1. History of France.pdf

Prehistoric and Ancient Periods Prehistoric France: Evidence of early human life, including Neanderthals and Cro-Magnon humans. Gaul: Inhabited by Celtic tribes before Roman conquest. Known for the Gauls, a collection of tribes. The Gauls were a collection of Celtic tribe...

Prehistoric and Ancient Periods Prehistoric France: Evidence of early human life, including Neanderthals and Cro-Magnon humans. Gaul: Inhabited by Celtic tribes before Roman conquest. Known for the Gauls, a collection of tribes. The Gauls were a collection of Celtic tribes that inhabited the region known as Gaul, which encompasses modern-day France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy, as well as parts of the Netherlands and Germany west of the Rhine. Here’s a detailed overview of who the Gauls were: Origins and Culture 1. Celtic Roots: The Gauls were part of the larger Celtic culture that spread across much of Europe from the late Bronze Age into the Iron Age. They shared linguistic, cultural, and religious practices with other Celtic peoples. 2. Tribal Society: The Gauls were organized into numerous tribes, each with its own leadership, territories, and customs. Some of the well-known tribes included the Arverni, the Aedui, the Sequani, and the Belgae. 3. Language: The Gauls spoke Gaulish, a Celtic language. This language was part of the broader Indo-European language family and shared similarities with other Celtic languages like those spoken in Britain and Ireland. 4. Religion: The Gauls practiced a polytheistic religion, worshipping a variety of gods and goddesses associated with nature, warfare, and other aspects of life. They had a class of priests known as druids, who played important roles in religious rituals, education, and legal matters. Social Structure 5. Hierarchy: Gaulish society was hierarchical, with a warrior aristocracy at the top, followed by commoners and slaves. Chieftains and kings ruled individual tribes, and alliances between tribes were common. 6. Economy: The Gauls were primarily agrarian, relying on farming and animal husbandry. They were also skilled metalworkers, known for their craftsmanship in iron and bronze. Trade with neighboring regions, including the Roman Empire, was significant. Military and Warfare  7. Warrior Culture: The Gauls were known for their warrior culture, with a reputation for fierce and brave fighters. They often engaged in inter-tribal warfare, as well as conflicts with neighboring peoples, including the Romans. 8. Invasions: The Gauls were involved in various military campaigns beyond their homeland. Notably, in 390 BCE, a group of Gauls sacked Rome, an event that left a lasting impression on Roman consciousness. Roman Conquest 9. Roman Gaul (58 BC - 5th century AD): Julius Caesar conquered Gaul, integrating it into the Roman Empire. Development of cities, roads, and infrastructure. 10. Resistance and Vercingetorix: The Gauls fiercely resisted Roman conquest. The most famous resistance leader was Vercingetorix, who united several tribes against Caesar but was ultimately defeated at the Battle of Alesia in 52 BCE. Despite Romanization, many elements of Gaulish culture persisted. Romanization Process 1. Political and Administrative Changes: After the Roman conquest, Gaul was integrated into the Roman Empire, adopting Roman administrative structures, legal systems, and governance. 2. Language: Latin became the official language and gradually replaced Gaulish in public and official contexts. Over time, Latin evolved locally into the Gallo-Roman dialects, which later contributed to the development of the French language. 3. Infrastructure and Urbanization: The Romans introduced new infrastructure, such as roads, aqueducts, and Roman-style cities. This changed the landscape and way of life in Gaul. 4. Economy: Roman economic practices, including coinage, trade networks, and agricultural techniques, were adopted by the Gauls. Persistence of Gaulish Culture 1. Religion and Spiritual Practices: While the Romans introduced their gods and eventually Christianity, many Gaulish religious practices and deities continued to be worshipped, sometimes syncretized with Roman gods. The druids, who were the priestly class of the Gauls, played a significant role in maintaining these traditions, though their influence waned over time. 2. Festivals and Traditions: Traditional Gaulish festivals and customs often persisted, sometimes blending with Roman ones. For example, the celebration of Samhain, a Gaelic festival, influenced the Roman festival of Lemuria and eventually the Christian All Hallows' Eve (Halloween).  3. Art and Craftsmanship: Gaulish artistic styles, particularly in metalwork, ceramics, and other crafts, continued to be produced and admired. These items often displayed a distinctive Celtic aesthetic that was different from Roman styles. 4. Social Structures and Practices: Many social customs, including aspects of clan and tribal organization, marriage practices, and oral traditions, continued despite Roman influence. These practices were deeply ingrained in Gaulish society and could not be easily eradicated. 5. Language Influence: While Latin became dominant, many Gaulish words, especially those related to local flora, fauna, and daily life, were incorporated into the Latin spoken in Gaul. This contributed to the development of the regional Latin dialects and later the Romance languages. 6. Resistance and Rebellion: There were instances of resistance against Roman rule, where Gaulish leaders and communities sought to assert their independence and cultural identity. These acts of resistance often drew on traditional values and practices. Examples of Cultural Persistence 1. Place Names: Many modern place names in France are derived from Gaulish names. For example, "Lutetia" (modern Paris) was originally a Gaulish settlement. 2. Folk Practices: Certain folk practices, such as traditional agricultural methods, herbal medicine, and local folklore, have roots in Gaulish traditions and persisted in rural areas long after the Roman period. 3. Symbolism: Symbols and motifs from Gaulish culture, such as the triskelion (a three-armed spiral), continued to be used in art and decoration, often blending with Roman motifs. There are several examples of Gaulish artistic styles and artifacts that you can still see today, which reflect the distinctive Celtic aesthetic that persisted despite Romanization. Here are some notable examples: 1. Torcs Torcs were large neck rings made of twisted metal, often gold or bronze, and are some of the most iconic artifacts of Celtic craftsmanship. They were symbols of status and power. Example: The Snettisham Great Torc, found in Britain but indicative of the style used in Gaul, is housed in the British Museum in London. Musée de Saint-Germain-en-Laye: This museum near Paris has a significant collection of Gaulish artifacts, including several torcs. 