Natural and Manufactured Fibers PDF

( )/)/0( frves To know the classifications of textile fibers To correlate fibers with their properties for end-use requirements To recognize various trademarks, I¢ , and names used to market textile fibers. To recognize...

( )/)/0( frves To know the classifications of textile fibers To correlate fibers with their properties for end-use requirements To recognize various trademarks, I¢ , and names used to market textile fibers. To recognize the importance of fibers to the industrial products industries. Use fabri ics in the Fiber section of the Fabric Science Swatch Kit for this chapter. Swatches 1 through 15 focus on various Fibers. /{Ul/ Jerms Kelatedto Jextiles Icetate elasterell-p melamine ramie crylic felting metallic rayon lpaca flax microfiber rubber ingora fluorocarbon micron saran inidex glass modacrylic silk \ntistatic HWM rayon mohair sisal wramid hemy multicomponent spandex velon heterogeneous fibers nanotechnology sulfar bamboc jute novoloid trademark bast fibers lastrile nylon triacetate bicomponent lastol nytril vicufia camel hair leaf fibers olefin vinal carbon llama PBI vinyon cashgora lyocell PLA wool cashmere matrix polyester yak cotton matrix-fbril qgiviut  'he properties and characteristics of textile fibers form the foundation for apparel, home, or indus- trial applications. A fiber is viable when it possesses the desired chemical and physical attributes for a specific end use. In addition, the fiber must be able to be pro- duced in commercial quantities and available at prices consistent with market demands. This chapter discusses the various major natural and manufactured fibers. The focus is on their properties and characteristics because fibers are the major building blocks of any material. Using the proper fibers helps pro- duce the appropriate fabric for a specific end use. Natural Frbers Natural fibers have been used throughout the world for thousands of years. Early civilization relied on crude coverings and simple clothing made from natural fibers FiGure 3.1 collected in the wild. Cotton, wool, silk, and flax are A cotton boll. the most commonly used natural fibers found in the apparel and home textiles markets (Table 3.1). They are influences planting decisions, market volatility, and discussed in more detail than the other natural fibers ultimately fiber price. included in this chapter. Cotton is a seed fiber—that is, it is attached to the seed of the cotton plant—and has been used for over Cotton 7,0 0 years (Figure 3.1). The leading producersof cotton Of all the natural fibers, cotton is the most important. include China, India, the United States, Turkey, Paki- Approximately 125 million bales are produced annu- stan, Uzbekistan, Brazil, Australia, and parts of Africa. ally, by far the largest amount of all natural fibers. It is The most used cotton species in the United St tes is produced in 90 countries around the globe with about American Upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), called 80 percent coming from small farms. Cotton produc- short staple cotton. It accounts for about 95 percent of tion affects social, economic, and environmental con- the production. The other species raised in the United ditions around the world. It is an economic catalyst for States is American Pima cotton (Gossypium barbadense), developing countries as well as a mainstay of industrial called extra-long staple (ELS). It is also grown in Egypt, nations. Fluctuation of cotton production and use is Peru, and India but represents less than 3 percent of closely monitored because oversupply and undersupply world production. ELS is a high-quality cotton because affect the price and economic conditions of the entire it has an extra-long staple length, over 1% inches pipeline from farmer to the consumer. The unused cot- (approximately 349 c¢m), combined with a fine diam- ton from season to season is called the “carry wver”; it eter (micronaire) and high strength. Sea Island cotton, Fiber Durability Comfort Appearance | abraten:. [ Pilling Resistance | Strength_ | Absorbency Resiliency Resistance Cotton Good Good Good Poor | Good Flax Fair Excellent | Excellent Poor Good Silk Fair ) Excellent Fair Good Wool | Fair-good Excellent | Good Fair *Fair for finer ap sod for coarser carpet wool. FABRIC SCIENCE 36 perhaps the best-quality cotton in the world, was once grown in the United States, but now grows only in a small quantity in the West Indies. Egyptian cotton is another species of high-quality, long-staple cotton. Cotton is classified through High Velocity Instru- mentation (HVI), which evaluates trash content, matu- rity, strength, micronaire (fiber diameter), reflectance, and yellowness. All of these contribute to the value of the fiber. The fiber length is another important characteristic because the longer the staple length, the better the fiber properties. Color and cleanliness can be addressed in processing. The more expensive, extra-long staple Pima cotton has greater strength, more luster, and a silkier hand than Upland cotton. In the United States, cotton is grown predominately in Texas, Mississippi, and Cali- fornia. Farmers often plant genetically modified crops that offer a greater yield per acre with less dependence