1. Prehistoric Civilization (pt.1-4)_compressed_compressed.pdf

PRE-HISTORIC ARCHITECTURE PT.1 FAR 1105: HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1  HISTORY A SYSTEMATIC often CHRONOLOGICAL NARRATIVE of significant events relating to a particular PEOPLE, COUNTRY, or PERIOD, often explaining their causes. SOCIETY an enduring and cooperating large-scale co...

PRE-HISTORIC ARCHITECTURE PT.1 FAR 1105: HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1  HISTORY A SYSTEMATIC often CHRONOLOGICAL NARRATIVE of significant events relating to a particular PEOPLE, COUNTRY, or PERIOD, often explaining their causes. SOCIETY an enduring and cooperating large-scale community of people with common traditions, institutions, and identity, whose members developed collective interests and beliefs through interaction with one another. https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2019/03/27/new-study-claims-first-farmers-in-europe-were-direct- descendants-of-regions-hunter-gatherers-challenging-belief-migrants-introduced-agriculture/ CULTURE an integrated pattern of human knowledge, beliefs, and behavior built by a group of human beings and transmitted from one generation to the next. https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-Filipino-cultural-values CIVILIZATION an advanced state of human society marked by a relatively high cultural, technical, and political development. Machu Picchu: The Secrets of This Fabled Mountaintop City: https://adventure.howstuffworks.com/destinations/landmarks /places-of-interest/machu-picchu.htm INFLUENCES IN ARCHITECTURE 1. GEOGRAPHICAL 2. GEOLOGICAL 3. CLIMATIC 4. RELIGION 5. HISTORICAL 6. SOCIAL/POLITICAL  PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE EXISTING IN THE TIME PRIOR TO THE RECORDING OF HUMAN EVENTS knowledge of which is gained mainly through archaeological discoveries, studies and research. https://ph.pinterest.com/pin/9288742969419657/ PREHISTORIC TIMELINE https://esccalbe.blogspot.com/2013/05/prehistory-over-hundreds-of-millions-of.html STONE AGE The earliest known period of human culture, preceding the Bronze Age and the Iron Age and characterized by the use of stone implements and weapons. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/scottish- stone-age-settlement-may-be-the-place- where-time- began-bfgjwnsdq7h  STONE AGE PALEOLITHIC Old stone age Early humans lived in caves or simple shelters, and were hunters and gatherers using basic tools for hunting and gathering food. They cooked prey like mammoths and collected berries. They were the first to create art. The end of the Paleolithic period coincided with the last Ice Age, leading to the extinction of large mammals, rising sea levels, and human migration. https://ph.pinterest.com/pin/503840277033832905/  STONE AGE MESOLITHIC Middle stone age During the Mesolithic period (about 10,000 B.C. to 8,000 B.C.), humans used small polished stone tools for spears and arrows. They lived nomadically near water sources, introducing agriculture and transitioning to more permanent village settlements. https://donsmaps.com/lepenski.html  STONE AGE NEOLITHIC New stone age During the Neolithic period (8,000- 3,000 B.C.), humans transitioned to agriculture, domesticating animals and growing crops. They used tools like hand axes and adzes for farming, settled in plains, and advanced in farming, construction, and art with pottery, sewing, and weaving. https://aratta.wordpress.com/neolithic-revolution/ BRONZE AGE About 3,000 B.C. to 1,300 B.C. Discovery and use of bronze (copper and tin alloy) for weapons and tools. Replacement of stone tools with harder bronze tools and the invention of the ox-drawn plow and the wheel. Development of the potter’s wheel; Clothing mainly consisted of wool items like skirts, kilts, tunics, and cloaks; Construction of roundhouses with circular stone walls, thatched or turf roofs, and central hearths. Formation of villages and cities, Emergence of organized government, law, and warfare; and the Beginnings of religious practices. Egyptians built ancient pyramids during this era. The earliest written accounts come from this period, including Egyptian texts. Bronze Age. https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/bronze-age- mohanjadero-harappa-babylon/33578743 IRON AGE Roughly 1,300 B.C. to 900 B.C. Discovery of methods to heat and forge iron. Iron was considered more precious than gold at the time. Wrought iron (later replaced by steel) was easier to manufacture than bronze. Mass production of iron