to a large number of trainees. Programmed instruction is an approach in which trainees are given instructional materials in written or computer-based forms that positively reinforce them as they move through the material at their own pace. Linear programming is a type of programmed instruction in which all trainees proceed through the same material. Branching programming is a type of programmed instruction that provides a customized approach, enabling each learner to practice material he had difficulty with when it was first presented. A simulator is a teaching tool designed to reproduce the critical characteristics of the real world in a training setting that produces learning and transfer to the job. Distance learning & computer-based training Distance learning allows trainees to interact and communicate with an instructor by using audio and video links that allow for learning from a distant location. Blended learning is an instructional approach that uses distance learning in combination with face-to-face learning. Computer-based training is an instruction approach that includes, text, graphics, and animation presented via computer for the express purpose of teaching job-relevant knowledge and skills. Adaptive guidance is an instructional approach that provides trainees with information that helps them interpret their past performance and also determine what they should be studying and practicing to improve their future performance. Critical thinking skills are skills that require active involvement in applying the principles under discussion. For example in the army with a lot of stress you have to make decisions. Transfer of training Transfer of training is the degree to which trainees apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained in training to their jobs. Transfer of training climate are workplace characteristics that either inhibit or facilitate the transfer to the job of what has been learned in training like access to essential equipment or resources, adequate working conditions and regular feedback. A horizontal transfer is a transfer across different settings or context at the same level of the organization. Vertical transfer is a transfer across different levels of the organization. Concerned with the link between individual training outcomes and outcomes at higher levels of the organization, such as teams. Module 7.3 – Evaluating training programs Training evaluation is the systematic collection of descriptive and judgmental information that can be used to make effective training decisions. Training criteria Reaction criteria are measures of trainee impressions of the training program. Learning criteria are measures that assess how much was learned in the training program. Behavioral criteria are measure of how well the behaviors learned in training transfer to the job. Results criteria are measures of how well training can be related to organizational outcomes such as productivity gains, cost savings, error reductions, or increased customer satisfaction. Internal criteria are measures that assess trainee reactions to and learning in the training program. Generally assessed before trainees leave the training program. External criteria are measures that assess whether changes as a result of training occur when trainees are back on the job. Utility analysis is a technique that assesses the economic return on investment of human resource interventions such as staffing and training. Pretest-posttest control group design is a design that generally includes random assignment of participants to conditions, a control group, and measures obtained bot before and after training has occurred. One group is control group and the other group is the group who receives training. Before and after a test is conducted and this shows if the training was useful. 9.1 Work attitudes Job satisfaction is positive attitude or emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience. The Hawthome effect is a change in behavior or attitudes that was the simple result of increased attention. While changing light or brake time didn’t affect productivity. Attitude is a stable feeling or belief that are directed toward specific persons, groups or objects. Job satisfaction depends on the antecedents, the correlates arise simultaneously when the job is satisfying and consequences come from high job satisfaction. Overall satisfaction is overall assessment of job satisfaction that results from mathematically combining scores. Facet satisfaction, also called facet level is the level of satisfaction on several aspects of the job but separated. So not an overall measurement but parts of the job are measured for satisfaction. Measurement of satisfaction Job Descriptive Index (JDI) assesses satisfaction with five distinct areas: the work itself, supervision, people, pay, and promotion. Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (MSQ) is a commonly used job satisfaction instrument that assesses particular aspects of work as well as scores for extrinsic satisfaction and intrinsic satisfaction. Extrinsic satisfaction is satisfaction that derives from aspects extrinsic, or external, to job tasks, such as pay or benefits. Intrinsic satisfaction is satisfaction that derives from aspects central, or intrinsic, to the job itself, sch as responsibility. Commitment is a psychological and emotional attachment an individual feels to a relationship, organization. Affective commitment is an emotional attachment to an organization, continuance commitment is the perceived cost of leaving an organization (so knowing what you leave) and normative commitment is an obligation to remain in an organization. Occupational commitment is commitment to a particular occupational field, includes affective, continuance and normative commitment. Job embeddedness is the many and varied types of commitment that individuals feel toward co-workers, teams, organization. Organizational identification (OID) is the process whereby individuals derive a feeling of pride and esteem from their association with an organization. Individuals may also wake pains to distance themselves from the organization for which they work also called organizational disidentification (you don’t feel identical to company). See page 347. Employee engagement is a positive work-related state of mind that includes high levels of energy, enthusiasm and identification with work. 9.2 – moods and emotions Mood is a generalized state of feeling not identified with particular stimulus and not sufficiently intense so interrupt ongoing thought processes. Emotion is an effect or feeling, often experience and displayed in reaction to an event or thought and accompanied by physiological changes in various systems of the body and can interrupt ongoing thought processes. Affect circumplex is a figure in which opposite emotions appear directly across from each other in the circle. Process emotion is a reaction that results form consideration of the tasks one is currently doing. Prospective emotion is a reaction that results from a consideration of the tasks one anticipates doing (going to do). Retrospective emotion is a reaction that results form a consideration of the task one has already completed. Negative affectivity (NA) is disposition wherein individuals are prone to experience a diverse array of negative mood states. Positive affectivity (PA) is a disposition in which individuals are prone to describe themselves as happy. Emotions can come from: External events Predispositions o Neuroticism – negative effect (het glas is half leeg) o Extraversion – positive effect (het glas is half vol) Core self-evaluations o Self-esteem, zelfvertrouwen. o Self-efficacy, knowing that you can. o Locus of control, you can influence everything it is not luck. o Low neuroticism Withdrawal behaviors are absenteeism, turnover, tardiness and retirement can lead to withdrawal. Work withdrawal is an action that represent an attempt by the individual to withdraw from work but maintain ties to the organization and the work role (absenteeism). Job withdrawal is an action that represent an individual willingness to sever (verbreken) ties to an organization and the work role (quitting, retirement). 10.1 – stress Fight-or-flight reaction is an adaptive response to stressful situations exhibited by humans in which they choose to either fight or escape. Eustress is a type of stress that provides challenges that motivate individuals to work hard and meet their goals. Distress is a type of stress resulting form chronically demanding situations that produces negative health outcomes. General adaptation syndrome (GAS) is a identical response to almost any disease or trauma. Alarm reaction is a stage of the general adaptation syndrome in which the body mobilizes resources to cope with added stress. Stress hormone is a chemical released in the body when a person encounters stressful situations. Resistance is a stage of the GAS in which the body copes with the original source of stress but resistance to other stressors is lowered. Exhaustion is a stage of GAS in which overall resistance drops and adverse consequences can result unless stress is reduced. Problem-focused coping is a type of coping directed at managing or altering a problem causing the stress. Emotion-focused coping is a type of coping directed at reducing the emotional response to a problem by avoiding the problem. Stressor A stressor is a physical or psychological demand to which an individual responds. Strains is a reaction or response to stressors. Psychological stressors Lack of control can make a employee feel stressed. Giving more autonomy and the ability to plan your work will give more control and the perception of control changes. Interpersonal conflict can relate to stress. This is negative interaction with co-workers, supervisors which can rang e from heated arguments to subtle incidents of unfriendly behavior. Role stressors is a collective term for stressors resulting from the multiple task requirements. The role is the expectations regarding the responsibilities and requirements of a particular job. Role ambiguity is a stressor that occurs when employees lack clear knowledge of what behavior is expected in their job. Role conflict is a stressor that occurs when demands from different sources are incompatible. Role overload is a stressor that occurs when an individual is expected to fulfill too many roles at the same time. Another thing related to stress is work-family conflict. It is a situation that occurs when workers experience when they have not enough time for both. Emotional labor Emotional labor is a regulation of one’s emotions to meet job demands. Can be achieved through surface acting and deep acting. Surface acting is emotional labor that consists of managing or faking one’s expressions or emotions. Deep acting is emotional labor that consists of managing one’s feeling including emotions required by the job. Challenge-related stressors are work demands that have gains for individuals but can be stressful. Hindrance-related stressors are job demands that tend to limit individuals work achievement. A burnout is a extreme state of psychological strain resulting from a prolonged response to