on pesticides. Interestingly, cotton became a major fiber in the United States only after the Industrial Revolution began in this country (in the late 1700s). Cotton, with its short fiber length, was not suited to the hand carding FiGure 3.2 ) and spinning being performed before that time. Wool, This cotton shirt is made up of a natural fiber. flax, and hemp, whose fibers are longer, were the main fibers the colonists used to make their clothing and hand, and it is inexpensive. However, like any natural other textile products. fiber, price is affected by weather, natural disasters, com- Because it is a plant fiber, cotton is composed petition, and consumer demand, which recently caused mainly of cellulose. It is a medium-weight fiber of nat- the price to spike. ural cream or tan color with a length between % and 2% inches (1.27 and 6.35 cm). Most cotton used is Unfavorable Corton has little luster and has poor elas- about 1 to 1% inches (2.54 to 3.18 cm) long. Under a ticity and resiliency. It is attacked by mildew and silverfish. microscope, cotton looks like a flat twisted tube. It is highly resistant to alkalies but is weakened by resin Cotton Incorporated” is the promotion organiza- chemicals used in finishing. It is also compromised when tion for United States Upland Growers. Supima® is the exposed to acids which can be used to create a “worn” promotion organization of the American Pima Cotton look or holes in jeans. Cotton fabrics form lint because Growers. There are many other organizations promot- the short fibers are able to come out of the fabric easily. ing cotton, but all research and promotion from produc- ing, trading, and consuming regions coordinate their End Uses demand enhancement efforts through the International The end uses of cotton include a wide range of products Forum for Cotton Promotion (IFCP). in the apparel, interior furnishings, and industrial areas. Examples include blouses, jeans, jackets, towels, sheets, Properties trousers, T-shirts, belts, and sneakers. It takes abour 24 Favorable The fiber has good strength and abra- ounces of cotton fiber to make an average pair of jeans sion resistance. It is hydrophilic (8% percent moisture and about 8 ounces to make a T-shirt. regain) and absorbs moisture quickly. Drying gives a cooling effect, which makes cotton a comfortable fiber Flax to wear in hot weather. (See Figure 3.2.) It has a 10 per- Flax comes from the stem or stalks of the flax plant cent increase in strength when wet, which makes it and is categorized as a bast fiber. It is harvested by pull- completely launderable. It is dry cleanable and has no ing the entire plant from the ground. The plant goes static or pilling problems. It has fair drape and a soft through a long process that enables the outside layers NATURAL AND MANUFACTURED FIBERS 37 ¢  FiGue 3.3 A field of flax plants to decay and so allows access to the fibers within. When percent moisture regain), absorbs moisture quickly, and the fiber is processed into yarn, it is called linen. It is also dries quickly. These properties make it a good fiber generally considered to be the oldest textile fiber, hav for hot-weather wear because quick drying has a cooling ing been used in the Stone Age. The largest producer effect. Flax is completely washable and dry cleanable is France, with most of the other leading producers Sometimes, however, dry cleaning is mandated due ro including Germany ind Belgium located in Europe, finishes applied to the fabric or the construction of the as well as Russia, Lithuania, and the Czech Repub- product. It has the highe: safe-ironing temperature lic. Northern Ireland, Italy, and Belgium are leading (450°F 232°C), and it has no static or pilling prob exporters of linen cloth lems. Linen fabrics are lint free because they contain no Flax is raised for both its fiber and seed. The seeds very short fibers. contain linseed oil, used primarily in paints and var nishes. Only one species, Linum usitatissimum, is grown Unfavorable Flax has only fair resistance to abrasion, commercially. A variety of this species is short, bushy, making it less durable than cotton. It has poor drape, and grown for the flax seed. Another variety is tall, has elasticity, and resiliency, and it is vulnerable to mildew few branches, and has small flowers that yield few seeds. and silverfish. This tall plant has the long fibers needed to make linen yarn and fabric. The long fibers have a tremendous End Uses impact on the hand, texture, luster, and strength of fab. The principal end usesof flax includ dresses, suits, sports ric. The shorter fibers are used for twine, rope, and rug jackets, luxury tablecloths, napkins, and wallpaper. backings (Figure 3.3). Because it is a plant fiber, flax is composed mainly Silk of cellulose. It is a medium-weight fiberof naturally light Silk is said to have been discovered in 2640 B.c by a tan color with a fiber length between 2 and 36 inches Chinese princess. It comes from a caterpillar which (5.08 to 91.44 cm). The average is from 6 to 20 inches will morph into a moth. Silk does not technically come (15.24 to 50.8 cm). The fiber, when viewed under a from a silkworm, but the moth’s larvae are commonly microscope, is shaped like bamboo. called silkworms. The