tools and weapons. Advances in architecture, include four- room homes with stables, hill forts, royal palaces, temples, and religious structures. Early city planning with blocks of homes, paved or cobblestone streets, and water systems. Increased sophistication in agriculture, art, and religion. The emergence of writing systems and documentation, including alphabets, marked the beginning of the Early Historical Period. Iron Age. http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp? linkpath=pages%5CB%5CR%5CBronzeAge.htm 3 3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF EARLY KNOWN TYPES OF ARCHITECTURE DWELLINGS 1. Rock Cave (earliest form of dwellings) 2. Tents and Huts (from tree barks, animal skin, plants leaves, reeds) RELIGIOUS MONUMENTS 1. Monolith (isolated single upright stone known as “menhir”) 2. Megalithic (several number of massive stones) a.Dolmen b. Cromlech c.Stone Circle or Stone Row (Stonehenge) BURIAL GROUNDS 1. Tumuli or Barrows  DWELLINGS Pinterest. Panthera Leo Spelaea Neanderthal tribe in a cave by Trebol Animation https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/437271445060864 281/ DWELLINGS ROCK CAVE DWELLINGS LEAN-TO DWELLINGS TONGUS HUT DWELLINGS TENT DWELLINGS MEZHIRICH Artist rendition of dwelling in Mezhirich, Ukraine, made of mammoth bones. Source: Dolní Věstonice Museum. DWELLINGS HUTS DWELLINGS HUTS  RELIGIOUS MONUMENTS Was Stonehenge an Ancient Observatory? http://www.astronomytrek.com/was-stonehenge-an-ancient-observatory/ RELIGIOUS MONUMENTS MENHIR Megalithic monument erected singly or in formations Menhirs were simple upright stones, sometimes of great size, and were erected most frequently in western Europe, especially Brittany Often menhirs were placed together, forming circles, semicircles, or vast ellipses. Boswen Menhir Standing Stone, West Cornwall https://www.shutterstock.com/search/boswens+menhir RELIGIOUS MONUMENTS DOLMEN Dolmens are made of two or more upright stones with a single stone lying across them. The most widely known dolmens are found in northwest Europe, notably in the region of Brittany, France; southern Scandinavia; Britain; Ireland; and the Low Countries. Dolmens are also known from parts of Africa and Asia. The Ganghwa Dolmen Site, South Korea https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/211317407490674011/ RELIGIOUS MONUMENTS CROMLECH three or more upright stones, capped by a flat stone Cromlech, the first Welsh houses https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofWales/Cromlech-the- first-Welsh-houses/ RELIGIOUS MONUMENTS STONEHENGE Wiltshire a prehistoric monument in the English county. It is composed of earthworks surrounding a circular setting of at the centre of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in England, including several hundred burial mounds. made up of Concentric rings with the following: LARGE STANDING STONES a. Outer ring 106’ diameter b. Isolated blue stone c. Innermost Circle d.Smaller blue stone https://traveldigg.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Stonehenge-Above-Pictures.jpg RELIGIOUS MONUMENTS RELIGIOUS MONUMENTS Stonehenge: Facts & Theories About Stonehenge. History.com editors Mysterious Monument https://www.history.com/topics/british- https://www.livescience.com/22427- history/stonehenge stonehenge-facts.html  BURIAL GROUNDS Was Stonehenge an Ancient Observatory? http://www.astronomytrek.com/was-stonehenge-an-ancient-observatory/ BURIAL GROUNDS TUMULI A TUMULUS (plural tumuli) is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave known as kurgans barrowsburial mounds, CAIRN a tumulus composed largely or entirely of stones Barnenez Cairn - Chambered Cairn in France Tumulus tomb, Necropoli della Banditacci, Cerveteri https://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=10394 https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/9063501122448 -NOTHING FOLLOWS- PRE-HISTORIC ARCHITECTURE PT.2 FAR 1105: HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 FERTILE CRESCENT An agricultural region arching from the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea in the west to Iraq in the east. The location of the humankind earliest cultures. ANATOLIA the peninsula of land that today constitutes the Asian portion of Turkey. Because of its location at the point where the continents of Asia and Europe meet, Anatolia was, from the beginnings of civilization, a crossroads for numerous peoples migrating or conquering from either continent.. https://www.sutori.com/en/story/ancient-mesopotamia--BZrzP9Ht7e8vTVMrFNZMUM56 ANATOLIA Cappadocia, TurkeyAncient rock-cut church and cave dwellings in Cappadocia, Anatolia, in present-day Turkey..  