chronic job stressors that exceed an individual’s resources to cope with them. Emotional exhaustion is a burnout that occurs when individuals feel emotionally drained by work. Depersonalization is a burnout that occurs when individuals become hardened by their job and tend to treat clients like objects. Low personal accomplishment is a burnout in which individuals feel they cannot deal with problems effectively and understand or identify with other problems. Work schedules Shift work is scheduling work into temporal shifts. Is common in particular occupational groups such as nurses. Circadian cycle is the 24h cycle with people sleeping and being active while it’s light outside. Fixed shift is a particular shift that is permanently assigned to a worker. Rotating shift is a shift that changes over a certain period of time. Flextime is a schedule in which individuals choose their own times to work. A compressed workweek is a schedule that permits an employee to work for longer than eight hours a day and fewer than five days a week. 10.2 – Theories of stress The demand-control model is a model suggesting that two factors are prominent in producing job stress: job demands (the workload of the job) and job control (the combination of autonomy in the job and discretion (beschikking) for using different skills). Person-environment fit model the extent to which a person experiences stress is dependent upon the fit between person and environment. Person-job (P-J) fit is extent to which the skills and interest of individual are compatible with the job. Person-organization (P-O) fit is extent to which the values of an employee are equal to the values of most other employees. Type a behavior pattern (TABP) is a set of characteristics exhibited by individuals who are engaged in a chronic struggle to obtain an unlimited number of poorly defined things from their environment in the shortest period of time. Coronary-prone personality is an alternative name given to TABP because of its links to the coronary heart disease and heart attack. Hostility (feeling) is a subcomponent of TABP with increased secretion of stress hormones. Achievement striving (AS) is the tendency to active and to work hard in achieving one’s goal (subcomponent of TABP). Impatience is a subcomponent of TABP that reflects intolerance and frustration resulting from being slowed down. Time urgency is a TABP behavior pattern that refers to the feeling of being pressured by inadequate time. 10.3 – reducing and managing stress Occupational health psychology is the area of psychology that involves the improvement of quality o work life and protecting wellbeing of workers. Primary prevention strategies are stress prevention strategies concerned with modifying or eliminating stressors in the work environment. Secondary prevention strategies are aimed at stress response so if people are stressed. Tertiary prevention strategies aimed at stress consequences (people with burnout) to get people back to work. Cognitive restructuring is a type of stress intervention that focuses on changing perceptions and thought processes that lead to stress. Stress management training is a program useful for helping employees deal with workplace stressors that are difficult to remove. Part of this is stress inoculation which usually combines primary and secondary prevention strategies. Progressive muscle relaxation is stress relieve by relaxing the muscles. Biofeedback is stress management technique that teaches individuals to control certain body functions such as heart rate. Social support is the comfort an individual receives through formal or informal contacts with individuals. Buffer hypothesis is a hypothesis that social support moderates or reduces health problems by protecting individuals from the negative effects of work stressors. Employee assistance programs (EAPs) are counseling provided by an organization to deal with workplace stress. 11.1 – Justice and fairness Trust is the belief in how a person or an organization will act on some future occasion based upon previous interactions with that person or organization. There are three types of organizational justice: Distributive justice is the perceived justice of the rewards allocated to organizational members. Three types are: o Merit: Fairness based on the view that those who work hardest or produce the most get the best reward. o Equality: Everyone should get the same reward as all persons are the same. o Need: Definition of fairness based on the view that people should get rewards in proportion to their needs. Procedural justice is not about the rewards but about if the process by which rewards are assigned is fair. o Voice: is having the possibility to have objection to the process. Interactional justice o Interpersonal: the extent to which employees are treated respectfully. o Informational: justice of communication concerning procedures and results. 