fiber is a continuous strandof two filaments cemented together, which forms the cocoon Properties of the silkworm. The silkworm secretes silk by forcing Favorable The fiber has excellent strength. It is the two fine streams of a thick liquid out tiny openings in strongest of the plant fibers. Flax is also 10 percent its head. On contact with air, the fine streams of lig stronger when wet. Its hand is good and the fiber has uid harden into filaments. The worm winds the silk good luster. It is more hydrophilic than cotton (12 around itself, forming a complete covering (cocoon) for 38 protection while changing from a worm into a moth. As Silk is composed mainly of protein because it is much as 1,600 yards (1,463 meters) of fiber are used to an animal fiber. It is a medium-weight fiber of naturally make the cocoon. white color. The fiber may look gray or yellow because The silkworms (Bombyx mori) are cultivated and that is the color of sericin, which is the gummy sub- raised under controlled conditions of environment and stance that makes cocoons hard. Silk that has not had nutrition. This is called sericulture. The food for sericul- the sericin removed is called raw silk. Silk is the only ture silkworms consists solely of mulberry leaves. These natural filament fiber. When viewed under a micro- worms produce the finest, silkiest fibers (Figure 3.4). To scope, silk has a rounded, triangular shape with an keep the silk in one continuous length, the worms in uneven diameter. the cocoons are subjected to heat before they are ready to leave. Some moths, however, are allowed to mature Properties and break out of their cocoons to produce the eggs for Favorable The fiber has excellent drape and a luxuri- the next crop of silk. Sericulture is a very labor-intensive ous hand. It is the thinnest of the natural fibers. It is enterprise. lustrous and hydrophilic (11 percent moisture regain). The other type of silk commercially practical for Silk has very little problem with static, and no pill- textile manufacture is a wild, uncultivated type called ing occurs. Silk fabric can be washed or dry cleaned, tussah silk. The worms that produce this silk feed on although sometimes the dye or finish used necessitates the leaves of other trees, such as oak and cherry. The dry cleaning only. brown fiber produced is flat, very nonuniform, and much Unfavorable Silk has only fair resiliency and abra- thicker and less lustrous than the triangular, thin, cul- sion resistance. Its strength is good; it loses about 15 tivated silk fiber. Tussah silk is used for heavier, rough- percent strength when wet, but recovers when dried. textured fabrics. The fiber has poor resistance to prolonged exposure to At times, two silk worms nest together and form sunlight and can be attacked by moths. It is also expen- one cocoon made of a double strand. The fibers are not sive and turns yellow if washed with chlorine bleach. It separated, and the resulting yarn has a varying thick and is weakened and made harsher by alkalies such as those thin appearance. This type of silk is called duoppioni or found in strong soaps. Silk also degrades over time by dupion silk. exposure to armospheric oxygen, which makes it espe- Spun silk yarn can be made of short fibers raken cially difficult to preserve, even in climate-controlled from pierced cocoons, from the first and last part of museum settings. the cocoon, which is of poorer quality, from waste silk that accumulates around the machines during the vari- ous operations, or from a combination of these sources. End Uses Staple silk fibers are made from waste silk. The principal end uses of silk include dress China is the leading silk producer in the world. scarves, blouses, and other apparel. Silk is also used in Other producers include India, Japan, Thailand, and home furnishings, particularly decorative pillows, and can be found in washable sheets for the luxury market. Brazil. It takes approximately 110 silk cocoons to make a tie and over 600 cocoons to make a blouse. Wool Wool is the fiber that forms the covering of sheep. It is also a fiber with history, known to have been used by people at the end of the Stone Age. Approximately 40 different breeds of sheep produce about 200 types of wool fiber of varying grades. Examples of well-known breeds of sheep raised in the United States are Merino and Debouillet (fine-wool grade), Southdown and Columbia (medium-wool grade), and Romney and Lincoln (coarse-wool grade). Grading is the process of judging a whole fleece for fiber fineness and length. Ficure 3.4 Sorting is the process of breaking up an individual fleece Silk cocoon. into its different qualities. The best-quality wool comes NATURAL AND MANUFACTURED FIBERS 30 %  form of heat. Second, wool fabrics have an excellent insulation property because the fibers have a natural crimp, which prevents them from packing together and so forms dead air spaces (trapped air). The trapped air is ® ® the insulating barrier. Wool's crimpy fibers allow bulky fabrics to be made and also give strength; the high crimp WOOLMARK WOOLMARK allows it to be pulled with great force without breaking. BLEND Unfavorable It has fair to good abrasion resistance, FiGuRE 3.5 depending on its thickness—fair for the finer wool