TIGRIS & EUPHRATES Great river system of southwestern Asia Follow roughly parallel courses through the heart of the Middle East. The lower portion of the region that defines, known as Mesopotamia (Greek: “Land Between the Rivers”), was one of the cradles of civilization. The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers https://www.tes.com/lessons/PDiPTlq2nFkKKA /the-tigris-and- euphrates-rivers ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA The architecture of Mesopotamia encompasses several distinct cultures and primarily existed in the region of the Tigris-Euphrates river system (also known as Mesopotamia). The architectural styling consisted of Sumerian masonry which meant that the structures were typically mortarless and used rounded bricks for the design. Mesopotamia was home to the earliest human civilizations Farming and domestication of animals started around 11,000-9,000 BC Tell Abu Hureyra in modern-day Syria is one of the earliest sites of farming Nineveh was one of the oldest Mesopotamian cities, dating back to 6,000 BC Sumer civilization arose in lower Tigris- Euphrates valley around 5,000 BC Ancient Mesopotamian societies developed irrigation and aqueducts, temples, pottery, early systems of banking and credit, property ownership and the first codes of law SUMERIANS On the side area the main cities of Ancient Sumer. Arriving from Asia, the Sumerians settled in the valley and built the first cities in 5400 BC. Eridu is considered to be the first city of the region. With time, these numerous cities became city- states, a large city that controls its own surrounding territory, and is not part of a bigger country. Sumerians may have been the first human civilization in the world They called themselves the Sag-giga, “black- headed ones” Sumerians were among the first to use bronze, irrigation, and cuneiform script They built large pyramids called ziggurats and celebrated art and literature The Epic of Gilgamesh was a 3,000-line poem about a Sumerian king SUMERIANS The Sumerian city-states were never united under one leader. All were autonomous*, meaning they could rule as they pleased. However, the people of these city-states traded with one another and shared a common language, religion and culture. * Autonomous - the city-states had the freedom to govern themselves and could be ruled without interference from others. Detail of the "Peace" panel of the Standard of Ur showing lyrist. Excavated at the ancient city of Ur, ca. 2600 BC (British Museum, London, UK) AKKAIDIAN RULE (ca. 2334 - 2154 BC) The Akkadian city-state, now lost to history, was the first to conquer and unify the Sumerian city-states. Founded by Sargon of Akkad, it is considered the first empire in history and was notable for establishing a professional army and introducing the composite bow. Map of the Akkad empire during the reign of Narâm-Sîn (2254-2218 BC) Epic of Gilgamesh One of the first great works of literature. It is a collection of epic poems about Gilgamesh, the King of Uruk, considered 2/3 god, 1/3 human who ruled sometime between 2800 and 2500 BC. Here is a quote from the book. Gilgamesh says this after searching in vain for eternal life: "Life, which you look for, you will never find. For when gods created man, they let death be his share, and life withheld in their own hands." A statue of Gilgamesh at the The king-hero Gilgamesh battling Tablet V of the Epic of Gilgamesh. University of Sydney. the ‘Bull of Heaven’  BABYLON AND ASSYRIA After Akkadia's empire fell, there was a struggle for domination of the region and new states appeared. BABYLONIA (1894-911 BC) The Kingdom of Babylon was ruled by Hammurabi in 1792 BC, who expanded its territory considerably in southern Mesopotamia; the map illustrates Babylon's growth from the darker orange/brown at the start of his reign to the lighter color by its end. Codes of Hammurabi One of the oldest written laws, cover various societal aspects, such as wages for ox drivers and punishments for theft; the most famous is the big stele on the left with the laws engraved in the stone. Code of Hammurabi. Photo by Mbzt in 2011 (Louvre Museum, Paris, France) After Hammurabi's death in 1750 BC, the Babylonian empire quickly declined, facing powerful enemies like the Hittites, Assyrians, and Elamites, who intermittently dominated it. Despite the empire's collapse, the