2. Carnyx The carnyx was a type of war trumpet used by the Gauls, characterized by its elongated S-shape and often a decorative bell in the form of an animal's head, such as a boar. Example: Reconstructions and fragments of carnyxes can be seen in various museums, including the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh. 3. Ceramics Gaulish pottery often featured intricate designs and patterns that differed from Roman styles. These ceramics were used for both practical and ceremonial purposes. Example: The Musée d'Archéologie Nationale in Saint-Germain-en-Laye has an extensive collection of Gaulish ceramics. Examples at Local Museums: Many regional museums in France, such as the Musée de l'Arles Antique in Arles, display Gaulish pottery. 4. Coinage Gaulish coins often featured unique designs, including stylized human heads, animals, and abstract patterns. These coins provide insight into the iconography and artistry of the Gauls. Example: Collections of Gaulish coins can be found in the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris. 5. Statues and Sculptures Gaulish sculptures often depicted warriors, deities, and animals, exhibiting a blend of realism and stylized forms that were distinctive from Roman sculpture. Example: The "Warrior of Vachères" is a famous Gaulish statue that can be seen at the Musée Calvet in Avignon. 6. Jewelry and Ornaments Gaulish jewelry, such as fibulae (brooches), bracelets, and rings, often featured intricate designs and were made from a variety of materials, including gold, silver, and bronze. Example: The British Museum and the Louvre Museum have collections of Gaulish jewelry. Musée de Saint-Raymond in Toulouse: This museum has a notable collection of Gaulish artifacts, including jewelry. 7. Stone Carvings and Stelae Stone carvings and stelae (upright stone slabs) with inscriptions and reliefs depicting deities, animals, and symbols are also remnants of Gaulish art. Example: The Gallo-Roman Museum of Lyon-Fourvière in Lyon displays several Gaulish stone carvings and stelae. 8. Oppida and Fortifications The Gauls built fortified settlements known as oppida, which were centers of trade and administration. The remains of these structures provide insight into their architectural style and urban planning. Example: The oppidum of Bibracte in Burgundy is an archaeological site where you can see the remains of a major Gaulish settlement. Distinguishing Gaulish ceramics from Roman ceramics and those from other cultures involves recognizing certain stylistic and technical features. Here are some telltale characteristics of Gaulish ceramics: 1. Decorative Patterns and Motifs Geometric Designs: Gaulish pottery often features intricate geometric patterns, including spirals, chevrons, and other abstract motifs. These designs can be more complex and varied compared to the relatively simpler patterns on Roman ceramics. Animal and Human Figures: While less common, some Gaulish ceramics include stylized depictions of animals and humans, often in a distinctive, somewhat abstract style. 2. Shapes and Forms Amphorae and Jars: Gaulish pottery includes unique shapes such as large storage jars and amphorae with wide bodies and narrow necks. These shapes were practical for storage and transport but often had a distinctive Gaulish flair. Drinking Vessels: Cups and goblets used by the Gauls may have unique shapes and proportions, sometimes with more elaborate decorations compared to Roman counterparts. 3. Techniques and Materials Hand-Made vs. Wheel-Thrown: While both Gauls and Romans used the potter’s wheel, Gaulish ceramics sometimes show more evidence of hand-building techniques, especially in earlier pieces. The texture and symmetry can indicate the method used. Grog-Tempered Clay: Gaulish ceramics often used clay tempered with grog (crushed pottery shards) to improve strength and durability. This gives the pottery a distinctive texture and appearance. Burnishing and Polishing: Many Gaulish pots were burnished to create a smooth, shiny surface. This technique can create a metallic sheen that is less common in Roman ceramics. 4. Functionality and Everyday Use Functional Designs: Gaulish pottery was often highly functional, designed for everyday use such as cooking, storage, and serving. The practicality of the designs can distinguish them from more decorative Roman pieces. 5. Regional Variations Local Styles: Different regions of Gaul had their own local ceramic styles. For example, ceramics from the region of La Tène (associated with the La Tène culture) have distinctive designs that differ from those made in southern Gaul. Comparative Examples Roman Ceramics: Roman pottery, such as terra sigillata (Samian ware), is known for its fine, glossy red slip and often features molded decorations with scenes from mythology, daily life, or intricate floral patterns. Roman pottery tends to be more standardized and mass-produced. Greek Ceramics: Greek pottery is often distinguished by its black-figure and red-figure painting techniques, depicting detailed mythological and everyday scenes. The shapes, such as amphorae, kraters, and kylixes, are often elegant and finely proportioned.  Etruscan Ceramics: Etruscan pottery, predating Roman styles, often includes bucchero ware, characterized by a black, shiny finish achieved through a unique firing process. Recognizing Gaulish Pottery When examining ceramics to determine if they are Gaulish, look for: 1. Intricate Geometric Patterns: These are more elaborate than those typically found on Roman ceramics. 2. Tempered Clay: The use of grog gives Gaulish pottery a distinct texture. 3. Functional yet Decorative: Items that balance practical use with decorative elements, reflecting everyday life in Gaul. 4. Regional Distinctiveness: Recognizing local variations within Gaul can also help identify the origin of a piece. When we say the designs are often more elaborate on Gaulish ceramics, we mean what's painted on it, as opposed to what was molded on. Because while what Romans painted on their ceramics was quite simple, what was molded on is actually far more elaborate. Early Middle Ages (5th - 10th centuries) Fall of Rome and Frankish Rule: Collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Rise of the Frankish Kingdom under Clovis I, who unified much of modern-day France and converted to Christianity. (Merovingian dynasty) The Merovingians were a Frankish dynasty that ruled large parts of present-day France and Germany from the 5th to the 8th century. The dynasty was founded by Childeric I and is named after his father, Merovech. The Merovingians are perhaps best known for their first king, Clovis I, who united the Frankish tribes and converted to Christianity, laying the foundations for the future Frankish Empire. The transition from the Merovingian to the Carolingian dynasty was a significant and complex process involving both gradual shifts and dramatic events: 1. Decline of Merovingian Power: By the 7th century, Merovingian kings had become largely figureheads, with real power increasingly held by the "Mayors of the Palace" (majordomos), who were chief officials in the royal household. The kings were often young and under the control of powerful aristocratic factions. 2. Rise of the Carolingians: The Carolingian family, originally one of the leading noble families in Austrasia (eastern part of the Frankish kingdom), rose to prominence through strategic marriages, military successes, and the  accumulation of power as Mayors of the Palace. Charles Martel, a member of the Carolingian family, significantly enhanced the family's prestige by defeating the Muslim invaders at the Battle of Tours in 732. 