used The Woolmark is a registered trademark of The Wool for apparel, and good for the coarser wool used for car- Bureau, Inc. for fabrics that are made of 100% wool and meet pets. It loses strength when wet. It has poor luster. specifications of the Wool Bureau, Inc. The Woolmark Blend Though recent innovations promote its easy care, trademark is used where the fabric is a quality-tested material traditionally wool garments must be dry cleaned. Felting made predominantly of wool. occurs in the presence of heat, moisture, and agitation, which cause the fiber surface scales to interlock with one another; this leads to a tangled mass on the fabric sur- from the back, sides, and shoulder; the poorest comes face that cannot be combed or brushed out. With these from the lower leg scales snagging adjacent wool fibers, the fibers cannot The grades of wool vary widely, depending on the return to their original positions in the fabric. Wool fiber breed and health of the sheep and the climate. The surface s ales can be either chemically removed or cov- thinner the fiber diameter, the better the properties of ered with a resin to create a washable fabric in which no the wool. Merino wool is considered the best grade of felting and only a little shrinkage occur. There are cer- wool. It has the most crimp, best drape, most strength, tain applications in which felting is desirable for specific best resiliency, best elasticity, softest hand, and most end uses such as hats and banners. scales on its surface. Wool is vulnerable to moths, but can be moth- Shorn wool is called fleece wool or clipped wool. proofed. Wool has problems with pilling, and it turns yel- Lamb’s wool is wool taken from a sheep younger than low if washed with chlorine bleach. It is also weakened one year (first clip); it is desirable because it is fine in and made harsher by alkalies, such as those found in diameter, which can make a very soft product. strong soaps. However, wool is highly resistant to acids. Leading producers of apparel-class wool include Wool is an expensive fiber due to the limited quantities Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and China (Fig: available and the cost associated with production. ure 3.5). Leading producers of carpet-class wool include, China, Argentina, and Turkey. End Uses Wool is mainly composed of protein (similar to The principal end uses of wool include overcoats, suits, human hair) because it is an animal fiber. It is a medium- sweaters, carpets, luxury upholstery, and felt fabric. weight fiber of a natural cream, brown, or black color, it has much natural crimp, and it has a fiber length Other Natural Fibers between 1 and 18 inches (2.54 to 45.72 centimeters). When viewed under a microscope, its shape is round Specialty Hair Fibers and it has a scaly surface. Specialty hair fibers are rare animal fibers that posses special qualities of hand, fineness, or luster. They are Properties usually stronger, finer, and more expensive, but lower in Favorable The fiber has good resiliency. Wrinkles abrasion resistance, than most wool fibers. come out if the garment is hung in a moist atmosphere. Angora comes from the Angora rabbit raised in Its hand is fair to excellent, depending on the quality of France, Chile, China, and the United States. The the wool fiber. Wool has good drape and elasticity and is fiber is very slippery due to its shape and is often hydrophilic as well as hygroscopic. Wool has very little blended with other fibers. It is used in yarns for the problem with static, but its abrasion resistance is good hand knitting market. only if it is co Wool makes warm fabrics for two reasons. First, it Alpaca comes from the alpaca of South America. absorbs moisture vapor slowly without feeling damp. It It is durable, silky, and very lustrous. Alpaca is fre- provides a chemical reaction that releases energy in the quently used in sweaters, ponchos, and cra FABRIC SCIENCE 40 Camel hair comes from two-hump camels of fiber form and fabric form is controlled by the Peru- Mongolia, Tibet, and other areas of Asia. It is a vian government. Because vicufia is so rare, the cost weak fiber with a wool-like texture. Its scales are of vicufia is ten times the cost of cashmere. not as defined as wool, so it does not felt rapidly. Yak fiber comes from Mongolia and is a fiber tra- Camel hair ainly used for overcoats. ditionally used by Tibetan nomads. The fiber from Cashgora is produced in Australia and New Zea- the undercoat is compared to cashmere at substan- land. The fiber comes from the breeding of c. tially discounted prices. Shokay is a company that mere and angora goats. It has characteristics similar is promoting these fibers. to both cashmere and angora and is used for less expensive overcoats and suits. Bast Fibers Bast fibers are those that grow in the stem section of the Cashmere comes from the inner coat hair of plant and thus are cellulosic in content. Flax is the most an Asian Cashmere goat. It is extremely fine and important of these fiber types, with bamboo, hemp, jute, is noted for its outstanding softness. Pashmina is and ramie also having commercial importance. Persian for cashmere. China is the world's leading exporter of cashmere fiber. The hair from three Bamboo fiber