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A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE EXAM SUBJECT WEIGHTS ▪ 30%: History and theory of architecture; principles of planning; architectural practice ▪ 30%: Structural design; building materials and construction; utilities ▪ 40%: Architectural design and site planning History A systematic, often chronologi...

A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE EXAM SUBJECT WEIGHTS ▪ 30%: History and theory of architecture; principles of planning; architectural practice ▪ 30%: Structural design; building materials and construction; utilities ▪ 40%: Architectural design and site planning History A systematic, often chronological narrative of significant events as relating to a particular people, country, or period, often including an explanation of their causes. Course Outline ▪ MODULE 1: Prehistoric and Ancient Architecture ▪ MODULE 2: Classical Architecture and the Western Succession ▪ MODULE 3: Architecture in Asia and the Pacific Region ▪ MODULE 4: Architecture in the Philippines MODULE 1 Prehistoric and Ancient Architecture Module 1 Overview 1.1 Prehistoric Architecture 1.2 Mesopotamian Architecture ▪ Sumerian ▪ Babylonian ▪ Assyrian ▪ Persian 1.3 Egyptian Architecture 1.4 Minoan Architecture  Prehistoric Architecture A map of early human migrations. Early Dwellings Shift from nomadic, hunter-gatherer system to a combination of farming and hunting. Domestication of animals and plants. Created societies of villages near caves or along shores and streams. Rock caves Earliest form of human settlement. Lascaux Cave Lascaux, France. A cave in France containing wall paintings and engravings of Paleolithic humans thought to date from c. 13,000- 8,500 BCE. Built shelter Primitive lifestyle was nomadic. Temporary shelter were designed in direct response to climate, local materials, and hunting patterns. Built with limited investment in time and energy. Tipi A portable Indian shelter. Beehive hut Kerry, Ireland. A clochán is a stone beehive-shaped hut with a corbelled roof, commonly associated with the Irish coastline. Trullo Alberobello, Bari Province. A traditional rendered stone dwelling in Apulia, southern Italy, in which square chambers are roofed with conical vaulted roofs. Wigwam An American Indian dwelling, usually of round or oval shape, formed of poles overlaid with bark, rush mats, or animal skins. Hogan A Navaho Indian dwelling constructed usually of earth and logs and covered with mud and sod. Igloo An Eskimo house, usually built of blocks of hard snow or ice in the shape of a dome, or when permanent, of sod, wood, or stone. Religious Structures Villages were connected by shared mortuary and goddess ritual centers. Megaliths Ancient stone monuments. After people started sharing community life, they began turning their attention to architecture that celebrated the spiritual and the sacred. Their tombs and temples imitated nature in gigantic forms resembling mountains and other landscape formations. Menhir Monolith; A prehistoric monument consisting of an upright stone, usually standing alone but sometimes aligned with others in parallel rows. Kerloas Menhir Brittany, France. Dolmen From the words daul, a table, and maen, a stone; A prehistoric monument consisting of two or more large upright stones supporting a horizontal stone slab or capstone, and usually regarded as a tomb. Kilclooney County Donegal, Ireland. It utilizes trabeation, the most basic construction system for structures. It consists of vertical supports called posts that hold up horizontal elements called lintels. Goindol Gochang, South Korea. The Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites are the location of hundreds of stone dolmen in Korea. The sites were designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2000. Variations Cove Trilithon Three standing stones, A structure consisting of two on the sides and one two upright stones at the back. supporting a horizontal lintel. Cromlech A circular arrangement of megaliths enclosing a dolmen or burial mound. Stone Circle Avebury, England These stone circles were associated with burials, others with cremation. They also worked as celestial observatories that were meant to follow the movements of the moon and stars, as