3. Pepin the Short: Charles Martel's son, Pepin the Short, was the first Carolingian to become king. In 751, with the support of the Pope (Italy was under threat by the Lombards, and Pepin promised military protection for the Pope – also Pepin promised to promote Christianity more), Pepin deposed the last Merovingian king, Childeric III, and was anointed king by the bishops, marking a decisive shift in power. This act was significant because it established the precedent of papal approval for the legitimacy of kingship, which would be a cornerstone of Carolingian rule. 4. Charlemagne: Pepin's son, Charlemagne, further solidified the Carolingian dynasty's power and expanded the Frankish Empire through numerous military campaigns. On Christmas Day in 800, Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III, symbolically reviving the Western Roman Empire and establishing the Carolingian Empire. 5. Cultural and Administrative Reforms: The Carolingians implemented significant administrative and cultural reforms. They revitalized learning and the arts, a period known as the Carolingian Renaissance. Charlemagne's court became a center of scholarship, and efforts were made to improve literacy and standardize religious practices. Empire split among his grandsons after his death, leading to the formation of West Francia, the precursor to modern France. High and Late Middle Ages (10th - 15th centuries) In 987, the last Carolingian king, Louis V, died without an heir. This created a power vacuum and an opportunity for Hugh Capet. Capetian Dynasty (987-1328): Hugh Capet became king, establishing the Capetian dynasty which strengthened the monarchy. Capet's election was significant because it was based on the support of the nobility rather than hereditary succession alone. Feudalism and the Crusades: Development of feudal society. The Capets participated in in the Crusades, notably the capture of Jerusalem from Muslims in the First Crusade. William the Conqueror’s taking of England caused the Capetians to, out of fear of their rival gaining power, make great strides in centralizing and fortifying their own power. The fact that English royalty spoke French at the beginning of the Hundred Years' War can be traced back to the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. Plantagenet Dynasty The situation was further solidified with the rise of the Plantagenet dynasty. Henry II, who became King of England in 1154, married Eleanor of Aquitaine, one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in Europe. Through this marriage, the English crown gained control over vast territories in France, including Aquitaine, Anjou, and Normandy. The Plantagenets, like their Norman predecessors, continued to speak French as their primary language. The Norman Conquest of 1066 was caused by a combination of political ambition, claims to the English throne, and opportunistic military action. Here’s a detailed breakdown of the main factors that led to the Norman Conquest: Succession Crisis 1. Death of Edward the Confessor: King Edward the Confessor of England died in January 1066 without an heir. This led to a succession crisis, as multiple claimants emerged, each with their own claim to the throne. 2. Harold Godwinson's Coronation: Edward's brother-in-law, Harold Godwinson, was quickly crowned King Harold II of England. His claim was supported by the English nobility, but it was contested by others, including William, Duke of Normandy, and Harald Hardrada, King of Norway. Claims to the Throne 3. William’s Claim: William, Duke of Normandy, claimed that Edward the Confessor had promised him the English throne. Additionally, William argued that Harold Godwinson had sworn an oath to support his claim during a visit to Normandy in 1064, an oath supposedly made under duress or as part of a shipwreck rescue. Background of the Oath 1. Harold's Journey to Normandy: In 1064, Harold Godwinson, a powerful English earl and one of the most influential nobles in England, allegedly visited Normandy. The reasons for this journey are not entirely clear, and accounts vary. Some sources suggest Harold went to secure the release of his brother and nephew, who were held hostage by William, while others imply he may have been shipwrecked and taken to William's court.  2. The Oath: According to Norman sources, particularly the writings of William of Poitiers and the Bayeux Tapestry, Harold swore an oath to William during this visit. The exact nature of the oath is debated, but it is commonly believed that Harold promised to support William’s claim to the English throne upon Edward the Confessor's death. The Oath Under Duress 3. Circumstances of the Oath: Norman accounts suggest that Harold was compelled to take the oath. Some stories claim that Harold was effectively a prisoner at William’s court and was forced to swear loyalty. The Bayeux Tapestry, a visual record commissioned by William’s half-brother Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, shows Harold swearing the oath with his hands on sacred relics, implying a solemn and binding promise. 4. Norman Propaganda: From William’s perspective, the oath was a key piece of evidence legitimizing his claim to the English throne. William portrayed Harold as an oath-breaker who violated a sacred promise, thus justifying his invasion as a righteous quest to enforce a legitimate claim and punish perjury. English Perspective 5. English Rejection of the Oath: English sources, such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, do not mention the oath, and many English nobles likely considered Harold's succession legitimate. The English might have viewed Harold's actions as those of a pragmatic leader who prioritized the stability of England over foreign claims. Significance of the Oath 4. Papal Support: William's assertion that Harold broke a sacred oath helped him secure the backing of Pope Alexander II. The papal banner William received was a powerful symbol that framed his invasion as a crusade, providing spiritual legitimacy and encouraging broader support among Norman and other European nobles. 5. Harold’s Dilemma: If Harold did indeed swear an oath, he faced a complex moral and political dilemma. Upholding the oath would mean supporting a foreign claimant over his own potential kingship, while breaking it could lead to accusations of perjury and dishonor. 6. Battle of Hastings: The controversy over the oath added to the tensions leading to the Battle of Hastings. William’s claim to the English throne, bolstered by the narrative of the broken oath, provided a compelling cause for his supporters. 7. Harald Hardrada’s Claim: Harald Hardrada of Norway also claimed the English throne, based on an agreement between his predecessor, Magnus I of Norway, and the earlier King of England, Harthacnut, that if either died without an heir, the other would inherit their throne. Key Events Leading to the Conquest  7. Battle of Stamford Bridge: Before William could invade, Harold Godwinson had to deal with another threat. Harald Hardrada invaded northern England and was defeated by Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on September 25, 1066. This victory, however, left Harold’s forces weakened and exhausted. 