city-state of Babylon persisted, eventually giving rise to a new empire in later centuries. ASSYRIA (2500-605 BC) Assyria comes from the name of the city-state it grew from Assur (Ashur). In northern Mesopotamia, the small city-state grew more and more powerful with the passing centuries. It developed a strong army and conquered a large part of the area. Ancient Assyria: Temple of Hatra Assyrian Empire By 671 BC, the Assyrian empire was the largest the world had ever seen, having even conquered Egypt. However, all empires eventually fall. For Assyria, this was accelerated by how badly its rulers treated the people they conquered, and their fall saw the rise of New Babylonia.  Warfare To defeat enemies, a ruler needs a powerful army, and the Assyrians used chariots pulled by two horses. At first, they were used as mobile firing platforms and as a way to give orders on the battlefield from a higher position. Over time, these chariots evolved into larger, four- horse units carrying up to four men, enhancing their effectiveness in disrupting infantry and breaching fortifications, thus supporting more successful infantry and cavalry attacks. An Assyrian Cavalry Archer. Found in the northern palace of Nineveh, ca. 640 BC (British Museum, London, UK)  Taxes The Assyrian Empire was governed by a king from his capital, Nineveh, who appointed governors to oversee various provinces and maintain order. The king also collected taxes to fund the army and build public infrastructure, such as roads. Sargon II and dignitary. Originally from the palace of Sargon II at Dur Sharrukin, ca. 716–713 BC. Photo by Jastrow in 2006 (Louvre Museum, Paris, France) Nimrud The Palaces at Nimrud Restored. Imagined by the city's first excavator, Nimrud (today in ruins) was at one time Austen Henry Layard and architectural historian James Fergusson, taken the Assyrian capital. from "A Second Series of the Monuments of Nineveh", 1853 NEO BABYLON (626-539 BC) As Assyria declined, Babylon rose to prominence by conquering much of its former territory. King Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BC) was particularly notable for using the wealth from his conquests to rebuild Babylon, including the blue Ishtar Gate and the Hanging Gardens. To maintain control over his expansive empire, he, like other Neo-Babylonian rulers, had to engage in frequent military campaigns.  Famous Buildings The image above features two famous Babylonian structures: the Hanging Gardens, which may be legendary and were supposedly built by Nebuchadnezzar II for his wife, Queen Amytis, who missed her mountainous homeland; and the Great Ziggurat, known as the Tower of Babel in the Bible, visible in the distance to the left of the picture and now disappeared. Engraving by Hanging gardens of Babylon, by Maarten van Heemskerck in the 16th century  The Ziggurat Following the Sumerians, all civilizations that emerged in Mesopotamia constructed ziggurats—stepped pyramids built to worship their gods, believed to serve as stairways connecting heaven and earth. An artist's depiction of the Ziggurat of Ur as it may have appeared around the time it was created in the 21st Century BCE. From the game Old World. The Tower of Babel The Tower of Babel mentioned in the Bible is associated with the Etemenanki, a massive ziggurat that once stood in Babylon. Over time, its appearance has been interpreted differently depending on the society and era. The Tower of Babel. Unknown author, parchment from 1370. Taken from "The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei" (Bavarian State Library, Munich, Germany) Religion Religion played a unifying role in Mesopotamia, where the Sumerians, Akkadians, Assyrians, and Babylonians shared a common polytheistic belief system. Although Mesopotamian religion has disappeared, it significantly influenced later religions. Marduk. Originally in Susa (Louvre Museum, Paris, France) Lamassu Regarded as an Assyrian protective deity, a lamassu features a human head, the body of an ox or lion, and bird's wings, with the lamassu from Dur- Sharrukin dating to the Neo-Assyrian period between 721-705 BCE. Ishtar Gate Constructed in about 575 BCE by the order of King Nebuchadnezzar II, the Ishtar Gate was excavated in the early 20th century and is now on display in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin. Since excavation, it has undergone some reconstruction using the original bricks to maintain its form.  