Roman Architecture PDF

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE ROMAN ARCHITECTURE GEOGRAPHICAL The sea coast of Italy, although the peninsula is long and narrow, is not nearly so much broken up into bays, or natural harbors, as the shore line of Greece, nei...

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE ROMAN ARCHITECTURE GEOGRAPHICAL The sea coast of Italy, although the peninsula is long and narrow, is not nearly so much broken up into bays, or natural harbors, as the shore line of Greece, neither are there so many islands studded along its coasts. Many parts of Italy are mountainous the great chain of the Apennines running from one end of the peninsula to the other, yet the whole land is not divided up into little valleys in the same way as the greater part of Greece. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE GEOGRAPHICAL The Greek and Roman nations may therefore with fair accuracy be compared as follows: (a.) The Romans never became a sea faring people like the Greeks, nor did they send out colonists of the same description to all parts of the then known world. (b.) There were few rival cities in Rome at this, and the small towns, being less jealous of their separate independence, the Roman power could be built up by a gradual absorption of small states, a process that was never completed by Athens or Sparta. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE GEOLOGICAL In Roman time Marble, terra-cotta, stone, and brick were largely used even for the more important buildings. In Rome the following materials were at hand: Travertine, a hard limestone from Tivoli; Tufa, a volcanic substance of which the hills of Rome are mainly composed; and Peperino, a stone of volcanic origin from Mount Albano. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE GEOLOGICAL Besides these, Lava and Pozzolana, derived from volcanic eruptions, and excellent sand and gravel were plentiful. The existence of Pozzolana (a clean sandy earth) found in thick strata in the district, gave the Roman a material which contributed largely to the durability of their architecture, for it has extraordinary properties of hardness, strength and durability, when mixed into concrete with lime. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE GEOLOGICAL The walls were generally formed of concrete and were faced in a decorative way with brick, stone, alabasters, porphyries, or marbles of all kinds, hewn from countless Oriental quarries by whole armies of workmen. Roman architecture, as it spread itself over the whole of the then known world, was influenced naturally by the materials found in the various parts where it planted itself, but concrete, in conjunction with brick and stone casing or banding, was the favorite material. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE CLIMATE The climate of ancient Rome varied throughout the existence of that civilization. In the first half of the 1st millennium BC the climate of Italy was more humid and cool than now and the presently arid south saw more precipitation. The northern regions were situated in the temperate climate zone, while the rest of Italy was in the subtropics, having a warm and mild climate. During the annual melt of the mountain snow even small rivers would overflow, swamping the terrain (Tuscany and the Pontine Marshes were deemed impassable in antiquity). ROMAN ARCHITECTURE RELIGION The heathen religion of ancient Rome being looked upon as part of the constitution of the state, the worship of the gods came eventually to be kept up only as a matter of state policy. The Emperor then received divine honors, and may almost be described as the leader of the Pantheon of deities embraced by the tolerant and wide-spreading Roman rule. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL In early times Three chief nations dwelt in the peninsula. In the central portion (or Etruria) lived the Etruscans, probably an Aryan people, who appear to have been settled in Italy before authentic history begins, and who were great builders. In the south the Greeks had planted many colonies, which were included in the name of "Magna Græcia." And the common forefathers of both must have stayed together after they had separated from the forefathers of the Celts, Teutons and others. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL The common form of government in Ancient Rome resembled that of Greece, consisting of towns or districts joined together in leagues. The government of Rome was affected firstly by chosen kings, aided by a senator and popular assembly, but about B.C. 500 it became Republican, and under Augustus Caesar in B.C. 27 the Empire originated. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE HISTORICAL The foundation of Rome is of uncertain date, but is generally taken at B.C. 750. The Republic engaged in many wars, conquering several Etruscan cities, but was defeated in B.C. 390, at the hands of the Gauls, who continued for some time to hold the northern part of Italy. About B.C. 343 began the Roman conquest of Italy, which was affected in about sixty years, and resulted in the dominion of a city over cities. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE HISTORICAL The First Punic War (B.C.E. 264-241) against Carthage, when brought to a conclusion, resulted in Sicily becoming the first Roman province. The Second Punic War (B.C.E. 218-201) was the most severe struggle in which the Romans had engaged, for Hannibal, the great Carthaginian general, entering Italy from Spain, defeated all the Roman armies, and maintained himself in Italy until recalled by a counter attack of the Romans, under Scipio, upon Carthage itself. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE HISTORICAL The Third Punic War (B.C.E. 149-146) ended in the total destruction of Carthage, which, with its territory, became a Roman province in Africa. At the same time were affected the conquest of Macedonia and Greece, becoming a province in B.C. 146, which induced the importation of Greek artists and works of art. Greece formed a stepping stone to Western Asia, which in turn gradually acknowledged the Roman power, till in B.C. 133 it also became a province. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE HISTORICAL With the conquests of Spain and Syria, the Roman empire extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Euphrates. Julius Caesar's campaigns in Gaul in B.C. 59, made the Rhine and the English Channel its northern boundaries. In B.C. 55 Julius Caesar crossed into Britain. This tide of conquest swept on in spite of civil war at home, and eventually rendered the empire a political necessity owing to the difficulty of governing so many provinces-under the previous system. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE HISTORICAL Julius Caesar remained without a rival, but was murdered in B.C. 44. Then followed a period of great confusion lasting 13 years. Augustus Caesar (Julius Cæsar's nephew) was made emperor B.C. 27, and governed till his death, A.D. 41. The Augustan age was one of those great eras in the world's history like that succeeding the Persian wars in Greece, the Elizabethan age in England. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE HISTORICAL Following Augustus came a line of emperors, of whom Nero (A.D. 54-69), Vespasian (69-79), Trajan (98-117), Hadrian (117-138)- under whom the empire expanded to its greatest extent Septimius Severus (193-211), Caracalla (211-217) and Diocletian (284-305) were the most active in architectural matters. Rome went out of cultivation and depended on imported corn. A turbulent populace, and the huge armies required to keep in check the barbarian tribes on every frontier, dominated the government. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE HISTORICAL Emperors soon chosen were sooner murdered, and the chaos that gradually set in weakened the fabric of the empire. Architecture then fell into complete decay. Until the vigorous efforts of Constantine (A.D. 306-337) did something for its revival, which in large measure was also due to a new force, Christianity, which had been growing up and which received official recognition under this emperor. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURAL TIMELINE Etruscan Architecture Location Modern Tuscany and the Early Roman civilization were located throughout the Italian peninsula, Sardinia, and Corsica primarily. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURAL TIMELINE Etruscan Architecture Culture Cities were ruled by kings in early times but by about 500 BCE power was generally held by magistrates from the aristocratic class; most likely the Etruscans are the result of a gradual fusion of native and immigrant populations. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURAL TIMELINE Etruscan Architecture Religion Believed the gods gave them signs embedded in nature and that they needed to please the gods to prevent disasters: interpreting lightning and the flight of birds, assessing the stars to lay out a new town, and reading the entrails of sacrificed animals. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Etruscan Architecture Architectural Characteristics Arched corbelled vault: consists of two pillar-like bases called piers, which supported a series of wedge-shaped stones called voussoirs Tombs that are round structures with a door leading to a large interior chamber that is brightly painted to reflect its interior and have massive reserve piers with lonic-like capitals ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Etruscan Architecture Architectural Characteristics Arched corbelled vault: consists of two pillar-like bases called piers, which supported a series of wedge-shaped stones called voussoirs Tombs that are round structures with a door leading to a large interior chamber that is brightly painted to reflect its interior and have massive reserve piers with lonic-like capitals ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Etruscan Architecture Architectural Characteristics Temples are made of wood and terracotta, not stone. It has flight of stairs leading up to the principal entrance, not a uniform set of steps surrounding the whole building Sculptures on top of the Temple roofs to announce the presence of the deities within ROMAN ARCHITECTURE City Walls The width of Roman walls could also vary tremendously from the thinnest at 18 cm to a massive 6 m thick. Rarely were marble and fine stone blocks used as this was too expensive. Large square blocks were used to create ashlar masonry walls, that is, close-fitting blocks without any use of mortar. Much more common was the use of brick (usually triangular shaped and set with mortar) and small stones facing a concrete mix core. The bricks and stones could be arranged in various ways: ROMAN ARCHITECTURE City Walls opus incertum - first appeared in the 3rd century BCE and used small irregular chunks of stone smoothed on one side. opus reticulatum - from the 2nd century BCE and used pyramid- shaped chunks with 6-12 cm square base and height of 8-14 cm. The stone was set with the base facing outwards and laid in diagonal arrangements. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE City Walls opus incertum - first appeared in the 3rd century BCE and used small irregular chunks of stone smoothed on one side. opus reticulatum - from the 2nd century BCE and used pyramid- shaped chunks with 6-12 cm square base and height of 8-14 cm. The stone was set with the base facing outwards and laid in diagonal arrangements. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE City Walls opus mixtum - common from the 1st century CE, this was a combination of opus reticulatum with a layer (course) of horizontal brick every fourth course and at the edges of the wall. opus testaceum - common from the 1st century CE and used courses of brick only. opus vittatum - used an alternative course of brick with two courses of tufa blocks with a rectangular side facing outwards and diminishing in size towards the inner surface. It was especially popular from the 4th century CE across the Empire. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE City Walls opus mixtum - common from the 1st century CE, this was a combination of opus reticulatum with a layer (course) of horizontal brick every fourth course and at the edges of the wall. opus testaceum - common from the 1st century CE and used courses of brick only. opus vittatum - used an alternative course of brick with two courses of tufa blocks with a rectangular side facing outwards and diminishing in size towards the inner surface. It was especially popular from the 4th century CE across the Empire. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE City Walls opus mixtum - common from the 1st century CE, this was a combination of opus reticulatum with a layer (course) of horizontal brick every fourth course and at the edges of the wall. opus testaceum - common from the 1st century CE and used courses of brick only. opus vittatum - used an alternative course of brick with two courses of tufa blocks with a rectangular side facing outwards and diminishing in size towards the inner surface. It was especially popular from the 4th century CE across the Empire. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Drainage The Cloaca Maxima has constituted one of the world's earliest sewage systems. Arch The Etruscan Arch or Arch of Augustus or Augustus Gate is one of eight gates in the Etruscan wall of Perusia, known today as Perugia. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Drainage The Cloaca Maxima has constituted one of the world's earliest sewage systems. Arch The Etruscan Arch or Arch of Augustus or Augustus Gate is one of eight gates in the Etruscan wall of Perusia, known today as Perugia. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURAL TIMELINE Roman Architecture Location Rome, Italy, and the regions in Europe, the Mediterranean, Asia, and Africa included within the Roman Empire. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURAL TIMELINE Roman Architecture Culture Developed out of the Etruscan, first as a republic and later as an empire that dominated the entire Mediterranean. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURAL TIMELINE Roman Architecture Religion Thought of themselves as highly religious, and attributed their success as a world power to their collective piety (pietas) in maintaining good relations with the gods; known for the great number of deities they honored; at the start of the reign of Constantine I, Christianity was advocated as the official religion of the empire. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Roman Architecture Architectural Characteristics Roman Architecture continued the legacy left by Greek architects and the established architectural orders, especially the Corinthian. The Romans were also innovators and they combined new construction techniques and materials with creative design to produce a whole range of brand-new architectural structures. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Roman Architecture Architectural Characteristics Typical innovative Roman buildings included the basilica, triumphal arch, monumental aqueduct, Amphitheatre, and residential housing block. Many of the Roman architectural innovations were a response to the changing practical needs of Roman society, guaranteeing their permanence so that many of these great edifices survive to the present day. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE The Orders Roman architects continued to follow the guidelines established by the classical orders the Greeks had first shaped: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Corinthian was particularly favored and many Roman buildings, even into Late Antiquity, would have a particularly Greek look to them. The Romans did, however, add their own ideas and their version of the Corinthian capital became much more decorative. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE The Orders The Romans also created the composite capital which mixed the volute of the Ionic order with the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian. The Tuscan column was another adaptation of a traditional idea which was a form of Doric column but with a smaller capital, more slender shaft without flutes, and a molded base. The Tuscan column (as it came to be known in the Renaissance period) was especially used in domestic architecture such as peristyles and verandahs. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Engineering Innovations and Achievements Arch The Romans are credited with the invention of the arch, though some claim it was the Etruscans who developed the idea. The arch is a beautiful piece of architectural design because it is so simple, and so useful. Arches could be easily built, and did not even require cement to hold together. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Engineering Innovations and Achievements Dome The Romans were the first builders in the history of architecture to realize the potential of domes for the creation of large and well- defined interior spaces. Dome of the Pantheon ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Engineering Innovations and Achievements Semidomes A semidome is half a dome. It is commonly used as the ceilings of apses, semicircular recesses that were often used in Roman Architecture as places of honor. In Basilicas, apses were occupied by magistrates, and in temple they contained statues of gods. Apses were also used in several areas of large, imperial baths as well as villa facilities such as nymphaeum and pavilions. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Engineering Innovations and Achievements Vault A vault is an arched brick or stone ceiling or roof of a building. Barrel Vault A barrel vault is created when an arch is extended in either direction, making passages alongside an oval or rounded area. A barrel vault requires extra support by reinforcement on the exterior. Basilica of Constantine ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Engineering Innovations and Achievements Groin Vault A groin vault is formed by two-barrel vaults of the same dimensions intersecting at right angles. The junctures at which the two vaults meet are elliptical ridges, called groins. In the simplest form of groined vault, the two conjoined vaults are of the same size and the floor of the vault is square; ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Engineering Innovations and Achievements Groin Vault if the vaults are of different sizes, however, the floor of the vault is rectangular and the two areas of the ceiling between the groins are of unequal shape and size. Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Materials & Techniques Stones The first all-marble building was the Temple of Jupiter Stator in Rome (146 BCE), but it was not until the Empire that the use of marble became more widespread and the stone of choice for the most impressive state-funded building projects. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Materials & Techniques Stones The most commonly used from Italy was Carrara (Luna) marble from Tuscany (for example, the 30 BCE Temple of Apollo on the Palatine). Marble was also readily available from across the empire; especially esteemed were the Parian marble of Paros in the Cyclades and Pentelic from Athens. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Materials & Techniques Stones Colored varieties were also much favored by Roman architects, like the yellow Numidian marble from North Africa, purple Phyrgian from central Turkey, red porphyry from Egypt, and green-veined Carystian marble from Euboea. Besides marble, travertine White limestone was also made available from quarries near Tivoli, used for precise carving. It was especially used for paving, door and window frames, and steps. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Materials & Techniques Roman Concrete The Romans did not invent lime mortar but they were the first to see the full possibilities of using it to produce concrete. Concrete rubble had usually been reserved for use as a filler material but Roman architects realized that the material could support great weight and could be used to help span space and create a whole new set of building opportunities. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Materials & Techniques Roman Concrete They called this material opus caementicium from the stone aggregate (caementa) which was mixed with the lime mortar. The material had a thick consistency when prepared and so was laid not poured like modern concrete. In the 2nd century BCE, it was discovered that by using pozzolana (concrete made using volcanic sand, pulvis puteolanus), which had a high silica content, the concrete could set under water and was even stronger than normal concrete. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Materials & Techniques Roman Concrete In addition to the structural possibilities offered by concrete, the material was also a lot cheaper than solid stone and could be given a more presentable façade using stucco, marble veneer, or another relatively cheap material: fired brick or terracotta. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Materials & Techniques Roman Bricks Sun-dried mud bricks had been used for centuries and continued to be used for more modest projects up to the 1st century CE, but fired bricks had the advantage of durability and could be carved just like stone to resemble such standard architectural features as capitals and dentils. Bricks were typically 59 cm square and 2.5-5 cm thick. Uncut they were used in roofing and drains, but for other uses they were usually cut into 18 triangles. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Materials & Techniques Other Materials Stucco was used to face brick walls and could be carved, like bricks could be, to reproduce the architectural decorations previously rendered only in stone. The stucco was made from a mix of sand, gypsum, and even marble dust in the best quality material. Volcanic tufa and pumice were used in domes because of their light weight as in the Pantheon. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Materials & Techniques Other Materials Basalt was often used for paving and roads, laid as polygonal blocks, and Egyptian grey and pink granite was popular for obelisks and columns. Finally, terracotta was also used for molded ornamentation on buildings and became a common embellishment of private homes and tombs. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Theatres Roman theatres derive from and are part of the overall evolution of earlier Greek theatres. Roman Theatre at Bosra ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Amphitheatre The Amphitheatre was, with the triumphal arch and basilica, the one of the major new type of building developed by the Romans. The Colosseum is the archetypal and the largest Amphitheatre. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Basilica The basilica was adopted by the Christian church but was conceived by the Romans as a place for any large gathering, with the most common use being law courts. They were usually built along one side of the forum, the city's marketplace, which was enclosed on all sides by colonnades. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Basilica The basilica's long hall and roof were supported by columns and piers on all sides. The columns created a central nave flanked on all sides by an aisle. A gallery ran around the first floor and later there was an apse at one or both ends. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Circus The Roman circus was a large open-air venue used for public events in the ancient Roman Empire. The circuses were similar to the ancient Greek hippodromes, although circuses served varying purposes and differed in design and construction. The Circus Maximus was the first and largest stadium in ancient Rome and its later Empire. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Forum A forum was a central public open space in a Roman municipium, or any civitas, primarily used as a marketplace, along with the buildings used for shops and the stoas used for open stalls. The Roman Forum was a rectangular forum (plaza) surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at the center of the city of Rome. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Forum Trajan's Forum was the last of the Imperial fora to be constructed in ancient Rome. Architect: Apollodorus of Damascus ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Horreum A horreum was a type of public warehouse that is used to store many other types of consumables. The Horrea Epagathiana et Epaphrodition ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Roman Houses Domus Insulae Villa ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Roman Houses Domus Within the city of ancient Rome, the wealthiest Romans, such as Emperors and noblemen lived in a single storey house, called a domus. These homes were very grand, with marble pillars, statues, mosaics and wall paintings. Romans designed Domus buildings with two main sections – the antica, at the front, and the postica at the rear. Both had a large central courtyard area from where other rooms would lead. Taberna – Shop or Stall Vestibulum – From the entrance into a Hallway. Cubiculum – Private Quarters Atrium – The Center of the House’s Social and Political life Ala/Alae – Open Rooms on each side of the Atrium Culina – Kitchen Tablinum – Anteroom; usually between the Atrium and Peristylium Peristylium – Garden or Open Courtyard Triclinium – Roman Dining Exedra – For formal entertainment and lavish dinner parties. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Roman Houses Insulae The vast majority of ordinary working Romans in cities lived in multi-storey apartment buildings or tenement blocks, known as insulae. Sometimes the ground floor of apartment buildings was occupied by shops, and shop owners would live in the space above them. Housing areas were seven stories or more high, and they were often dangerous and unsanitary. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Roman Houses Insulae Fire, collapse and flooding were common. Higher paid tenants lived in the first two floors, which had larger rooms, windows, balconies and running water. The upper floors, by contrast, were for the least well-off people in ancient Rome, and they offered substandard living conditions, sometimes with only one room where an entire family would live, with no natural light, water supply or bathroom facilities. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Roman Houses Villa Beyond the city, wealthy citizens of ancient Rome lived in villas, which were larger than a Domus because there was more land to occupy. The really rich had both a domus and a villa, and they could show both off to all their regular house guests. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Roman Houses Villa Villas were divided into three main parts: the villa urbana - where the master family lived and is fairly close to Rome. the villa rustica - was a villa that was a far distance from Rome and was only visited often, where the live-in slaves and workers who carried out all the housework lived. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Roman Houses Villa the villa fructuaria - it had ample space for farm produce, and sometimes even a private temple. These homes were surrounded by vast areas of land for farming, entertaining or private pools. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Thermae The thermae were a popular facility for public bathing, exercising and socializing. Exercise might include wrestling and weight- lifting, as well as swimming. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Parts of a Thermae Caldarium - a room with a hot plunge bath Tepidarium - the warm (tepidus) bathroom heated by a hypocaust (underfloor heating system) Frigidarium - a large cold pool Sudatorium - a vaulted sweating-room (sudor, sweat) ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Parts of a Thermae Laconicum - the dry sweating room Apodyterium - primary entry, composed of a large changing room with cubicles or shelves where citizens could store clothing and other belongings while bathing Uncturia - oil room ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Temple Ancient Roman temples were among the most important buildings in Roman culture, and some of the richest buildings in Roman architecture, though only a few survive in any sort of complete state. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Rectangular Temples The Maison Carree it is one of the best-preserved Roman temples to survive in the territory of the former Roman Empire. Order: a hexastyle design with six Corinthian columns under the pediment at either end, and pseudoperipteral in that twenty engaged columns are embedded along the walls of the cella. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Rectangular Temples Temple of Augustus Order: a tetrastyle prostyle porch of Corinthian columns ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Circular Temples The Temple of Hercules Victor Order: a round temple of Greek 'peripteral' design completely consisting of a concentric ring of twenty Corinthian columns ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Building Types Circular Temples Pantheon Order: cylindrical with a portico of large granite Corinthian. columns under a pediment ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Decorative Structures Obelisks An obelisk is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape at the top. The Lateran Obelisk is the largest standing ancient Egyptian obelisk in the world, and it is also the tallest obelisk in Italy. Designer: Thutmose II and completed by his grandson Thutmose IV in Karnak ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Decorative Structures Triumphal Arches A triumphal arch is a monumental structure in the shape of an archway with one or more arched passageways, often designed to span a road. The Triumphal Arch was a type of Roman architectural monument built all over the empire to commemorate military triumphs and other significant events such as the accession of a new emperor. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Decorative Structures Triumphal Arches Triumphal arches could have a single arch or multiple arches with a larger central arch. They were often erected over major thoroughfares and as this structure had no practical function as a building it was often richly decorated with architectural details, sculpture and a commemorative inscription, typically made using bronze letters. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Decorative Structures Triumphal Arches The Arch of Augustus in Rimini (Ariminum), dedicated to Augustus by the Roman Senate in 27 BC, the oldest surviving Roman triumphal arch. The largest surviving example of the triumphal arch is the Arch of Constantine, built in Rome in c. 315 CE. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Infrastructures Aqueducts The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts in order to bring water from distant sources into their cities and towns, supplying public baths, latrines, fountains and private households. These sometimes-massive structures, with single, double, or triple tiers of arches, were designed to carry fresh water to urban centers from sources sometimes many kilometers away. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Infrastructures Aqueducts Aqua Claudia Aqua Marcia Aqua Anio Vetus Aqueduct of Segovia ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Infrastructures Bridges Roman bridges, built by ancient Romans, were the first large and lasting bridges built. Roman bridges were built with stone and had the arch as the basic structure. Most utilized concrete as well, which the Romans were the first to use for bridges. The Alcántara Bridge is a masterpiece of ancient bridge building. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Infrastructures Cisterns Freshwater reservoirs were commonly set up at the termini of aqueducts and their branch lines, supplying urban households, agricultural estates, imperial palaces, thermae or naval bases of the Roman navy. The Basilica Cistern is the largest of several hundred ancient cisterns that lie beneath the city of Istanbul (formerly Constantinople), Turkey. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Infrastructures Defensive Walls The Roman walls of Lugo were constructed in the 3rd century and are still largely intact, stretching over 2 kilometers around the historic center of Lugo in Galicia (Spain). The fortifications were added to UNESCO's World Heritage List in late 2000 and are a popular tourist attraction.