8. Battle of Hastings: William landed at Pevensey on the southern coast of England on September 28, 1066. Harold marched south to meet him. The decisive battle occurred at Hastings on October 14, 1066, where William’s forces defeated Harold’s army. Harold was killed in the battle, leading to William’s eventual march to London and his coronation as King of England on December 25, 1066. Aftermath and Consolidation 9. Consolidation of Power: After his victory, William faced several years of resistance and rebellion. He implemented policies to consolidate his control, including building castles, redistributing land to his Norman followers, and conducting the Domesday Survey in 1086 to assess his new kingdom's resources. Origin of the Normans 1. Viking Roots: The Normans originated from Viking settlers who were granted land in northern France (Normandy) by the French king Charles the Simple in 911. The name "Norman" itself is derived from "Northmen" or "Norsemen." 2. Settlement and Assimilation: Over the next century and a half, these Viking settlers gradually assimilated into the local Frankish culture, adopting the language, religion (Christianity), and customs of the region. This process created a distinct Norman identity that was different from both their Scandinavian roots and the native Frankish (French) culture. Cultural and Linguistic Distinctions 3. Language: The Normans spoke Old Norman, a variety of Old French. While this was similar to the Old French spoken in other parts of France, there were regional dialectical differences. 4. Legal and Feudal Systems: The Normans developed a distinctive legal and feudal system, which they brought with them to England after the conquest. Their administrative practices and land tenure systems had unique features compared to other regions of France. Political Distinctions 5. Duchy of Normandy: Normandy was a duchy within the Kingdom of France, making it a semi-autonomous region ruled by the Duke of Normandy. The Duke owed allegiance to the French king but maintained considerable independence. Relationship with the French Crown 7. Allegiance and Rivalry: While the Normans were vassals of the French king, their relationship was complex, involving both loyalty and rivalry. The Duchy of Normandy was a powerful and wealthy region, and the dukes often had ambitions that extended beyond their immediate domain. 8. Cross-Channel Influence: The Norman Conquest of England in 1066 created a new political entity where the ruler of England (William and his successors) also held significant territories in France. This dual allegiance led to centuries of conflict and rivalry between England and France, contributing to events like the Hundred Years' War. Hundred Years' War (1337-1453): Conflict between England and France over succession to the French throne. Joan of Arc became a national heroine during this period. THE 100 YEARS WAR England and Normandy (a Norse-settled area in France) were basically the same country after the Norman invasion. Until King Edward III in the 1337 All the parliamentary documents between 1066 and 1360 on English governance, law and policy, are actually in French. French was the language of the English ruling class. Edward III was crowned at age 14 as a duke of Aquitaine, an English-run area of France. He was 3/4 French. His father was killed by his mother's lover, and that same man antagonized Edward until Edward had him killed. Edward was brought up to believe that, through his mother, the French king's sister he was to be the rightful king of France. But instead the crown was given to Phillip in 1329. As the duke of Aquitaine he was expected to pay homage to the king of France. Which was quite a bit, since over 80k tons of wine were exported from Aquitaine each year. This together with the wool from Flanders kept the English economy afloat. He began a propaganda campaign, putting symbols of England in the French churches, like the symbol of the 3 leopards. As retaliation, Phillip attacked Edward's castles and tried to seize Gascony. Edward couldn't retaliate because he was tied up in a border war with Scotland. But three years later he gathered an army from Flanders. In 1346, 750 ships and 15k men sailed to Normandy. They tricked Phillip into thinking they were headed for Gascony. The first thing he did after landing was knight his 16-year-old son Edward, Prince of Wales, later known as the Black Prince. He then did something unprecedentedly cocky, which was send his ships home, allowing no opportunity to retreat. They then stormed east to Caen. They didn't get into the castle, and the public was against them, attacking them with anything they had, even pots and pans. Then the army slaughtered 5k citizens, including women and children. This is a stark contrast with the ideas of chivalry they would like to believe about themselves. The chivalric code in action only applied to the upper class. The poor were shown no such respect. Some officials in Caen begged to be taken prisoner instead of killed, and they were, and the English demanded ransoms for them. They then headed to Paris. Phillip rounded up an army to prepare for the Paris battle. He also went to the Abbey of St. Denis in Paris, to take possession of the Oriflamme, the sacred war banner of France that they considered lucky because they flew it during the Crusades. It had a flaming gold sun against a red backdrop. But it also symbolized what they must be willing to sacrifice in this war -- just like in the Crusades, the soldiers were willing to fight to the death, and would show no mercy and take no prisoners. But Edward had a trick up his sleeve -- the innovation of the longbow. In fact, the soldiers were forced to give up their leisure activities like football, and in its place would be target practice. He would employ a formation of cavalry in the center, flanked by archers on both sides. This created a great defense for the British army. Instead of going to Paris though, Edward turned and headed north to the Duchy whose land he knew best, and lured the French downhill from them, and killed 15k French troops in the Battle of Crecy. Many of whom didn't die from the arrows themselves but from their horses falling on them and crushing them. Blind King John of Bohemia hears that the battle isn't going well for France and decides to fight and get himself killed for the cause. It is reported that after the battle, the Black Prince found the dead king, and as a token of his admiration for his bravery, took his helmet which was lined with ostrich feathers. Legend states that these feathers were adopted by the Black Prince and came to be used as a badge by subsequent Princes of Wales. William Camden, historian, and Clarenceux King of Arms from 1597–1623, first brought this theory into light in his 1597 book entitled Remains Concerning Britain. It has become the basis for the legend ever since. And also it's emblazoned on the two pence coin with its 3 feathers. Philip was hit in the neck and retreated. Nowadays the Battle of Crecy is commemorated in the Gloucester Cathedral's stained glass windows. It's ironic that the battle was really won by low-born archers instead of knights. It's also telling how far Edward