IMPORTANT ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES British and French archaeologists began exploring the Fertile Crescent for the remains of storied Mesopotamian cities such as Assyria and Babylonia as early as the mid-1800s. Some of the most famous Mesopotamian archaeological sites include: Ziggurat of Ur: It’s an enormous temple in southern Iraq and one of the best remaining examples of Sumerian architecture. Archaeologists think it was built around 2100 B.C. Babylon: Founded nearly 5,000 years ago on the Euphrates River in present-day Iraq, this ancient metropolis and Biblical city was the last major power in Mesopotamia to fall under Persian control in 539 B.C. Hattusha: This UNESCO World Heritage site is one of Turkey’s greatest ruins and was once the capital of the Hittite Empire, which peaked in the second millennium B.C. Persepolis: An ancient Mesopotamian city in southern Iran, Persepolis ranks among the world’s greatest archaeological sites with many architecturally significant Persian buildings. ARCHITECTURE IN Chogha Zanbil Ziggurat ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA Built around 1250 BC by Elamite king Untash-Napirisha to honor the god Three main factors that contribute to the Inshushinak and later destroyed by Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, the site architectural styling of the period: was excavated between 1951 and 1961 and is now the first Iranian site on the UNESCO World Heritage List. 1) The Sociopolitical organization of the Sumerian city-states and of the kingdoms and empires that succeeded them. 2) The role of organized religion in Mesopotamian affairs of state. 3) Influences from the natural environment. The architecture of the period was predominately constructed of brick and occasionally stone by the Assyrians. Ziggarut of Ur The Ziggurat of Ur, originally built by Ur-Nammu in ancient Ur (modern-day Dhi Qar Province, Iraq), fell into ruins in the 6th century BCE but was later restored by King Nabonidus; excavated by Sir Leonard Woolley in the 1920s and 1930s and partially reconstructed in the 1980s, it remains a notable example of neo-Babylonian architecture. The photo on the left shows the before and after the excavation. https://ar.inspiredpencil.com/pictures-2023/ziggurat-of-ur-inside The Royal Tomb of Ur Discovered in 1922 by archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley, the 4,800-year-old Sumerian burial site offers insights into Sumerian architecture and provides a deeper understanding of their daily life. Tell Brak An ancient city in Syria, Tell Brak was destroyed by Assyria in 1300 BC which caused it to lose its former importance and remain as a small settlement. Excavation for the site was started by Max Mallowan in 1937 but has since been halted due to the Syrian Civil War. https://caddetailsblog.com/post/what-is-the-architecture-of-mesopotamia  LASCAUX CAVE WALL PAINTNGS A cave in Lascaux, France, containing wall paintings and engraving thought to date from c13000-8500 B.C. Lascaux Cave Paintings Discovered https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/lascaux-cave- paintings-discovered History of Art & Design. The Halls of Bulls http://aboutscy.blogspot.com/2011/07/ all-of-bulls.html -NOTHING FOLLOWS- PRE-HISTORIC ARCHITECTURE PT.3 FAR 1105: HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1  Indus Valley Civilization HARAPPA A bronze age culture that flourished in the Indus valley c2300 – 1500 B.C. The total population of the civilization is thought to have been upward of 5 million, & its territory stretched over 900 miles (1,500 km) along the Indus River.  Tell of Qarqur TELL An artificial mounds accumulated from the remains of one or more ancient settlement, often use in the Middle East as part of a place name. An example is the Tell Qarqur in Syria. A major archaeological site located in the Orontes River Valley of western Syria.  JERICHO The city’s site is of great archaeological importance; it provides evidence of the first development of permanent settlements and thus of the first steps toward civilization. The World's First Walled Community City of Jericho in ancient times. Original artwork for illustration on pp12–13 of Archaeological excavations have demonstrated Jericho’s lengthy history. The Bible Stroy issue no 21. Schematic cross-section of the fortification system at Jericho:  CATAL HUYUK It had mud-brick fortifications and houses, frescoed shrines, a fully developed agriculture, and extensive trading in obsidian, the chief material for tool making. A Neolithic settlement in Anatolia, dated 6500-5000 