Textiles - Handout PDF

# Lanka Institute of Fashion Technology ## Textiles ### Diploma in Fashion Design ## Fibre - Fibre is the basic building block of all textiles. - Fibres are tiny, hair-like strands that are combined to create yarn and fabric. ### Types of Fibre - **Staple:** Short strands. - Cotton is up to 6...

# Lanka Institute of Fashion Technology ## Textiles ### Diploma in Fashion Design ## Fibre - Fibre is the basic building block of all textiles. - Fibres are tiny, hair-like strands that are combined to create yarn and fabric. ### Types of Fibre - **Staple:** Short strands. - Cotton is up to 6 cm (2 1/2 in.) long and stem fibre (flax) is even longer. - High-quality staple fibre is finer and longer, and low-quality staple fibre is coarser and shorter. - **Filament:** Continuous strands. - High-quality filament fibre is usually finer and stronger, but quality is mostly determined by the end use of the fibre. ### Fibre Supply Chain - The fibre supply chain for fabric is complex, including the resources needed for natural fibre and for manufactured fibre. - This complexity makes the transparency of the textile industry for social and environmental concerns difficult to maintain. ### Social and Environmental Impact - **Water Use:** Cotton accounts for nearly half of global fibre production and uses large amounts of water compared to other natural fibres. - Approximately one-third of the cotton harvest is usable. - Hemp, bamboo and flax (linen) use less water and have a higher yield than cotton. - **Energy Use:** Manufactured fibre consumes large amounts of energy in production, but little water. - Fibre production is very efficient, however. - **Emissions Generated:** Crop chemicals and manufactured fibre production generate emissions that are unhealthy to breathe. - Crop emissions are unregulated by clean air monitors, while manufactured fibre-mill emissions are controlled. ### Conservation of Fibre Supply - Innovations in fibre, especially how to recover fibre already produced, must be utilized by designers. - These innovations to recover fibre should be integrated into their work. - **Mechanical Reuse of Fibre:** Cut cotton fabric waste is now collected and made into new yarns and fabric. - Wool fabrics have been recycled into new products for generations. - **Recycling into New, High-Quality Fibre:** All polyester and certain nylon fibre can be chemically recycled into new high-quality fibre. - Designers should create garments that can be collected; easily deconstructed and turned into new, high-quality fibre by fibre mills. ### Classification of Fibres - Fibres are classified into natural, animal, and man-made fibers. - Each fiber has its own content. #### Natural Fibres - Are vegetable fibers and animal fibers, their main content will be cellulose or protein. #### Man-made fibers - Known as synthetic fibers. #### Cellulose Fiber - These fibers have cellulose which is the principal matter of plant cell. - Cellulose is a complex compound made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. - Cellulose is very sensitive to action of mineral acid and oxidizing. - It is quite resistant to alkalis like caustic soda at high temp and pressure. - Cotton, hemp, Ramie, and Flax contain large amounts of cellulose. - They wrinkle easily because of high absorbency, they are comfortable for summer. #### Animal Fiber - Animal fiber can be destroyed by concentrated mineral acid but the specific action of dilute acid is not harmful, alkalis have harmful effect on both wool (loosg 40% strength) and silk (looses 15% in wet condition). - Wool is soft and fuzzy, silk is light and lustrous. - Wool and silk are obtained from animal and they have protein as one of the chief content. - These are bad conductor of heat and built up static electricity in cold and dry climate #### Man-Made - These do not occur in fiber form but have turned into fibers by man, by breaking down the origin form and reassemble into different sort of structure. ### Identification of fibres - There are different types of fibers which can be identified by different tests. - Some tests may require a lab and some can be conducted without them. - But while identifying one must be careful not to get confused as man has started producing fibers similar to natural fibers. #### Tests to Identify Fibres 1. **Labels:** If labels are given about the fiber and the wash and care of fabric, the consumer is well equipped to recognize the textile fibers. 2. **Visual inspection:** The first step in identifying of fibers is always inspection of fabric for appreance and feels on the hand. - Take the fabric in-between the thumb and the index finger and rub the fabric in circular and in lengthwise and feel the surface its smooth or ruff. - Vegetable fibers are cool than animal or synthetic fibers, cotton fabric without finish is lifeless and hard, silk is soft. - Its difficult to identify fabric by mere touch because the type of yarn used finishes and construction can change the feel of the fabric. 3. **Sense Of Sight:** This should be combined with visual inspection and observe for luster, sheen brightness flatness of the fabric. 