was willing to go in ignoring the rites of chivalry to win. His next target was Calais, the most expensive siege in medieval history. The people of Calais held out for nearly a year. At the end, Edward, instead of killing everyone, he forced six of the principal citizens to march out of the town with bare heads and feet, with ropes around their necks, and with the keys to the town and castle in their hands. "They shall be at my absolute disposal." These are the Burghers of Calais that Rodin immortalized. There are two of the same sculpture, one in Calais and one in London. In Calais they represent French resilience. In London they represent a king powerful enough to be benevolent. The Battle of Calais marked 10 years into the war. Edward was also changing the way people waged war in his creation of "the order of the garter", a leather strap a knight wore around his leg symbolizing he was a hero of the battlefield. What was innovative was the fact that such distinction was never given before to men who began in lowly ranks. This was a bit of a meritocracy. Also, as a fuck you to the French, the colors of this Order were blue and gold, the same as French nobility. Philip's son John the Good even created his own Knights of the Star in response, because he understood how effective this propaganda was with the British. With lines about how noble it is to die for your country, this inspired the French soldiers to have a second wind to fight again. Then the plague happened, which caused the war to pause for 5 years. The younger Prince Edward was known as The Black Prince for his black coat of arms. Edward took 6000 troops to Gascony to terrorize the French. This was straight up pillaging. Meant to cripple the French economy. They then moved on to the walled city of Carcassonne, and burned down the old part of town. King John did nothing but send a letter. Then they moved northeast to Tours, but this time they were met with a French army of 10k. The French offered a chivalric deal -- 100 of your men vs. 100 of ours -- but Edward declined. Now comes the Battle of Poitiers. Now the French had longbows. They did a much better job this time. However, Edward sent a hidden set of troops to approach the French from behind, and decimated the French army. They took King John, his son, and troops to England for ransom. Edward made a fortune. With the Treaty of Bretigny, Edward was given sovereignty over all of his conquered lands. In return, Edward was to formally renounce his claim to be king of France. PART 2 1360 - 1415 The English nobility indulged in passion projects now that they’re flush. For example, The great hall at Berkeley Castle. Made by Thomas the Rich, for a household of 300 people and he also owned over 15k horses. As one of many extravagant gestures of the fighting class at this time of prosperity, Thomas filled his land with not just deer, but all albino deer. The castle was technically a fortress but it feels much cushier. In France it was much more bleak. With John II in captivity there was no king in charge. The jewel of Europe dissolved into chaos. It was being overrun by terrifying bands of out of work English soldiers called freebooters. It’s just not easy to disband an army, ever, but it was particularly difficult here because they were fractured and pitting against each other. The peace treaty meant nothing to knights who think of conflict as a normal state of affairs. It was their raison d’etre. After 8 years of captivity, John II died. Only now could his elder son step forward. This was Charles V, a scholarly and pious leader, with a steely determination to restore France’s honor. He declared war after 9 years of “peace”. This king was frail and always sick but still determined, so he needed to choose his generals wisely. He chose in 1370 the man Bertrand du Guesclin as his commander in chief. Odd choice because he wasn’t of nobility. He was the son of a minor noble, short in stature and careless in appearance. But he was a born fighter. The poet Jean de Cuvelier wrote that even when he was a child his parents despaired over his violence. They had learned their lesson in Crecy and Poitiers, and did away with chivalric conventions of battle. He used English guerrilla tactics against the English. Within a year, he’d won back the provinces of Poitou and Saintonge. Charles had another ace up his sleeve. Control of the sea meant power. England couldn’t defend her territories in France if she wasn’t able to reach them. Charles aimed to gain custody of the English channel and squeeze the French out. By 1377 he’d amassed a ton of ships. But it wasn’t enough to simply gain back what was taken. He wanted revenge against the freebooters and decided to take lands that were never theirs. He launched scorched earth tactics against villages in England. For one sea raid in a Cornish village, they’d dock, get the crossbow men onto the shore, attack the village, set it on fire, then if there were ships in the harbor, tow them out. All in a matter of 6 hours. The English initially did nothing. The once triumphant country was now unable to defend herself. Edward III had been on the throne a staggering 50 years. He was seen as the ideal medieval king. But in his last 10 years he’d lost control of his court and men at arms. There were rumors he was senile. But from his death mask we can tell now that he’d had a stroke. Not senile but taken advantage of. England needed a new leader. But there was no heir to replace him. The Black Prince died of dysentery the year prior to Edward’s death, and his younger son Richard was only 10. So power had to go to Richard’s uncle, John of Gaunt. He would stand in until Richard came of age. But he was unpopular, and England was difficult to rule. They were living in the aftermath of the Black Death.. The social depravations of plague were contained by king Charles’ clever leadership. In England the hated John of Gaunt faced a near impossible task. The plague had wiped out half the population, which meant half the tax revenue. England was already broke after years of mismanagement and war. John of Gaunt would have to make up for the deficit. But he couldn’t raise taxes because people were already pissed. Laborers knew they could demand higher rates and better conditions because there were so few left. In June 1381 southern England was again under attack. 