B.C. One of the world earliest cities. Source: Catal Huyuk and the ‘Semi-Grid’ Pattern https://www.tslr.net/2007/11/catal-huyuk-and-semi-grid pattern.html  CATAL HUYUK A town with very elaborate architectural features in each space like wall paintings, platforms, and cult spaces. small family houses are knitted together with no streets, occasional open spaces between the buildings were used as garbage disposal areas. Ancient Near East. prehistoric catal huyuk city plans https://nl.pinterest.com/pin/127226758197681005/  The houses had their entrances through a hole in the roof, accessed by a ladder. The hearth and oven were placed directly below this hole in the roof so that the hole in the roof also acted as the chimney for the house. CATAL HUYUK, a Neolithic pro-city of 7,000 b.c.e. Dorling Kindersley "Knowledge Encyclopedia" CATAL HUYUK housetops were mud-plastered terraces, which also acted as the communal outdoor space for the family. The houses were built on a timber frame of posts and beams, which divided the walls into a series of horizontal and vertical panels, which were then filled with mud brick and plastered over. HOUSES NEVER SHARE WALLS; EACH ROOM HAS ITS OWN WALLS INDEPENDENT OF THE ADJOINING STRUCTURE. house had a rectangular room with a narrow storage space or a compartmentalized space along one side. large rectangular living room would also have a built-in platform, used for a variety of activities https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Catal_Hüyük_EL.JPG -NOTHING FOLLOWS- PRE-HISTORIC ARCHITECTURE PT.4 FAR 1105: HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION The Aegean civilization is the general term for the prehistoric civilizations in Greece and Aegean. A term for the bronze age civilizations of Greece around the Aegean Sea. It includes several distinct cultures that developed around the Aegean Sea. The key periods and regions are: 1. Stone Age (circa 7000–3000 BC) Early cultures in the Aegean region, including Crete, the Cyclades, and parts of the Greek mainland. 2. Bronze Age (circa 3000–1000 BC) Minoan Civilization: Originated on Crete, known for its advanced palaces, craftsmanship, and writing, it was named after the legendary King Minos, with Knossos as a prominent city. Cycladic Civilization: Flourished on the Cycladic Islands, characterized by distinctive pottery and figurines. Helladic Civilization: Developed on the Greek mainland (Peloponnese, central Greece, and Thessaly), with early, middle, and late stages recognized based on pottery and other artifacts. Mycenaean Civilization: Emerged on the mainland around the 16th century BC under Cretan influence, with Mycenae as a key center. Sometimes used to describe the broader Aegean culture from about 1400 BC onward. Each civilization is marked by unique styles and technological advancements, contributing to the complex tapestry of ancient Aegean history. MINOAN ARCHITECTURE The Minoan civilization made a unique architectural contribution to Europe. Notable palaces are Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, and Zakros. Inspired most likely from Egypt and the Near East, evolving from earlier monumental tombs. The Architectural complexity was advanced for its time, possibly The Palace of Knossos inspiring the Labyrinth myth. The Palace of Knossos, a grand Minoan structure Minoan palaces are a distinctive on Crete built before 2000 BCE and destroyed around 1700 BCE, is renowned for its advanced feature of Bronze Age European architectural complexity and association with the architecture. myths of King Minos and the Labyrinth. The Minoan Civilization: A Very Short Introduction https://medium.com/@hercynianforest/the-minoan- civilization-a-very-short-introduction-f37b15700d7e The Palace of Knossos The Palace of Phaistos, a significant Minoan complex on Crete constructed around 2000– 1700 BCE, is noted for its intricate layout and rich architectural style, reflecting the advanced civilization of the Minoans. The Palace of Knossos It features a complex architectural layout with multiple interconnected tiers, large open courtyards, and a labyrinthine arrangement of rooms and storage areas, demonstrating the Minoans' advanced planning and organizational skills. MYCENAEAN ARCHITECTURE The Mycenaean civilization flourished in the Late Bronze Age (c. 1700-1100 BCE), peaking from the 15th to the 13th century BCE. Notable centers are Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, and Knossos. Derived from the earlier Minoan civilization, adapting and evolving Minoan architectural, artistic, and religious elements to fit a more militaristic culture. Main Architectural features include https://www.smarthistory.org monumental palaces, fortified citadels, and tholos tombs. The Mycenaeans dominated mainland Greece and the Aegean, extending trade and cultural influence across the Mediterranean, and significantly influenced later Greek mythology and The “Palace” and Grave Circle A, culture. Mycenae, c. 1600–1100 B.C.E. https://www.tes.com/lessons/l54n5JLUUw mk-g/classical-greece https://www.smarthistory.org The “Palace” and Grave Circle A, Mycenae, c. 1600–1100 B.C.E.  