4. **Breaking Test:** (For cotton and linen) - Take 2 pieces of fabric unravel the fibers and wet it and hold it with 2 hands and then break it and observe the ends of the yarns if its fluffy then its cotton and if its pointed then its linen. 5. **Moisture test:** (For cotton and linen) - Take 2 pieces of cotton and linen then drop one drop of water and observe linen picks up water more than cotton. 6. **Tearing Test:** (For cotton and linen) - Take cotton and linen fabric and tear them, linen produces more sound than cotton,And linen requires strength than cotton to tear. 7. **Microscopic Test:** - This is a test conducted with the help of a lab by using a microscope. - Take a few fibers and a water or glycerol in the ratio of 1:10 and keep it on a glass slide and mount it on the microscope and observe it with high and low power. - **Wool:** In this two distinct layers are seen and the upper layer has over lapping and scales and the inner layer continues as a rod with pure fluid. - **Silk:** Cultivated or wild silk will show different result, The raw silk will show double rod like covered with lumps of gum, Wild silk is broader and flat and uneven in width and shows characteristic marking. - **Cotton:** It appears as a hollow tube like structure with hollow tube with a thin cell wall. Flattened and twisted under high microscope fiber show a central canal surrounded by a wall made of concentric layers. - **Linen:** When seen under high power shows a thick wall with narrow central canal and a Peculiar marking called as knodes as seen in the bamboo plant. - **Nylon:** Fibers are very fine, round, smooth and transparent. - **Dacron:** Fibers are straight, smooth and perfect round it has a speckled appearance. ### Textile Fibres - A diagram of textile fibres showing the different fibre classifications is provided. - **Natural Fibres:** - **Animal Fibres (protein-based):** Wool, Mohair, Cashmere, Alpaca, Angora, Silk. - **Plant Fibres (cellulose-based):** Cotton, Linen, Bamboo linen, Hemp, Ramie, Jute. - **Man-made Fibres:** - **From Natural Polymers:** Derived from protein-based animal sources, Derived from cellulose-based plant sources, Milk protein Fibre, Crab fibre, Collagen. - **From Synthetic Polymers:** Polester, Polyamide, Polypropelene, Polyurethane, Elastane, PVC, Nylon, Acrylic. ### Microscopic Image - A microscopic image of two different fibres, wool (light brown) and synthetic (red), shows differences in fibre surface texture and shape. - These and other distinguishing features create the different fibre characteristics described in the fibre charts over the page. ### Special Identification Test 1. **Physical Test:** Take out a yarn from the fabric, unravel and note the length of the fiber; the length will help to identify weather it's a staple or a filament and when this test is combined with visual and sense of sight the consumer is able to identify the fiber better. 2. **Burning Test:** To identify fabric that is unknown a simple burning test can be conducted to determine if its natural or man made or blend. While conducting this test one must be very cautious and always hold the fiber with a tweezer and not to burn the fingers. Burn the fiber over a metal dish with water. But be away or it may cause serious burns. The following are the burning test | S.no | Name of the fiber | How it burns | Amount of ash | Odour | Type of Flame | |---|---|---|---|---|---| | 1 | Cotton (Its is a vegetable fiber) | It burns steadily | Ash left is easily crumble, soft greyash, smooth edge | Burning leaves | Hot flame and destroys the fabric | | 2 | Linen (It is a vegetable fiber) | It take time to ignite | Ash left is brittle | Burning paper | Hot flame extinguished by blowing | | 3 | Silk (Animal fiber) | Burns readily | Ash is easily crumble | Burning hair | Not eaxily extinguished | | 4 | Wool | Difficult to burn | Ash is easily crumble | Burning hair | Flame is steady | | 5 | Acetate(man made) | Ash is hard | Burning hair | Flame is flickering can be extinguished | | 6 | Cellulose Acrylic | Burns readily | Ash is readily hard | Smell wood | Hot flame will start burning at once | | 7 | Nylon (Polyamide made out of petroleum)| Melts and melts | Smell Plastic or harsh | Flame remains and melts the fiber | | 8 | Polyester (Made out of petroleum coal air and water ) | Burns readily | Ash can bond to any surface | Sweetish smell | Flame is black smoke melts and burns | | 9 | Cellulose Rayon | Burns readily | Slight ash | Burning leaves | Hot flame | | 10 | Glass and asbestos | Do not burn at all | | | | ### Cotton Fibre - Cotton is one of the most practical of all natural fibres, and its versatility makes it relevant to myriad marketing possibilities, from the most value-driven price categories through to cutting-edge designer fashion. - It may be woven or knitted, and appear superfine and as gossamer light as voile, or almost silky and drapable, lending it a luxurious personality. - Conversely, its perennial appeal can be expressed by hardwearing canvas-type weaves or drill constructions, which provide the ultimate