10k men thronged across the original London Bridge. But this was a civil attack. After years of war and incompetence the workers rose up and marched on London. This class war was led by Wat Tyler from Kent, a tiler of roofs “and a nasty fellow”. Together with a rebel priest John Ball he united peasants and laborers and meant to end serfdom. The trigger of rebellion was the introduction of a new tax. The 14-year old Richard was hidden in the Tower of London, the safest place in the city, with the most hated man in London – the one who introduced the tax – Simon Sudbury. Simon offered up many prayers hiding in the tower’s church. But they barged in and dragged Sudbury from the building and beheaded him and put his head on a spike in public. This was to be Richard II’s most important battle – against his own people in the Peasants’ Revolt. They killed Tyler and before the rebels found out he was dead, Richard rode into the crowd and said “follow me and you’ll have what you want.” They trusted him and left town but they’d been duped. The ringleaders were hanged, and most others were imprisoned. It was in a way inevitable they would be beaten. However, it was quite a shock to the kingdom that the transference of letters and information could spread like wildfire. The kingdom had to actually listen to the people from then on, even if the peasants technically lost. Richard then ascended to the throne at age 22, in place of John of Gaunt. Richard II preferred peace, which you can tell from a medieval diptych created for him where a symbol of war was notably absent. And his counterpart Charles VI in France (later known as Charles the Mad) was equally unambitious. They agreed to a truce in 1389. Also in the 1380s the nobility started speaking English again in England, and their high literature like the Canterbury Tales by Chaucer was written in English. And it also said something about the English identity through witty satire. Since 1066 English architecture was dominated by practical Norman style – simple columns to keep buildings up. But in the 1300s they developed the English Perpendicular Gothic style. It was an attempt to lift the prayers of the dead from the Plague up to the heavens. They also developed fan vaulting, soon to be copied by the French. But there was a problem with Richard’s reign. Documented in Richard’s Treasure Roll (scroll) describing all of Richard’s great wealth. The people weren’t keen on his lavish spending. In 1397 he clashed with a group of nobles who opposed the peace, including his cousin – son of John of Gaunt – Henry Bolingbroke. Richard had Henry exiled to France. A year later when John died, Richard extended Bolingbroke’s exile and seized the inheritance left to him by his father. This was a step too far for the citizens. August 1399 would change the course of the war and English history. In Wales Richard paid the price for his tyrannical behavior. Bolingbroke came back with an army determined to reclaim his wealth. But he went even further, once he realized how much the English hated Richard. Nobles declared loyalty to Henry. After a blitz, Richard agreed to meet with Henry’s negotiator, a duke. The duke swore on religious relics he meant Richard no harm. But it was a trap. Richard was seized and had to step down. Henry was crowned Henry IV. Richard died a year later, starved to death. Henry got what he wanted but the crown lost its sanctity. Many people tried to take the crown from him. There wasn’t enough solidarity to resume the war with France. When he died in 1413, he told his son that the crown had never been his. This became Henry V. Henry seemed to be everything England needed. People loved him, and he had the perfect upbringing to learn how hard it was to be king. He was often defending his father’s crown against people vying for the crown. When Henry V was just 16 he got shot with an arrow into the face 6 inches, and a surgeon had to enlarge the gash to pull it out. All without anesthetic. The only portrait that survives of him shows only his left side. Henry V was the son of a usurper and that shadow hung over his entire reign. His whole life was trying to prove the divinity and the right to the throne. For him the only way he could do this was wage war on France. He took the opportunity when Charles the Mad was caught in internal conflict with his own nobles, and launched the invasion of France. With a fleet 10x the size of the Spanish Armada. He even sailed with a fleur-de-lis on the mast. Henry had landed in Harfleur but it took six weeks of bloody siege. He was advised to withdraw his original plan to go to Paris and go home. But he was determined not to go home empty handed, so his dysentery-wrecked crew carried out a chevauchee – a raid through the French countryside toward English-held Calais. Henry had lost a third of his men. The French caught up with him in Agincourt before they could get to Calais. Then Henry had a stroke of genius. Typically archers waited to be attacked before they started shooting. But they charged ahead first, catching the French off-guard. Also by this point the French didn’t have the solidarity or singularity of purpose the English did. It also rained the night before, so when the French plunged ahead and got mired in the mud, and the arrows started flying, they were in no position to turn around. Many of the French suffocated with their own men atop them. This was the Battle of Agincourt. This proved the “divine right” of his kingship. PART 3 AGENTS OF GOD 1415 - 1453 In 1415 the English celebrated victory in the Battle of Agincourt. The French were decimated. Strangely each soldier had an individual contract with Henry V which was documented and hawked in painstaking detail. This is a testimony to his meticulous planning. But that didn’t win him the battle. It was determination and ambition. Henry was celebrated upon return from Agincourt. But this was just the beginning for Henry. They still wanted to win back the territories they claimed were theirs and “stolen”. With an army of 10k, they landed on the beaches of Normandy. The onslaught began in Caen, which was well-fortified, but he seized the towers of the abbeys which were taller than the walls and other buildings and rained down fiery arrows. For 3 weeks Caen held out, but finally fell. Henry went to an abbey to pray. But also because it was the burial place of William the Conqueror. Henry started to give land and houses to his generals and brothers in Normandy, pursuant to a colonization of Normandy. At this time, France was stuck with Mad King Charles who believed he was made of glass and forbade people from touching him. During his 38-year reign France fell into a civil war. They were too busy fighting each other to fight the English. On one side were supporters of the king’s son the Dauphin, known as the Orleanians. On the other were the Burgundians led by the King’s cousin, the hugely wealthy duke of Burgundy. The duke was known as John the Fearless. In Paris, a section of his grand palace still remains. It gives us a unique insight into the man. According to legend, the duke slept in a tiny room inside the high tower to avoid assassination. He was mercilessly pursuing power and even had Charles’ brother killed. This was paired with his nearly limitless wealth. He had control of Paris and the royal treasury. The Duke of Burgundy was pro-English because his province of Flanders had close trade links with England. You can see it represented symbolically on the majestic ceiling of the tower. The solid oak tree of Burgundy has the hops Flanders wrapped around it, symbolizing that bond. The ceiling is a metaphor for the entangled web of the Duke’s loyalties. And if it suited him he’d rather fight his own countrymen than the king of England. When the civil war broke out in France, the chronicler of the Duke wrote to the King’s wife, Queen Isabeau, asking her to heal the sickness and division in the kingdom. By 1418 Henry had reached Rouen, the country’s last hope. Also very fortified with 5 miles of walls and 60 towers believed unbreachable. The Duke never came to their rescue. Eventually after 4 months the citizens