comes from the stem of the plant. It goats is typically needed to produce one cashmere is known as a sustainable fiber because no agrichem- sweater. Principal end uses include scarves, sweat- icals (e.g., insecticides or herbicides) are required ers, suits, and coats for the luxury market. when it is farmed and little water is necessary. Thi fiber is not extensively used by itself because it h: Llama comes from the llama of South America. coarse hand. When, however, it is regenerated from It is weaker than camel hair and alpaca, but still bamboo pulp, in a process similar to making rayon, fairly strong. Uses include sweaters and blankets. it has greater appeal. See page 56 for a discussion of Moh: comes from the Angora goat, found this regenerated version of bamboo called bamboo mainly in South Africa, Turkey, and the southwest- rayon. ern United States. It is the strongest of the specialty Hemp is a yellowish-brown fiber from the hemp animal fibers, with very good abrasion resistance. It plant that grows easily and quickly in many parts is the most resilient natural textile fiber. It possesses of the world. Leading producers of hemp for textile lirtle crimp and its scales are flat, resulting in a slip- applications are China, Romania, and Australia. It pery, smooth hand and high luster. The fiber can is a fast growing fiber requiring little or no pesti- be dyed bright colors and is often used in fashion- cides. Land planted with hemp can yield 2% times able specialty clothing, luxury throws, bouclé yarns the production of cotton and 6 times the production (see p. 79) and velvet fabric for furniture sold in the of flax. This fiber resembles linen but is coarser and contract market. harsher. It is strong and lightweight and has very Qiviut (pronounced key-vee-ute) is the under- little elongation. Hemp was used in canvas for the belly hair from the musk ox found in Alaska and early sailing ships and was later used to make the Canada. This fiber is straight, smooth, and has first Levi's* jeans. Today its principal end use are hardly any scales, which make it resist shrinking twine, rope, and cordage. Hemp has gained popu- and felting. It is odorless and has no lanolin. Qiviut larity as a specialty fiber for the apparel market as is second to vicufia in cost and is used in overcoats. an environmental friendly “green” textile. Vicufa comes from the vicufia of South America. Jute s a yellowish-brown fiber that grows mainly It is the finest and softest of all wool and specialty in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan. It is coarse fibers but is also quite weak. The fiber has very fine and harsh, with good resistance to microorganisms scales with a smooth hand and high luster. It is three and insects. The fiber has moderate dry strength times warmer than wool, has almost no lanolin and but low wet strength. It has low elongation, which is hypoallergenic. Vicufia is the rarest and most helps it retain its shape when made into items such costly of the specialty fibers because attempts to sacks. Jute is shorter than most bast fibers and domesticate the animals have not been successful. inexpensive to produce. It also has fair abrasion Additionally the fibers grow very slowly so shy resistance. Its main end uses include burlap fabric ing occurs every 3-4 years. It takes the wool of six for bagging, fabric for interior furnishings, carpet vicufia to make a sweater. The export of vicufia in backing, and cordage. NATURAL AND MANUFACTURED FIBERS ‘a4  Ramie isa white fiber that is also known as China grass. Although China is the major producer, ramie is also grown in other countries, such as the Philip- ' Fiber Diameter | Fiber Diameter pines and Brazil. It is a fine, absorbent, and quick- Viewta | 6-13um | Yak 17-24pm drying fiber. It is the most resistant to mildew and Merino wool* | 10-18um | Camel | 1725 um% rotting of all plant fibers, and it is the strongest. silk 11-12 pm | Wool 17-40pm | Ramie is slightly stiff and has high natural luster and low elongation. It is similar to flax, and its end Angorarabbit | B um | Alpaca | 1929 ;mT! uses include apparel for the mass market, some inte- Flax | 12-16pm | Llama 20-40 pm rior furnishings, ropes, and industrial threads. Cashmere®* | 12-17pm | Mohair | 23-40pm Cotron 12-20pm | Human hair | 40-80 pm Leaf Fibers Leaf fibers are taken from the leaf section of a in fine men’s suiting. In the 19505 as the need for higher end men's plant such as yucca, banana, pineapple and other suiting grew, the fabric was made of 18.5 pm wool to spina 1/74 plants with similar leaf structure. Sisal is most worsted yarn (see p. 82). The yarn was called a Super 70's and suits were marketed with this designation. Eventually the designation important of these fibers. was changed to Super 100's made from that same size wool fiber, Sisal is a fiber taken from the yucca or cactus Today the coarser, 18.5 pm is used to make fabrics advertised as Super 100's. Generally a Super 120's has wool measuring 17.5 um, plants which grow in warm climates. The fiber is Super 140’ is madeof 165 um, Super 160's is madeof 14.5 um, rough, coarse, and woody. It is primarily used for Super 180 is made of 12.5 ym, and Super 200's made of 10.5 um. cordage for its strength, durability, and