democratic classic fashion fabrics. ### Carded or Combed Cotton - Carded cotton has undergone only the most basic process of brushing raw or washed fibres to prepare them for spinning and will give a relatively 'raw' touch to the fabric. - Cotton fibres that have been additionally processed by combing will provide a smoother finish to the resulting fabric. ### Luxury Cotton - Luxury cotton is defined as cotton with characteristics far superior to those of the standard varieties and finishes. - A longer-staple fibre tends to be more desirable, as it is smoother and finer to the touch. - Egyptian-Sea Island-Pima-Supima®: These four terms are prefixes that denote traditionally luxurious and fine-quality extra-long-staple cotton. - Cotton Lisle-Mercerized Cotton: These are two terms that refer to treatments applied to the cotton yarn and/or fabric. They achieve a smoother, finer and more lustrous, almost silk-like appearance that renders the garment cooler and more comfortable to wear. - **Filo di Scozia®** - This registered trademark represents the highest grade of cotton fabric or yarn. It is long-staple, combed, two-ply cotton that has been double-mercerized. - It has the uniquely luxurious characteristics of surface brilliance, softness and a silky touch. - **Cotton Cupro:** - Cupro is pure organic cellulose fibres reborn from the discarded linters that are part of processing cotton. - It makes a perfect lightweight lining and is far cooler to wear than both silk and man-made linings. ### Processing Cotton - From raw material to finished yarn and fabric - **Cultivating/Harvesting** - Modular bales - In the field - **Ginning Seed Cotton** - Fibres separated from seed pods, linters and unwanted matter - Usable cotton = about 35% of pre-ginned weight - Cleaned cotton referred to as lint cotton - Fibre classification for pricing purposes - **Spinning Mills** - Further cleaning processes to form batts - Carding to produce slivers then combined to equalize thicker and thinner parts to consistent size. - Rovings then spun into yarn - Optional combing processes - **Fabric Mills** - (Weaving/Knitting) ### Linen Fibre - Linen reflects a heritage and an aspirational lifestyle that speaks of refinement and quality. - Linen has been highly valued for many centuries for its incomparable handle and unique visual appeal. - It embodies a desirable, authentic, low-key luxury that continues to transcend the vagaries of fast fashion. - Linen fibre possesses unique practical properties that make it the supreme choice for comfort in hot weather. Its cool, absorbent properties are well recognized the world over and are unparalleled by any other natural fibre. Pure linen will always endure in contemporary fashion. Its natural creasing lends clothing made from it an unmistakable character. - Linen is the yarn and fabric made from the fibres of the stem of the flax plant. - After the impurities have been removed, the fibre becomes hygroscopic, absorbing up to 20 per cent of its weight in moisture or perspiration, which it quickly releases into the atmosphere, making it dry to the touch. - The fibre does not lock in or trap air or have any insulative properties, allowing the wearer to feel cool. - It is thermo-regulating, encouraging the body to acclimatize in hot environments. It is lint-free and does not pill. - Linen for clothing has traditionally been made from a plain-weave construction. - This tends to create a lighter-weight fabric than other weaves of similar yarn and thread count, therefore making the fabric better suited to hot climates. - Contemporary linen may be woven or knitted in similar ways to any cotton fabric; however, traditional weaves tend to prevail, as is reflected in these swatches. #### Flax Harvesting - Scutching Mills: - Rippling = removes seeds - Retting = separates fibres from stalks - Threshing = extracts long-line fibres - Hackling and drafting = combs out short fibres (tow) untangles and processes into slivers then into roves - Tow spinning (short fibres) - Scutched flax spinning (long-line fibres) - Knitting or weaving ### Wool - Wool is the ultimate natural chameleon fibre, embodying many diverse characteristics. - Wool can be satisfyingly soft, warm, cosy and sensuous, or rugged, tough and functional, while its inherent drapability allows its finest fibres to appear lustrous, sleek and elegant. - Our relationship with this historic fibre is almost as old as civilization itself, and wool's unique, thermally responsive and insulating qualities remain as relevant today as at any time in history. #### Wool Classes - Prior to spinning, wool is separated and graded into different quality classification categories known as wool classes. - The diameter of the fibre is measured in microns and is the principal component in determining the classification category. - Generally, anything under 25 microns is used for light clothing, while medium grades are used for heavy outerwear and coarse grades for rugs. - In tailoring-fabric terms, the prefix super refers to fabric that has been woven from yarns counted as 100 or more. - Therefore a super 120s fabric