Mycenae Lion Gate Mycenae, c. 1250 BCE Mycenae Lion Gate https://www.greeka.com/peloponnese/ mycenae/sightseeing/mycenae-lion-gate/  Mycenae Cyclopean Walls Mycenae, 13th Century BCE https://www.greeka.com/peloponnese/mycenae/ sightseeing/mycenae-cyclopean-walls/ PARTHIAN EMPIRE The Parthian Kingdom (or Arsacid Empire) emerged around 247 BCE following the fall of the Seleucid Empire. They grew to control most of Mesopotamia and southeastern Central Asia and became a major competitor with Rome for dominance in Armenia and the broader Eastern region. The empire ended in 224 CE with the assassination of its last ruler, leading to the rise of the Sasanian Persian Empire.  Seleucid PARTHIAN ARCHITECTURE Parthian Mesopotamia The architecture developed under Parthian rule in Iran and Western Mesopotamia, from 3rd century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D. combining classical with indigenous features. https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentr%20y/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-0465-2_1117 Parthians: Their Great Empire And Skilled Horse Archers http://www.ancientpages.com/2016/11/10/parthians- their- great-empire-and-skilled-horse-archers/ HITTITES Occupied Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) before 1700 BCE, developing from the indigenous Hatti and possibly Hurrian peoples. They were Anatolian ethnic group who built kingdoms at Kussara & Hattusa Expanded and built an empire rivaling Egypt, often mentioned in the Hebrew Tanakh as adversaries of the Israelites. Referred to as the "Kingdom of Kheta" in Egyptian records and "Nesili" in their documents; the term Hittite comes from the Bible and the Amarna Letters. Old Kingdom: 1700–1500 BCE New Kingdom (Hittite Empire): 1400–1200 BC The empire reached its height under King Suppiluliuma I and his son Mursilli II but declined due to invasions by the Sea Peoples and the Kaska tribe, eventually falling to the Assyrians. HITTITE ARCHITECTURE The architecture of the Hittite empire which dominated Asia Minor from about 2000 to 1200 B.C. Characterize by cyclopean stone masonry and gateway portal sculptures. Key sites include Boğazköy, featuring temple structures and city walls. Bit-hilani - A porticoed entrance hall Hittite Architecture & Art with a stairway and flanking pillars. https://study.com/academy/lesson/hittite- architecture-art.html Double Gateway - Characterized by corbeled arches, friezes, and flanked by beast figures, exemplified by the Lion Gate at Hattuşaş (c. 1600 BCE). The lion gate figures influenced Western European church architecture. The interior wall paintings were sophisticated but only a few fragments remain, mainly from Boğazköy and Bit-hilani Atchana in northern Syria. Parthian Mesopotamia Bit-halani An architectural structure characteristic of the Hittite civilization. It is a type of entrance hall or portico that typically feature a (1) Raised Platform accessible by a staircase. (2) Pillars: Flanking the entrance and supporting the structure. (3) The Decorative Elements often includes detailed carvings and sometimes statues or reliefs. The bit-hilani served both ceremonial and functional purposes, marking the entrance to significant buildings or complexes. It reflects the Hittites' emphasis on grandeur and formality in their architecture. Hittite Architecture & Art https://study.com/academy/lesson/hittite- architecture-art.html  The Lion Gate Hatussa Tourist Attraction Will Transport You Back in Time to Ancient Hittite Village https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history- archaeology/tourist-attraction-will-transport- you-back-time-ancient-hittite-village-021052 References: History of Architecture by Sir Banister Fletcher Visual Dictionary of Architecture by Francis D.K. Ching JPT Review Center Handbook Encyclopedia Britannica https://www.sutori.com/ https://www.britannica.com/ -NOTHING FOLLOWS-