were starving. It was so outrageously pitiful that the English soldiers gave them their own bread. But Henry V himself would not. Henry started using cannons, a new technology of the time. After six months, Rouen surrendered. The rest of upper Normandy followed easily. Henry wouldn’t stop here though, since they were just 16 miles from Paris. The Duke was forced to make peace with the Orleanists. But the Orleanists weren’t quite ready to, and cut off the Duke’s hand, to stop him from raising it to the devil, then his head split open with an ax. The one person who could save the country was now dead. It was later said that the English entered France through a hole in the Duke of Burgundy’s skull. The duke’s son Philip watched his father murdered. Wanting revenge, he made an alliance with Henry, promising to help him conquer the country. At the cathedral of Troyes, Henry's new allies were gathered. The insane King was made to disown his son and heir, the Dauphin, and Queen Isabeau declared him illegitimate, the son of one of her many lovers. Henry then signed a document in front of the French, English, and Burgundians, saying that after Charles died, all of France would go to him. Now he was saddled with France’s problems in addition to their land. To unite the bloodline of French and English he married Catherine of Valois, Charles’ 18-year old daughter, and they were married just 12 days later to great celebrations. But the Treaty meant nothing to the Orleanists, which still supported the Dauphin Charles, just 17 at this point. He was highly superstitious and preoccupied with astrology. Henry stole his inheritance. This occupation went on for 15 years. Sainte Chapelle was known as the greatest reliquary of the time. The crown of thorns, the arrow that pierced Jesus’ side, and fragments of the True Cross were fabled to have been there. That Henry was in possession of the relics of the Passion signified divine favor. Now Henry wanted to conquer all the territories of the Burgundians’ rivals, the Orleanists, and those of the now disinherited Dauphin. Back in England people worried about not having their King around to make decisions. They were also concerned about who was going to pay for all this war, but Henry kept his promise that he would not tax anyone for 8 years, and instead the King would use the spoils of the war itself to pay for it. Mont Saint Michel was one of the last holdouts – for 3 years it had defied capture by the English because of how fortified it is and not easy to get to. The abbott here, Robert Jolivet, defected to Henry in 1420. But Mont Saint Michel's garrison didn’t. This infuriated Henry. Henry even ordered the construction of a giant wooden fort on the nearby sands to prevent French ships from resupplying the garrison there. But the island still held out. The abbey was dedicated to St. Michael the Dauphin’s personal saint. Thus it became a symbol of French resilience. Word of this resilience made its way to the smallest villages of France. Henry’s men waited outside for 10 years and Henry never took it. In 1422 Henry would pay the price for five years in the field. He was fatally ill with dysentery, contracted during a siege. He gave instructions on how to rule before he died. His brother John, Duke of Bedford, was to be Regent in France, and his youngest brother Humphrey was to be his subordinate in England. He gave 3 clear commands: 1) continue fighting until the Treaty of Troyes was accepted throughout all of France. 2) Maintain alliance with the Duke of Burgundy. 3) Never give up the lands they conquered. He died at age 35. Mad King Charles, 19 years older than him, outlived him by 7 weeks. Thus, Henry never became King of France. The new heir to the two thrones was Henry’s son, just 9 months old. This kind of situation is usually very dangerous, with people trying to muscle in for power. But in this case, the brothers made good on the war and their intentions to crown Henry VI. Regent John waged war against the Dauphin for 7 years. He was actually a great strategist and commander, and maintained the alliance with Burgundy and married the Duke of Burgundy’s sister. The Duke’s aim was to take the Dauphin’s lands beyond the River Loire, south of it, then link it up with England’s ancestral territory of Gascony. This would be a deathblow to the hapless Dauphin and force him to accept the Treaty. They laid siege to the last main stronghold, the city of Orleans, for six months. But then Joan of Arc shows up heading up several thousand men sent by the Dauphin. She was only 17. She claimed to have heard the voice of god and Saint Michael. She had a kind of dual nature – purity and warrior. The Dauphin spent a fortune on a custom made suit of armor for her. They forced the English out of Orleans. The Dauphin had put her through a series of religious tests to see if she was really sent by god and she passed them all. England’s archers hadn’t been defeated in battle in 80 years. But in their next battle the French cavalry simply ran over the English. The Dauphin now was able to have the ritual of becoming king, replete with being washed in the mystical oil of Clovis. In response, the Duke of Bedford sent the now-9-year old Henry to become anointed king as well. Joan of Arc was captured and sold by the Burgundians. Bedford knew that if he could prove Joan a heretic he could destroy the newfound legitimacy of the Dauphin, now King Charles VII. Joan was put on trial as a witch. Then they burnt her and destroyed her, proving that Charles VII was illegitimately king and only got there because of the devil. Ironically, it was because of her trial that we have a record of her deeds, from which her fame would grow. The 10-year old Henry VI was now the only king who held the title of king of both England and France. But because Charles lived in Reims, the city where becoming king was symbolically potent (because of Clovis), he had to get crowned at Notre Dame and it was less meaningful for the people in France. In 1435, Bedford died. He genuinely loved France and his adopted city of Rouen. This made relations worse when he died. Then the Duke of Burgundy and Charles VII joined forces to overthrow the English. France was finally united. Anyone who uttered “Burgundian” or “Orleanist” from then on would get their tongue pierced with a red hot iron. Together they reclaimed Paris in 1436. After 15 years, Sainte Chapelle was in French hands again. Henry VI had no intention of waging war to keep France. He was more concerned about building churches, and piety. He was also very sheltered by his uncles. He would never lead his army into battle. He would marry Margaret of Anjoy, Charles VII’s niece. He was so intent on having this marriage that he agreed to give up the entire French province of Maine, which caused uproar at court. Charles VII had a change of character from his early weaker days and had grown into a shrewd leader and manipulator, having won over the Duke of Burgundy from the English alliance. He knew how to hire good counsel, and he invested in the latest high tech artillery. He hires John and Caspar Bureau, experts in iron artillery. He drove out the English from Normandy with 30k troops. Ending with a catastrophic defeat for the English at