has been woven from finer yarns than a super 110s fabric. - The finer the wool count the softer the fabric is to the touch. #### Shearing and Classifying - Referred to as grease wool throughout these stages - Shearing - Removal of foreign matter - Classification for quality purposes and possible end user. Compressed into bales for transport to spinners. - Spinning mills - Scouring-Carding-Drawing #### Woollen Spun and Worsted Spun Yarns - Woollen fabrics are made from yarns that have been carded and drawn, while worsted fabrics have additionally been combed. - Woollen-spun fabrics tend to have a coarser handle with a less visible fabric structure than worsteds, which tend to have a flatter, smoother finish and a much more visible fabric structure, and could be described as having a cleaner-cut appearance than their woollen-spun equivalents. - Worsted wool is the ultimate cloth for expressing precise and urbane classic tailoring. - **Herringbone:** Is a two-colour twill weave created by reversing the twill at regular intervals to produce the zig-zag effect. - **The iconic Prince of Wales check** is a traditional black and white Glen Urquhart weave, overlaid with a coloured window-pane check. It was popularized by the Prince of Wales in the early twentieth century. - **A two-colour twill weave creates the classic hound's-tooth (also referred to as dog's-tooth or puppy-tooth, depending on the scale of the motif).** - **Tattersall check** is a traditional eighteenth-century weave associated with an equestrian heritage derived from the horse auctioneers at London's Hyde Park. #### Woollen Spinning - Drawing - Twist #### Worsted Spinning - Combing - Drawing - Twist ### Silk - Silk is such a seductive, luxurious and desirable fibre that its price has, at times, exceeded that of gold. - Silk possesses a magnificent, shimmering richness that can express a lush, sumptuous personality when woven into precious satins, jacquards and brocades. It is also capable of a sensuous, supple, liquid drape that will be forever associated with the ultimate in luxurious lingerie and glamorous eveningwear. #### Silk Fibre - Silk is categorized as a natural protein fibre, and is naturally produced in an exceptionally fine continuous filament by the Bombyx mori moth larva, which has been achieved as a result of centuries of selective breeding. - This continuous filament is collected by destroying the moth before it chews its way out of the cocoon. #### Wild Silks - Wild silk cannot be replicated using farmed caterpillars, as the silk they produce differs greatly in colour gradation and texture depending on the moth species, food source and climate. - Wild silks are generally characterized by an uneven appearance and rough feel. - This is because the single thread that makes up the cocoon has been torn or shredded into shorter lengths by the emerging moth, lending wild silks a characteristic slubby, bark-like effect and dry-textured handle. - Wild Eri and Muga moth silks may be categorized as ethical and organic, and tussah silk is the most widely known of the wild silks. #### Raw Silk - The term raw silk is often applied erroneously to silk noil, or noils, which are the short fibres left over from spinning silk and also to a variety of silk fabrics with a slubby quality or an irregular surface texture. - The term actually describes the fibre before maceration to soften the protective gum, sericin, which is secreted by the larva to harden the silk filaments in order to hold together its cocoon - literally, the raw material of silk production. #### Silk Production - **Sericulture** - Moths lay eggs - Hatched and fed mulberry leaves - Silk worms spin protective cocoons by seoreting silk filament and sericin, which hardens upon air contact - Cocoons complete within a few days - Peace silk - Chrysalis metamorphoses into moth and breaks through cocoon - Empty cocoons collected - Bombyx mori - Chrysalis killed before breaking through cocoon - Cocoons sorted by size and quality. Approx 5.5 kg of cocoons yield 0.5 kg of raw silk - **Maceration** - Cocoons cooked to soften protective sericin gum - **Reeling** - Several processes to extract silk filament - then wound onto bobbins, producing a long smooth thread. - **Thrown threads** - The application of twist to give alternative end uses - **De-gumming** - Preparation for dyeing - **Silk** - Weaving - Yarn-dyed or piece-dyed - Spinning - Yarn-dyed or un-dyed - Knitting - Yarn-dyed ### Silk Processing - In order for the silk filaments to hold together, a twist is applied, in a process called throwing. - There are many variations to this process and the silk threads it produces. - **Tram:** These are weft threads that are produced by lightly twisting two or more raw silk threads together in only one direction. - **Organzine:** The raw silk is given a preliminary twist in one direction, then two or more of these threads are twisted together in the opposite direction. - Generally, organzine demands the best-quality raw silk and is used for the warp threads, which bear the tension of the loom. - **Crêpe:** Thrown in a similar way to