resistance to The fabrics made from these ultra-fine fibers are not only extremely degradation from saltwater. It is also used in a natu- costly but prone to wrinkling and require expert tailoring. Some industry experts feel the “Super” reference has become averused ral or bleached state to produce mats, or rugs. Due to and can misrepresent the true quality of the fabric. its unique structure it is also used for wall coverings. **Although the fineness of cashmere can be measured in microns, the quality of cashmere fibers generally starts with the place of The Environment origin. It ranges from low quality, Iranian, to ultra fine, Inner Mongolian. The quality determines the price, which can be Natural fibers, such as cotton, wool, and silk, rely on substantial. For this reason cashmere can be found in luxury water for the cleaning process. Water treatment proce- retailers to lower priced specialty stores. dures should be used to ensure discharged warer is clean to avoid ecosystem damage. The farming methods used to produce cotton and wool include chemicals to fertilize the ground as well as equal to ¥ o0 of a millimeter or ¥ xoo0 of a meter or insecticides and pesticides to repel insects and di 1 Yisa00 of an inch. The symbol um is used to indicate Chemicals are also used to strip leaves when cotton is microns. Table 3.2 indicates the general average diam- ready to be harvested. Some of these chemicals are toxic eter range of specific animal and plant fibers. and can cause harm to people, animals, other plants, and the ground. Contaminated water runoff can spread these problems. T anu/ac/ureo/ Fibers Cotton growing is a water-intensive process, with The era of manufactured fibers began in the early 1900s frequent irrigation required where rainfall is low. This with the commercial production of rayon fiber. It was can be a problem in water-limited regions where water is helped along by the introduction of acetate, the second also needed for drinking, washing, and other activ: S. manufactured fiber, in 1924. Both fibers contain mostly Silk production is labor-intensive and concentrated cellulose because the technology was insufficient to pro- in areas where labor costs are low. Worker exploitation is always a possibility. duce a fully synthetic fiber entirely from chemicals. The delay in the development of manufactured fibers was largely due to the inability to look into the structure of a fiber to see how it was constructed. With- Hicron cSys/em out this knowledge, scientists did not know how to go The International System of Units (S1) uses metric about making a manufactured fiber. With the advent of units for indicating measurements. The micron system Xeray technology in the 1920s and 1930, the obstacle is used to measure the diameter of fibers. A micron is was removed. The discovery was then made that the FABRIC SCIENCE t 42 ¥  basic building blocks, or molecules, that make up a fiber are long and narrow (or fibrous) themselves. By 1938, nylon was ready to be presented to the markerplace (by E. L. DuPont™ de Nemours & Comyany). The develop- Acetate Nytril ment of the manufactured fibers industry is an amazing Triacetate Olefin success story resulting in many consumer-recognizable advancements in textiles, such as spandex, microfibers, [ Acrylic Lastol and products such as Gore-Tex”, and Teflon". [ Anidex PBI The most significant advancements in the textile Aramid PLA industry for apparel and home furnishing applications “Adon Polyester come from innovations within the textile fibers sec- tor. Many of these advancements have been developed Elastoester Elasterell-p after careful analysis and the exploration of potential Fluoropolymer | Rayon needs within the marketplace. These advancements are E | Rubber | as innovative and provocative as the initial conception ‘ | Lasuile and introduction of the first commercial manufactured fiber from wood pulp over a hundred years ago or as Metallic Saran simple as Teflon® moving from a protective covering for | Ml Spandex/Elas pots to a protective covering for pants. | Modacrylic fr [ Novoloid Vinal Generic Names [ Nylon Viyon The generic names and definitions in this section are from the Rules and Regulations of the Textile Fiber Products Identification Act (TFPIA). All manufactured classified fibers. The commercial use must be explained fibers used for consumer articles of apparel or textile as well as its importance to the public marketplace. articles customarily used by the consumer in home fur- To meet the criteria for granting application for a nishings application have been placed into the generic new generic fiber subclass name, a fiber must have the categories listed in this federal act. The Federal Trade same general chemical composition as an established Commission establishes the generic names and defini- category and have distinctive properties, which lead to tions for manufactured fibers (see Table 3.3). the distinctive features thart set it apart from the origi- To receive a new generic classification, a fiber nal recognized classification (Table 3.4). Thus, subclass producer must spell out how the physical properties designations are used when a textile fiber technically and chemical composition radically differ from other