would have been typical for early agrarian-based societies. Stonehenge Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England. A megalithic monument consisting of four concentric rings of trilithons and menhirs centered around an altar stone. It is believed to have been used by a sun cult or for astronomical observations. A solstice celebration at the Stonehenge. Tumulus An artificial mound of earth or stone, especially over an ancient grave. Also called barrow. Etruscan necropolis of Banditaccia at Cerveteri. Early Cities Ice Age to the Neolithic Age; the earth’s climate warmed up. As settlements became more permanent, hunters started farming communities. New architecture was also developed to represent communal and spiritual values. Fertile Crescent: An early, dense network of cities and villages. Jericho Aerial view showing the ruins of Tell es-Sultan. Jordan. One of the world's oldest continually-inhabited city. A hilltop city; citizens lived in stone houses with plaster floors, surrounded by high walls and towers. Khirokitia Cyprus. One of the earliest Neolithic village. Utilized a complex architectural system built according to a preconceived plan, suggesting a structured social organisation. Khirokitia Partial modern-day reconstruction of Khirokitia, Cyprus. Houses, built in limestone, had a circular plan, the exterior diameter of which varied from about 2 to 9 meters. Çatal Hüyük Largest and most well-preserved Neolithic village. Consisted of rectangular flat-roofed houses packed together into a single architectural mass No streets or passageways. Typical house and reconstructed shine, Catal Hüyük. Mesopotamian Architecture Mesopotamia Fertile Crescent; present day Iraq; From the Greek words mesos and potamas, meaning “middle river.” Refers to the fertile plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Sumerian (5000-2000 B.C.) ▪ Architecture developed by the Sumerians. ▪ Characterized by monumental temples of sun-dried brick faced with burnt or glazed brick, often built upon the ruins of their predecessors. Ziggurat Stepped structures constructed with outside staircases and a temple or shrine at the top for worshipping the gods of nature. Ziggurat ▪ Ziggurats were built of mud bricks made of dirt mixed with water and straw. The mud was poured into wooden molds and left to dry in the sun (or baked in kilns). ▪ Its four corners were oriented towards the cardinal points. ▪ Priests conduct ceremonies at the fire altar on top. Ziggurat of Ur Tell el-Muqayyar, Iraq. A temple dedicated to the moon god built by the Sumerian ruler, Ur Nammu, and his successors around 2125 B.C. Babylonian (2000-1600 B.C.) ▪ The last great Mesopotamian city-empire of the ancient age. ▪ Architecture characterized by mud-brick construction, had walls articulated by pilasters and recesses, sometimes faced with burnt and glazed brick. ▪ Palaces and temples were decorated with enameled brick friezes of bulls and lions. Tower of Babel Lucas van Valckenborch, 1594. As described in the Bible, this structure may have been built in Babylon around 600 B.C. by King Nebuchadnezzar II to “rival heaven.” Herodotus recorded that the ziggurat had 7 tiers covered in glazed tiles. The tower may have risen to a height of 300 feet and may have been used as a temple for worshipping Marduk, the god of the city of Babylon. Hanging Gardens One of the “Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.” A royal palace constructed of mud brick walls were covered with glazed, colored tiles decorated with animal reliefs. Legend says that the sumptuous palace was terraced with lush gardens that were irrigated by water pumped from the Euphrates. Ishtar Gate Reconstructed. Pergamon Museum, Berlin. Large, four-storey portal dominating the processional avenue through the city. It was covered in glazed bricks, colorful tiles, and decorative figures of bulls and dragons. Assyrian (900-700 B.C.) ▪ Palaces took precedence over religious buildings. ▪ Architecture was characterized by mud-brick buildings. Stone was used for carved monumental decorative sculptures. ▪ External walls were plainly treated, but ornamented with carved relief sculpture or with polychrome bricks. ▪ Interior courts were all large, and filled with columns. Dur-Sharrukin Palace of Sargon. Khorsabad, Iraq. Sargon II. Squarish parallelogram city, with the palace, temples, and government buildings compressed within the walls. Palace, public reception rooms, inner court, and harem. Temple with 7-staged ziggurat. Stables, kitchen, bakery, and wine cellar.  