12.1 – the concept of leadership Leadership effectiveness is a study of which behaviors on the part of a designated leader led to an outcome valued by the work group or organization. A leader is an individual in a group given the task of directing task-relevant group activities or, in the absence of a designated leader. Carrying the primary responsibility for performing these functions in the group. They are emotionally stable, extravert, open to experience and a visionary. Attempted leadership is a situation that occurs when a leader accepts the goal of changing a follower and can be observed attempting to do so. Successful leadership is a situation that occurs when a follower changes his or her behavior as a function of the leader’s effort. Effective leadership is a situation that occurs when a leader changes a follower’s behavior, resulting in both leader and follower feeling satisfied and effective. Leader development is a process that concentrates on developing, maintaining or enhancing individual leader attributes such as knowledge, skills, and abilities. Leadership development is a process that concentrates on the leader-follower relationship and on developing an environment in which the leader can build relationships that enhance cooperation and resource exchange. Interpersonal competence is a type of competence that includes social awareness and social skills, such as the ability to resolve conflict and foster a spirit of cooperation. The motivation to lead Power motive is the desire to attain control or power that results form people learning that the exercise of control over others or the environment is pleasing. Activity inhibition is a psychological term used to describe a person who is not impulsive. Affiliation need is a need for approval or connections with others. Leadership motivation: Affective-identity motive: is the need for power and control. Instrumental motive: personal advantages when being the leader. Social-normative motive: being unselfish and feeling a duty to be a leader to save the world. A bad leader Destructive leadership is a bad leader. Three terms are tyrannical, derailed and supportive – disloyal. A tyrannical leader is a leader who is great at achieving the company goal but does it in a very not social way and not pleasant. A derailed leader exhibits behavior himself that is out of bounds so like fraud. The supportive – disloyal leader violate the company rules and for examples gives big bonus to employees. 12.2 – traditional theories of leadership The great man theories is a leadership theory developed by historians who examined the life of a respected leader for clues leading to the person’s greatness. Trait approach is the leadership theory that attempted to show that leaders possessed certain characteristics that non leaders did not. Power approach is the leadership theory that examines the types of power wielded by leaders. Types of power are: Reward power: the potential of a supervisor to dispense valued rewards. Coercive power: the potential of a supervisor to dispense punishment.  Legitimate power: the right of a supervisor to influence a subordinate and the obligation of the subordinate to accept. Referent power: the desire of the subordinate to be like the supervisor. Expert power: the knowledge of the supervisor. The behavioral approach begun by researchers at Ohio. It is a leadership theory that focused on the kinds of behavior engaged in by people in leadership roles and identified two major types: consideration and initiating structure. Consideration is a type of behavior that includes behavior indicating mutual trust, respect, and a certain warmth and rapport between the supervisor and group. Initiating structure is a type of behavior that includes behavior in which the supervisor organizes and defines group activities and his or her relation to the group. Task-oriented behavior (similar to initiating structure)and relations-oriented behavior (similar to consideration) are important behaviors identified by university of Michigan. The participative behavior is a behavior identified by the Michigan studies that allows subordinates more participation in decision making and encourages more two-way communication. The contingency approach is a leadership theory proposed to take into account the role of the situation in the exercise of leadership. Job maturity is a subordinate’s job-related ability, skills, and knowledge. Psychological maturity is the self-confidence and self-respect of the subordinate. 12.3 Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory proposes that leaders adopt different behaviors with individual subordinates. The particular behavior pattern of the leader develops over time and depends to a large extent on the quality of the leader subordinates relationship. In- group members are people who have high-quality relationships with their leader and high latitude for negotiating their work roles. Out-group members are people who have low- quality relationships with their leader and little latitude for negotiating their work roles. The life cycle of a leaders follower relationship is a description of more recent versions of the LMX theory, which includes a dynamic process in which the task of the leader is to drive the relationship from a tentative first-stage relationship to a deeper, more meaningful one. Transformational leadership Transformational leadership is a leadership theory that describes the behavior of inspirational political leaders who transform their followers by appealing to nobler motives such as justice, morality and peace. Transactional leadership is a leader that shows followers how they can meet their personal goals by adopting a particular behavior pattern. The leader develops social contracts with followers in which certain behaviors will be rewarded. Transformational leaders typically use one of the four general strategies: Idealized influence: Leaders display conviction, emphasize trust, take stands on difficult issues, emphasize the importance of commitment and purpose, and are aware of the ethical consequences of their decisions. Inspirational motivation: Leaders articulate an appealing vision of the future, challenge followers with high standards, talk optimistically with enthusiasm, and provide encouragement and meaning for what needs to be done. Intellectual stimulation: Leaders question old assumptions, values, and beliefs. Stimulate new ways of doing things, and encourage expression of ideas and reason.  