falls within a generic classification but is commercially | Fiber | B ~Comfort Appearance | ‘ Abrasion ‘ —’W Resistance | Strength Absorbency | Resiliency Resistance | | Cellulosic Acetare Poor | Poor Fair [ Good | Good ’ Viscoserayon | Fair Fair Excellent Poor | Good | Far Excellent Excellent | Fair | Fair Non-Cellulosic ) it Fair | Poor | Goad [ Fair | Excellent Excellent Poor Excellent | Poor | Exgellea Excellent Very poor Excellent Good Polyester | Excellent | Excellent Poor Excellent Very poor NATURAL AND MANUFACTURED FIBERS distinguishable due to significant enhancements or dif- chemical business and entrusted much of their brand ferences. For example, a fiber which is a polyester but recognition to INVISTA™ Inc. Additionally, chemical has stretch characreristics similar to spandex. companies are creating partnerships with commodity producers such as Cargill Inc. to develop new markets. Marketing of Manufactured Fibers It is expected that these changes and alliances will con- Manufactured fibers are marketed as commodity fibers, tinue to create new companies and opportunities for the as trademark fibers, as controlled trademark fibers, or global textile industry. under a certification mark. Each is briefly explained in the following sections. Controlled Trademarks The controlled-trademark approach enables the fiber Commodity Fibers maker to rigidly control the selling and subsequent use Fibers marketed as commodities are used without iden- of the fiber. Relationships are established with specific tification of source and are sold to any buyer in the textile mills and fabric users that will use the fiber prop- open market. A shirt labeled 100 percent polyester has erly. A quality control program of the fiber producer been made with commodity polyester fibers. This is the ensures that only products that have satisfactorily cheapest way to purchase manufactured fibers. passed various tests related to the end use are allowed to use the fiber brand name. Unfortunately, consumers Fiber Trademarks are usually unable to distinguish between a controlled Manufactured fibers are often identified by trademarks. trademark fiber and an uncontrolled trademark fiber. The fiber producer spends promotion money to estab- lish a trademark and expects manufacturers, wholesal- Certification Marks ers, and retailers down the line to take advantage of it. Various fiber producers, such as INVISTA™ (formerly The fiber producer receives a slightly higher price from E.. DuPont™ de Nemours & Company), also have mills than if the fiber were sold without a trademark. certification programs. The following is an explanation A fiber trademark is a word or words used by a fiber from INVISTA™ promotional material: supplier or producer to distinguish its fibers from fibers of the same generic class produced or sold by others. It Certification marks are marks licensed by is intended to attract the atrention of potential custom- INVISTA™ for use by manufacturers of products ers, both industrial (e.g., textile mills) and consumer. in which a INVISTA™ fiber or other material is Trademarks appear on product labels and promotional used and which meet specified performance qual- ity standards. It is important to distinguish between material. trademarks and certification marks. Trademarks A person or company first using the trademark in appear on products made by INVISTA™. Certifi- commerce usually constitutes ownership of the mark. cation marks, on the other hand, may not be used The letters ™ accompany the mark initially. If the user on products made by INVISTA™, for, under U.S. elects to apply for registered ownership of the trade- trademark law, a mark may not be a rrademark and mark with the United States Patent and Trademark a certification mark at the same time. Office and the application is approved, the symbol * is used instead of the ™ to indicate registered ownership. Thus INVISTA™ uses two types of marks: the Companies usually promote their trademarks trademark that identifies its fibers, such as Dacron® poly- widely to ensure benefits by its use. The use of the ester, and the certification mark that identifies a product mark is carefully monitored, and unauthorized use not made by INVISTA™ but that contains its fibers. of the trademark is illegal. Such well-known regis- An example of the latter is Thermolite® which is used tered fiber trademarks include Dacron” (polyester, for thermal underwear made of a special INVISTA™ INVISTA™), Anso® (nylon, Honeywell Nylon, Inc.), fiber (Figure 3.6) and that meets specified performance and Modal® (rayon, Lenzing Fibers). See specific fibers quality standards. (It is a hollow polyester fiber that pro- for additional trademark names. vides thermal insulation, wicking of perspiration away Recently, there has been a shift in ownership for from the body, and softness.) Both marks are registered fiber trademark names. Wellknown producers such to INVISTA™ and, therefore, cannot be used by other as DuPont™ have strategically moved closer to the companies. FABRIC SCIENCE 444 ¥  GORETEY Ficure 3.6 Thermolite® is an INVISTA™ certification mark for thermal wear fabric of hollow-core polyester fiber meeting its quality standards and results in a more thermally efficient Thermolite® fabric (© INVISTA™); Gore-tex™ garments combine fashion ind practicality. Properties Descriptions of T rincipal Favorable Acetate is a medium-weight fiber with excellent drape and a luxurious hand. It has fair resil- T am//(}( tured Fibers iency and fair absorbency (6% percent moisture regain). The following sections present the properties and char- It has no pilling problem and very little static problem, acteristics of each principal generic category of manufac- and it is inexpensive. tured fibers. The generic names and definitions in this Unfavorable Acetate has poor strength; it becomes section are from the Rules and Regulationsof the TFPIA. about 30 percent weaker when wet, but recovers origi- nal strength when dried. It has poor abrasion resistance Acetate and poor elasticity. It should be dry cleaned or carefully The first commercial production of acetate fiber in the laundered. Washing by machine should be avoided United States was in 1924 by the Celanese orporation, because the wet strength of acetate is very low, and the In 19 the Federal Trade Commission made acetate a garment may be damaged. Hot water and dryers cause generic category, separating it from the rayon fiber family significant loss of strength at about 195°F 90°C Acetate is a manufactured fiber in which the fiber- Thus casual creases may become permanent or exces- forming substance is cellulose acetate It has a round sive shrinkage may occur from the heat. Acetate is also shape with striations on the surface. subject to gas fading from pollutant gases in the air that 45 tend to easily fade or change the color of fabric. (See Lyocell p. 332.) This can be a problem particularly for deep blue The Federal Trade Commission originally approved the and navy lining material, which can change to purple Iyocell generic fiber name as a subclass under Rayon, and then red from exposure. but now it is classified as a separate generic fiber. The development of lyocell fiber took over ten years and End Uses $100 million. The principal end uses for this fiber include lining fab- Lyocell is a manufactured fiber composed of solvent- ric, lingerie, graduation gowns, ribbons, backing fabric spun cellulose. The self-contained solvent-spun process for bonded materials, and cigarette-filter material. used to produce this fiber creates less water and air pollu- tion. The fiber has a round cross-section with a smooth Trademarks surface. Celanese® The process used to produce lyocell has less nega- tive impact on the environment than the process used Estron®, Chromspun” (solution dyed) to produce rayon because a different spinning technique is used. Difficulties relating to environmental standards Acrylic for air and water pollution have become a concern for The first commercial production of acrylic fiber in most producers in the textile industry. the United States was in 1950 by E. I. DuPont™ de Nemours & Company. The fiber soon began to replace Properties wool, initially in sweaters and blankets and then later Favorable Lyocell is stronger than all other cellulosic in other items. Consumers responded well to acrylic fibers and has less shrinkage. It is launderable with an because it was less expensive than wool and washable. 11.5 percent moisture regain and is stronger when wet. Acrylic is a manufactured fiber in which the fiber- It is noted for creating fabrics with great luster, soft forming substance is any long-chain synthetic polymer hand, and good drape. composed of at least 85 percent by weight of acryloni- trile units. Acrylic has a round shape with a smooth Unfavorable Fabric wear and tear may cause the fibers surface. to splinter on the surface. Lyocell has a problem with fibrillation when the fabric is washed. This may result in fuzziness and pilling over the life of the product. Color Properties changes can occur, as well as changes in hand from Favorable Acrylic is a lightweight fiber with good splintering. It can be washed or dry cleaned, but laundry drape. It creates fabrics that are warm yet lightweight. agitation can accelerate surface change. It is also vulner- It has good resiliency and elasticity and has excellent able to mildew and some insects. resistance to sunlight and weathering. It may be washed or dry cleaned. End Uses Unfavorable Acrylic has only fair strength; it becomes End uses for this fiber include dress slacks, blouses, paja- about 20 percent weaker when wet, but recovers when mas, shirts, and dresses. dry. It is a hydrophobic fiber (1% percent moisture regain), and static and pilling are frequent problems. Its Trademarks abrasion resistance is fair. Tencel” End Uses Nylon The principal end uses for this fiber include sweaters, blankets, carpeting, children’s garments, and outdoor The first commercial production of nylon fiber in the United States was in 1939 by the E.. DuPont™ de products, such as awnings, market umbrellas, and tents. Nemours & Company. It is the second-most-used man- ufactured fiber in the United States, behind polyester. Trademarks The two major types of nylon today are nylon 6, 6 and Creslan nylon 6. Nylon is a manufactured fiber in which the fiber- Dralon® forming substance is a long-chain synthetic polyamide Silpalon® in which fewer than 85 percent of the amide linkages FABRIC SCIENCE