Apartments in an Assyrian Palace Seraglio, palace proper Haram, private chamber Khan, service chamber View of palace compound of Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad). Persian (500-331 B.C) ▪ Characterized by a synthesis of architectural elements of surrounding countries, such as Assyria, Egypt, and Ionian Greece. Persepolis Fars Province, Iran. Darius. Darius designed his own capital city, Persepolis—“the city of the Persians,” as the Greeks called it—located 10 kilometers to the southwest and closer to the fertile lands along the coast.  Apadana, great audience hall. Throne room, “Hall of a Hundred Columns.” Palaces of Darius and Xerxes I Harem Council hall Store rooms Hillside tombs No shrine or temple has been identified. Plan: Palace complex at Persepolis 1) Staircase at Persepolis; 2) Part of the palace complex.  Egyptian Architecture Egyptian (3000 B.C.-200 A.D.) ▪ Characterized by the axial planning of massive masonry tombs and temples, the use of trabeated construction with precise stonework, and the decoration of battered walls with pictographic carvings in relief. ▪ A preoccupation with eternity and the afterlife dominated the building of these funerary monuments and temples. Egypt, ca. 3rd century B.C. Egypt’s possession of the Nile was of immense advantage, not only on account of its value as a trade route, and as a means of communication, but also because its waters were the fertilizing agents that made desert sands into fruitful fields. Religious Structures Saqqara, Egypt. Mastaba A tomb for the nobility or members of the royal family. Made of mud brick, rectangular in plan with a flat roof and sloping sides, from which a shaft leads to underground burial and offering chambers.  1 stone facing 2 sacrificial chapel 3 tombstone (serdab) 4 fill 5 shaft 6 masonry seal 7 stone slab 8 burial chamber 9 sarcophagus Cross section of a mastaba. Luxor, Egypt. Temples An edifice or place dedicated to the worship or presence of a deity. Kinds of Temple Cult Temple Mortuary Temple An ancient Egyptian An ancient Egyptian temple for the worship of temple for offerings and a deity. worship of a deceased person, usually a deified king.  1 RA, RE – sun 2 OSIRIS – death, judgement 3 ISIS – motherhood, protection 4 HORUS – falcon, royalty 5 SETH, SET – storms, chaos, evil 6 ATUM, TUM – sun, creator of all things 7 MIN – fertility 8 MAAT – order 9 AMUN, AMEN, AMON – 'the unseen one' 10 MUT – mistress of heaven 11 KHONSU – moon 'the traveller' 12 HAPI – the Nile's fertility 13 NUT – the firmament 15 SHU – air 14 GEB – earth 16 PTAH – creation, craftsmanship Egyptian gods. Karnak Temple Complex Luxor, Egypt. When Amun-Re, the god of the sun and the heaven became the national deity during the period of the New Kingdom, at least a dozen temples were built in his honor. One of the main components of this political/religious landscape was the temple complex of Karnak. Karnak Temple Complex. Luxor, Egypt. (Reconstructed model)  1 1st pylons, c.320 BC 2 forecourt 3 birth house, mammisi 4 kiosk 5 pylon temple 6 2nd pylons, c.1320 BC 7 hypostyle hall, c.1290–1250 BC 8 3rd pylons 9 obelisks 10 4th pylons 12 5th pylons 13 6th pylons 14 barque temple 15 temple court (Middle Kingdom) 16 festival hall 17 holy of the holies 18 ambulatory `Botanical garden´ Cult Temple of Amon (Amun), Karnak; 2000–300 BC Avenue of Sphinxes Leads to a tall portal guarded by a towering pylon. Sphinx A figure of an imaginary creature having the body of a lion and the head of a man, ram, or hawk.  7 androsphinx: human-headed sphinx Vatican Museum, Rome 8 androsphinx: human-headed sphinx Amenemhet III, 12.dynasty, c.1800 BC 9 androsphinx: human-headed sphinx Thutmosis III, 18th dynasty, Rek-minh-re, Thebes, Egypt 10 criosphinx: ram-headed sphinx 11 hieracosphinx: falcon-headed sphinx Egyptian sphinxes. Obelisk An Egyptian monolithic four-sided standing stone, tapering to a pyramidical cap (a pyramidion), often inscribed with hieroglyphs and erected as a monument. Pylon A gateway guarding a sacred