organzine, but twisted to a much greater degree, resulting in a crinkle effect. ### Synthetic and Artificial Fibres - Man-made fibres can be formed to render the exact properties and functions required for their end use. - If blended with natural fibres they can give the finished fabric the benefits of both the characteristics of nature and the application of science. - Man-made fibres and fabrics represent a significant force within global production, now representing nearly 70 per cent of all global fibre production. - It is wrong to assume that all man-made fibres are not eco-friendly; many next-generation fibres come from renewable or recycled resources; are light and durable; use clean energy sources; and require little land usage or water consumption in their production, furthermore representing a low carbon footprint. #### Categorizing Man-made Fibres - To help clarify the ambiguities and complexities of the different types of man-made fibre this book groups man-made fibres into two principle types: synthetic and artificial, as well as an emerging type called bio-engineered fibres. - **Synthetic fibres** are those made from chemicals and derived from such fossil fuels as oil and coal. - **Artificial fibres** are made from plant cellulose, regenerated from such natural sources as wood; the term artificial implies that they cannot be converted into fibre without chemical intervention. - **Bio-engineered fibres** describes a new generation of fibres that bridge the gap between fibre and polymer science and may use proteins, sugars or starches as their starting point. #### Producing Synthetic (and cellulosic) Fibres - Polymers are made viscous before they can be manufactured. - **Melt Spinning** - Fibre-forming substance melted for extrusion through spinneret - Solidifies by cooling - Fibres can be extruded with different cross-sectional shapes. - **Wet Spinning** - Fibre-forming substance dissolved in solvent - Spinneret is submerged in chemical bath - Filaments emerge from solution and solidify - **Dry Spinning** - Fibre-forming substance dissolved in solution - Solidifies by evaporating in air or in inert gas - Filaments are not in contact with liquid and do not need drying - **Gel Spinning** - For high strength and special properties - Polymer is not in liquid state during extrusion. - Polymer chains bound together - Filaments are highly orientated thus very strong. - Also called dry-wet spinning - **Fibres solidify - Drawn (stretched) to align molecular chain, which orientates them along the fibre axis for greater strength.** ### Weaves - **Plain Weave:** In plain weave the threads interface in alternate order, and if the warp and weft threads are balanced - that is, are similar in thickness and number per unit space, the two series of thread bend about equally. In a plain weave, each thread gives the maximum amount of support to the adjacent threads, and in proportion to the quantity of material employed, the texture is stronger and firmer than any other ordinary cloth. The weave is used for structures which range from very heavy and coarse canvas and blankets made of thick yarns to the lightest and finest cambrics and muslins made in extremely fine yams. Plain weave produces the simplest form of interlacing, but it is also used to a greater extent than any other weave. - **Twill Weave:** The twill order of interlacing causes diagonal lines to be formed in the cloth. The weaves are employed for the purpose of ornamentation, and to enable a cloth of greater weight, closer setting, and better draping quality to be formed than cam be produced in similar yams in plain weave. Twill effects can be made in various ways, but in simple twill the points of intersection move one outward and one upward on succeeding picks. A twill cannot be made upon two threads, but upon any number that exceeds two; a simple twill is complete upon the same number of picks as ends. Twill lines are formed on both sides of the cloth, and the direction of the lines may be either to the right or to the left, but the direction on one side is opposite to that on the other side when the cloth is turned over. - **Sateen and Satin Weaves:** In pure sateen and satin weaves the surface of the cloth consists almost entirely of weft or warp float, as in the repeat of a weave each thread of one series passes over all but one thread of the other series. In addition, the interlacing points are so arranged as to allow the floating threads to slip and to cover the 'binding' point of one thread by the float of another. This results in the production of fabrics with a maximum degree of smoothness and lustre and without any prominent weave features. The terms sateen and satin tend to be used somewhat indiscriminately and frequently confused one with another. Correctly, sateen indicates a weft faced construction, whilst satin is used with reference to a corresponding warp face structure. Sateens are constructed with a greater number of picks (warp yarns) per cm than end (weft yarns) per cm, and, conversely, satins have more ends than picks per cm in order to achieve the desired solid surface.