Individualized consideration: Leaders deal with others as individuals. They consider individual needs, abilities, and aspirations. Listen attentively and advise, coach and teach. Laissez-faire leadership is that a leaders provides little guidance to their followers. This is the lowest level of leadership. The full-range theory of leadership is a hierarchical model that ranges from laissez-faire leadership through transactional leadership to transformation leadership. Multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ) is a self-report instrument used in the development and validation of the theory of transformational leadership. Authentic leadership is a leadership style that emphasizes the genuineness and integrity of the leader, usually accompanied by a life story. Charisma is a personal attribute of a leader that hypnotizes followers and compels them to identify with and attempt to emulate the leader. Charismatic leaders is a leader that has followers who are emotionally attached to this leader. They never question the leader’s beliefs and see themselves as integral to the accomplishment of the leader’s goals. Charismatic leadership theory is an approach to leadership theory with many different versions of the notion that charisma is related to leadership. In one version, in a crisis situation, followers perceive charismatic characteristics in an individual and accept that person as a leader. In another version certain leader behaviors continue to a charismatic aura. For more information on group decision making watch 1JV00 lecture 07B from 15:00 minutes. 13.1 - Types of teams A team is an interdependent collection of individuals who work together toward a common goal and who share responsibility for specific outcomes for their organizations. There are three different ways in how a team can work: Pooled: everyone works independently and results are combined. Sequential: output of previous tasks are needed to perform the next task. They build on each other. Reciprocal: output of each task is needed to perform the other task. All team members use each other out and input. So not one way like sequential. Type of teams: Quality circles are work group arrangements that typically involves 6 to 12 employees who meet regularly to identify work-related problems and generate ideas to increase productivity or product quality. In the beginning many problems are solved but later when almost everything is already solved the effectiveness lowers (honeymoon effect). Project team is a team that is created to solve a particular problem or set of problems and is disbanded after the project is competed or the problem is solved, it’s called a cross-functional team. The autonomous work group is a specific kind of production team that has control over a variety of functions including planning shift operations, allocating work etc. Higher job satisfaction but more turnover and absenteeism. Virtual teams are teams that have widely dispersed members working together toward a common goal and linked through computers and other technology. So the employees can work in China or the US. There are challenges like time difference or culture difference. Virtual-collaboration behaviors are behaviors that characterize virtual team interaction, including exchanging ideas without criticism, agreeing on responsibilities and meeting deadlines. Virtual-socialization skills are skills used in virtual team interactions, including soliciting team members’ feedback on the work process used to accomplish team goals, expressing appreciation for ideas and completed tasks, and apologizing for mistakes. Virtual-communication skills are skills used in virtual team interactions, including rephrasing unclear sentences or expressions so that all team members understand what is being said. 13.2 – input process-output model The input-process-output model of team effectiveness is a model that provides links among team inputs, process, and outputs, thereby enabling an understanding of how teams perform and how to maximize their performance. Team composition is the attributes of team members, including skills and personality. Shared mental model is an organized way for team members to think about how the team will work. Helps team members understand and predict the behavior of their teammates. Team diversity/team input Demographic diversity is differences in observable attributes or demographic characteristics such as age, gender. Psychological diversity is differences in underlying attributes such as skills, abilities personality and characteristics. Communication is important and coordination losses are reduced group performance that occurs when team members expend their energies in different directions or fail to synchronize or coordinate their work. Social loafing is reduced motivation and performance in groups that occurs when there is a reduced feeling of individual accountability or a reduced opportunity for evaluation of individual performance. If the team is very close then the cohesion is high and this is the degree to which team members desire to stay together. Group thinking is a mode of thinking that group members engage in when they are deeply involved in cohesive group and when their desire for agreement overrides their motivation to appraise alternative courses of action realistically. Group polarization is the tendency for groups to make more extreme decisions than those made by individuals. This is also called risky-shift phenomenon. 