precinct consisting of either a pair of tall truncated pyramids and a doorway between them, often decorated with painted reliefs. Hypostyle Hall A large hall having many columns in rows supporting a flat roof, and sometimes a clerestory. Pylon temple An Egyptian temple type with monumental gateways, formed by twined pylons. Kiosk A freestanding stone canopy structure supported by columns in Egyptian architecture. (Hypaethral, classical temple that is wholly or partly open to the sky.) Mammisi Dendera Temple Complex. Dendera, Egypt. Birth-house; a small Egyptian side temple, kiosk or tent shrine to celebrate the place where the god of the main temple was born, or where the goddess bore her children. Barque Temple A room or building in which the image of the Pharaoh or deity was revered. Mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut and Shrine of Anubis, c.1470 BC Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut Deir el Bahari, Egypt. Senmut. Queen Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple played a key role in the processional events as the temporary resting place for the barque during the Beautiful Feast of the Valley. Located in the Valley of the Kings, which was to become the main burial place for the Egyptian royalty. Rock-cut Tomb A tomb hewn out of native rock, presenting only an architectural front with dark interior chambers, of which the sections are supported by masses of stone left in the form of solid pillars.  20 outer court 21 sphinxes 22 ramps 23 colonnades (lower) 24 terrace (lower) 25 ramp to shrine 26 shrine (of goddess Hathor) 27 colonnades (upper) 28 chapel (chapel of Anubis) 29 Osiris pillars 30 chapel (of Hatshepsut) 31 ceremonial court 32 sun temple 33 inner sanctuary Mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut and Shrine of Anubis, Deir el-Bahari; c.1470 BC, architect Senenmut. Temple at Abu Simbel, near Philae, Egypt. Abu Simbel The facade, carved directly into the sandstone cliff, takes the form of a pylon and is dominated by four colossal seated figures, 22 meters tall, all portrayals of Ramesses. Pyramid A massive masonry structure having a rectangular base and four smooth, steeply sloping sides facing the cardinal points and meeting at an apex. Used in ancient Egypt as a tomb to contain the burial chamber and the mummy of the pharaoh. Imhotep ▪ The first architect recorded in history. ▪ Designed the Saqqara complex and the Stepped Pyramid of Djoser. Pyramid The Egyptian pyramids of the Giza Necropolis. The ancient Egyptians built more than 80 pyramids along the banks of the Nile near modern-day Cairo from 2700 to 1640 B.C. The pyramids were designed according to three forms: ▪ Step pyramid ▪ Bent pyramid ▪ Straight-sided/Sloped pyramid Step Pyramid A pyramid-type whose sides are stepped with tiers rather than smooth, in Egypt predating the true pyramids; the primary existing Egyptian example is that of King Djoser at Saqqara, south of Cairo. Pyramid of Djoser Saqqara, Egypt. Built by Imhotep, architect to King Zoser; begun as a mastaba-tomb then successively enlarged; made of limestone; and set within a complex of buildings. Mortuary Complex of Djoser The Mortuary Complex of Djoser, located on a slight hill west of Memphis and just to the north of Saqqâra, was enclosed by a 277-by-544 meter wall laid out in precise orientation to the four cardinal points. Section through step pyramid and tomb of Djoser. Ka statue of Djoser In a small chapel positioned against the north side of the pyramid was a life-size statue of Zoser, showing him wearing a priest’s Sed festival cloak, a ceremonial beard, and a ritual headdress. Sitting in the dark chamber, he could gaze through two small holes in the wall placed at the statue’s eye level, through which he could watch the ceremonies taking place in the court. Bent Pyramid An Egyptian pyramid-type in which each triangular planar surface changes direction as it approaches the top, as in a mansard roof; sometimes also called a blunt or false pyramid. Pyramid of Sneferu Dahshur, Egypt. Built by Sneferu (2613–2589 BCE), who ruled during the Fourth Dynasty. Originally planned to be a towering 150 meters high, it was too bold, and the ground gave way under part of it. In an effort to save the building, the designers added a kink or