11.3 – diversity Relational demography is the relative makeup of various demographic characteristics in particular work groups. When managing diversity from the organizational perspective there are a few models: Assimilation model: model for addressing diversity that recruits, selects, trains employees so that they share the same values and culture. (nowadays ineffective). Protection model is the model for addressing diversity that identifies disadvantaged and underrepresented groups and provides special protections for them. (nowadays ineffective). Value model is the model for addressing diversity in which each element of an organization is valued for what it uniquely brings to the organization. Inclusion is the degree to which individuals feel safe, valued, and able to be authentic at work both as individuals and as members of various groups. 13.3 – special issues in teams Cross-training is training that involves rotating team members through different positions on the team so that they can acquire an understanding of the duties of their teammates and an overview of the team’s task. Team leader training is training of the team’s leader in conflict resolution ad team coordination. Guided team self-correction training is a team training intervention in which team members learn to diagnose the team’s problems and develop effective solutions. Team coordination training is a training that involves teaching team members about sharing information, managing conflict, solving problems, and making decisions. Used to help team members learn to employ the resources of the entire team effectively. The time horizon is a cultural dimension that affects whether managers and employees focus on short-term or long-term goals. 14.1 – conceptual and theoretical foundations of organizations Organization is a group of people who have common goals and who follow a set of operating procedures to develop products and services. The first grand theory is Taylorism and is officially called scientific management. Taylor rejected the notion that manufacturing could only be performed by manual labor and according to him, these production methods were highly inefficient and could benefit when the execution of work is divided. So a collection of a large group does something together. So division of labor is very important. This is division of tasks within a organization. Taylor simplified work by standardization. Span of control is a concept that describes the number of positions or people reporting to a single individual – the width – in an organization. A narrow span means tight leadership (supervision) and many managerial layers. Wider span means loose leadership (support) and few managerial layers. An organizational chart shows the organization’s structure. Centralization means that the decision-making power is concentrated within a group in the organization. Decentralization means that the decision-making power is distributed across the organization so more people can decide. Formalization is the extend in which protocols are in place. The classic organizational theory assumes there is one best configuration for an organization, regardless of its circumstances, places a premium on control of individual behavior by the organization. The human relations theory adds a personal or human element to the study of organizations. Considers the interrelationship between an organization’s requirements and the characteristics of its members. Theory X is a theory developed by McGregor to describe managers who believe subordinates must be controlled to meet organizational ends. Theory Y is developed by McGregor to describe managers who believe subordinates are motivated to meet goals in the absence of organizational controls. The contingency theory of organization are theories proposing that the best way to structure an organization depends on circumstance of the organization. Joan Woodward saw three types of organizations: Small-batch organization: organization that produces specialty products one at a time. Large-batch and mass-production organization: produces large numbers of discrete units. Continuous-process organization: organization that depends on a continuous process for output or product. Mechanistic organization is an organization that depends on formal rules and regulations, makes decisions at higher levels of the organization, and has small spans of control. Organic organization is an organization with a large span of control, less formalized procedures, and decision making at middle levels. Sociotechnical systems is the second grand theory (Taylor is first). It is a strong propagandist of a minimal division of labor. Autonomy and performance is put central. Integration of thinking and doing is important. It has many self-managed teams with members who share leadership responsibility and are responsible for achieving goals. A spaghetti organization is an organization without any formal hierarchy. There are no individual working spaces. People work with many people and ideas can spread through the company as you work with everyone. 