bend to reduce the weight and angle of the slope (from 52 to 43.5 degrees). Sloped Pyramid An Egyptian pyramid-type in which four sloping triangular sides, with a fixed angle, culminate at an apex. Also, true pyramid. North Pyramid of Dahshur Dahshur, Egypt. The first true pyramid completed in Egypt; built by King Snefru between 2575-2551 BCE. Pyramids of Giza Giza, Egypt. Erected on the west bank of Nile River; built of local stone on a core of rock with casing blocks of limestone; 480 feet tall with a square base measuring 756 feet on a side. The sides of the Great Pyramid rise at 51 degrees and are aligned to the four cardinal points. Section: Great pyramid of Khufu; King’s chamber. The Grand Gallery leading to the burial chamber of King Khufu. Pyramid Complex The ceremonial area of buildings and structures surrounding an ancient Egyptian pyramid. Parts of a Pyramid Complex ▪ Mortuary temple In ancient Egyptian architecture, a place of worship of a deceased king or queen, especially one adjoining a pyramid or rock cut tomb, in which offerings of food and objects were made; also called a funerary temple.  11 Western necropolis 12 boat grave, boat pit 13 Eastern necropolis 14 pyramid 15 mortuary temple, pyramid temple 16 pyramid causeway 17 valley temple 18 queen’s pyramid 19 sphinx 20 sphinx temple Great Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops); pyramid of Khafre (Chefren); pyramid of Menkaure (Mycerinus), after 2472 BC. Parts of a Pyramid Complex ▪ Valley temple A temple pavilion in an ancient Egyptian pyramid complex, connected via a covered causeway to a mortuary temple at the foot of a pyramid; used for preparing the Pharaoh for his final journey.  11 Western necropolis 12 boat grave, boat pit 13 Eastern necropolis 14 pyramid 15 mortuary temple, pyramid temple 16 pyramid causeway 17 valley temple 18 queen’s pyramid 19 sphinx 20 sphinx temple Great Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops); pyramid of Khafre (Chefren); pyramid of Menkaure (Mycerinus), after 2472 BC. Parts of a Pyramid Complex ▪ Pyramid temple A mortuary temple connected specifically to a pyramid, or part of an Egyptian pyramid complex. ▪ Pyramid causeway A covered ceremonial route or corridor leading from a valley temple to a mortuary temple at the foot of a pyramid, notably at sites of the Nile valley pyramids.  11 Western necropolis 12 boat grave, boat pit 13 Eastern necropolis 14 pyramid 15 mortuary temple, pyramid temple 16 pyramid causeway 17 valley temple 18 queen’s pyramid 19 sphinx 20 sphinx temple Great Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops); pyramid of Khafre (Chefren); pyramid of Menkaure (Mycerinus), after 2472 BC. Plan: Mortuary and valley temples of Khafre at Giza Stela A slab stela shows a royal personage at a funerary repast sitting next to an offering table covered with the loaves of bread that have been brought to him. Next to him on the floor, on small platforms, are containers holding incense, ointments, figs, and wine. A scalar comparison of Egyptian pyramids. Why a tapering shape? Ancient rulers liked these artificial mountains for their great height (allowing them to commune with the gods) and commanding visual presence over flat river valleys. On a practical level, a pyramid concentrates most of its building on the lower half, so fewer stones have to be hauled to the top. Egyptian Capitals  C palm capital, palmiform (plume capital) F bell capital, blossom capital, campaniform, open D papyrus capital, papyriform capital E bud capital, closed bud capital, closed capital G lotus capital, lotiform, lily capital H tent-pole capital Egyptian Capitals. 1) Composite column (Hathor capital); 2) Hathor column; 3) Hathor column; 4) Osiris column, Osiris pillar  Minoan Architecture Minoan (1800-1300 B.C.) ▪ A Bronze Age civilization flourished in Crete. ▪ Named after King Minos of Knossos. ▪ Gate buildings with multi-columnar porches provided access to unfortified compounds. ▪ Foundation walls, piers and lintels were stone with the upper walls in timber framework. Palace at Knossos, Crete, Greece. (Largest palace built by the Minoans.) Palace at Knossos Crete, Greece. The palace contained residences, kitchens, storage rooms, bathrooms, ceremonial rooms, workshops, and sanctuaries. End of Module 1