14.2 – organizational theory, dynamics, and change Climate is a shared perception among employees regarding their work entity: a particular organization, division, department, or work group. Autocratic climate is an organizational climate described by Lewin as highly structured with little opportunity for individual responsibility or risk taking at the lowest levels. An democratic climate is an organizational climate that is less structured, with greater opportunity for individual responsibility and risk taking. National culture is the culture of a country while the organizational culture is the culture of a company. The national culture model consist of four dimensions: Power distance: if low power distance then people want to equalize the distribution of power. If high power distance then people accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and expect that power in distributed unequally. Individualism (vs. collectivism): people take care for themselves and collectivism is that you care for each other in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. Masculinity (vs. femininity): the society is competitive and want to win and achieve things. Femininity stands for cooperation and work together. Uncertainty avoidance: the degree to which the members of society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. When a culture relies heavily on subtle cues and non-verbal behavior in communication that is called high context culture. If cultures rely on language to communicate it’s called low context cultures. Organizational culture The dominant culture has core values that are shared by the majority of the members of the organization. Sub cultures are mini-cultures within an organization, in general determined by the department and geographical characteristics. Core values are the dominant values that are accepted by the entire organization. When there is a strong culture then the dominant values are widely supported. Socialization is the process by which a new employee becomes aware of the values and procedures of an organization. Different stages of socialization are: Pre-arrival stage (anticipatory socialization): before entering the organization. Encounter stage (breaking in): the stage in which a new employee experiences the values and finds out whether expectations are reality. Metamorphosis stage (setting in): the stage in which a new employee accepts the norms, values, and beliefs of the organization. An organizational climate concerns the context where the activities are created. The main focus is perception. It’s created on the lower levels by managers. Organizational culture concerns the values. The main focus is believes. The culture is created from the higher levels in the organization. Realistic job preview (RJP) is a technique for providing practical information about a job to prospective employees. Includes information about the task and context of the work. Attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) model is a model that proposes that organizations and individuals undergo a process of jointly assessing probable fit based primarily on personality characteristics. Through a process of attraction, selection, and attrition, the goal is to make the workforce homogeneous with respect to personality characteristics. 14.3 – Organizational development and change Kurt Lewin introduced a model to change an organization. Step one is unfreezing: individuals become aware of their values and beliefs and they accept the change, step two is changing: individuals adopt new values, beliefs, and attitudes and step three is refreezing: new attitudes and values of individuals are stabilized. This is the unfreeze-change-refreeze model. There are two types of change. Episodic change is characterized as infrequent and intentional. Often launched with fanfare, with senior leaders clearly articulating pathways to change and disseminating information about the process and desired end state. Ex) move from one to another building (radical change). This change can be very stressful and time- urgent. Continuous change is ongoing, evolving and cumulative organizational change characterized by small continuous adjustments, created simultaneously across units, that add up to substantial change. Ex) slowly optimizing, or growth of human. Often not planned. The unfreeze-change-refreeze model is not good for continuous change. Continuous change can use the unfreeze-rebalance-refreeze model. Rebalance is the stage intended to reframe what has happened and produce a cognitive framework that gives change deeper meaning. Two types of resistance are: organizational resistance (threats to the power balance, resource allocation) and individual resistance (fear for losing job, fear for other tasks, social relations). Organizational development (OD) is a tool-box of various methods for initiating and guiding organizational change processes. (intervention techniques). Six Sigma systems is an approach to quality management that provides training for employees and managers in statistical analysis, project management, and problem-solving methods in order to reduce the defect rate of products. Lean production is a method that focus on reducing waste in every form, including overproduction, lengthy waiting times for materials excessive transportation costs unnecessary stock and defective products. The total quality management (TQM) is a unique way of organizing productive effort by emphasizing team-based behavior directed toward improving quality and meeting customer demands. A form of a life cycle graph is called a sigmoid curve. The growth period is the best time to change things within the company as there is a high expectancy for growth still. Just-in-time (JIT) is a system that depends on the detailed tracking of materials and production so that the materials and human resources necessary for production arrive just in time. Central to the reduction of waste in lean production processes. Job characteristics model Improving the five core job dimensions this increases critical psychological states and personal an word outcomes.