Formigny near the Normandy coast in 1450. All that was left was Gascony. The English were outnumbered 2 to 1, but were led by a great knight John Talbot. He was released from prison under the sworn oath of never again bearing armor against the French. Technically he kept this oath and didn’t bear armor but he did fight. But he hadn’t counted on John Bureau’s new guns. Talbot fell from his horse and was axed. When they were looking for his body they found one with a mutilated and unrecognizable face. But a friend of Talbot knew which teeth of his were missing and identified him that way. There was a great irony in how, 100 years ago in that same spot, the humble low-born English archers defeated the chivalrous knights of the French. But now the French won with guns under the low-board Bureau against the noble knight Talbot. France reemerged as Europe’s superpower. England paid the cost. The Crown was bankrupt. There was widespread dissent among the people and nobility. But at least now the nobles and people shared the same language, and a new national identity was born. Themes of the 100 years war: 1. Whether you win or lose is often dependent on whether or not the people think god is on your side. This is still relevant today, because I've read that whether or not someone gets elected president can be predicted less by polls that show who people want to win than who people think will win, is fated to win. 2. Winning battles is often dependent on who is willing to abandon the principles of the chivalric code and instead play dirty. 3. Going to war puts you at risk not only of losing to your enemies but also of losing the faith of your own people, especially if you expect to tax them when you lose and/or not share the spoils when you win.  4. When you have a class of people who's only raison d'etre is to make war, and then you subject them to decades of doing just that and then ask them to wage peace, it's inevitable that it's much easier to turn men into animals than it is to turn animals back into men. 5. The Evolution of National Identity: The Hundred Years War played a significant role in the development of national consciousness in both England and France. As the war dragged on, people began to see themselves not just as subjects of a king but as members of a distinct nation. The war fostered a sense of “Englishness” and “Frenchness,” as both sides used propaganda to cultivate national pride and distinguish themselves from their enemies. This theme highlights how prolonged conflict can solidify national identities and reshape collective self-understanding. Renaissance and Early Modern Period (15th - 18th centuries) Valois Dynasty (1328-1589): France recovered from the Hundred Years' War, then Phillip III’s son Charles, Count of Valois, began the Valois Dynasty.Beginning with him, they experienced the Renaissance. Cultural Flourishing: The Valois period saw the French Renaissance, a cultural movement that brought about significant changes in art, literature, architecture, and science. The French court, particularly under Francis I (r. 1515-1547), became a center of Renaissance culture. He invited Italian artists like Leonardo da Vinci and promoted the works of French humanists and writers. Architectural Achievements: The Renaissance influenced French architecture, leading to the construction of magnificent châteaux, such as the Château de Chambord and Château de Chenonceau. These buildings blended Gothic elements with Renaissance styles, symbolizing the era's aesthetic achievements. Literary and Artistic Contributions: The period produced notable literary figures such as François Rabelais and Michel de Montaigne. In art, French painters like Jean Clouet and sculptors like Jean Goujon contributed to the Renaissance movement with their innovative works. ○ Rabelais "Gargantua and Pantagruel" series is celebrated for its use of humor, parody, and satire to critique various aspects of contemporary society, including the church, education, law, and politics. Rabelais' work is also noted for its linguistic creativity, rich use of vernacular French, and its exploration of humanist ideals. The series has had a lasting impact on literature and is considered a masterpiece of Renaissance literature. ○ The giants' immense power and presence can be seen as a critique of authority figures and institutions that loom large over society. By depicting these giants engaging in both wise and foolish actions, Rabelais critiques  the arbitrary nature of power and the potential for both greatness and folly within those who wield it. Political and Social Changes 1. Centralization of Power: The Valois kings worked to centralize royal authority and reduce the power of the nobility. This centralization was crucial for the stability and governance of the kingdom. Louis XI (r. 1461-1483) was particularly effective in this regard, using diplomacy and strategic marriages to consolidate power. 2. Religious Conflicts: The latter part of the Valois dynasty was marked by significant religious turmoil, particularly the French Wars of Religion (1562-1598) between Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants). This period of conflict included events like the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572), where thousands of Huguenots were killed. Église Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois near the Louvre is where the massacre started, at the toll of the bell. 3. Economic Developments: The Valois period saw the expansion of trade and the growth of urban centers. France began to develop a more complex economy with increased commerce and the rise of a merchant class. The discovery of the New World also had economic implications, as France sought to establish colonies and trade routes. Key Figures and Events 1. Charles VII (r. 1422-1461): His reign saw the recovery of France from the Hundred Years' War and the establishment of a standing army, which reduced the power of feudal lords. 2. Louis XI (r. 1461-1483): Known as the "Spider King" for his cunning diplomacy, he strengthened royal authority and expanded the kingdom. 3. Francis I (r. 1515-1547): A patron of the arts and a Renaissance king, his reign marked the height of the French Renaissance. 4. Catherine de' Medici: As the wife of Henry II and mother of three French kings, she played a significant role in the political and religious affairs of the period, particularly during the Wars of Religion. The End of the Valois Dynasty  1. Succession Crisis: The Valois line came to an end with the death of Henry III in 1589, who had no direct heirs. The succession crisis and the ongoing Wars of Religion led to the rise of the Bourbon dynasty with Henry IV, who was a distant relative of the Valois and a leader of the Huguenots. 2. Edict of Nantes: Henry IV, formerly Henry of Navarre, issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598, granting religious tolerance to Huguenots and effectively ending the Wars of Religion. This edict was a significant step towards religious peace in France. Causes of the Wars of Religion 1. Religious Tensions: The Protestant Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther and spread by John Calvin, had a significant impact on France. The Huguenots, French followers of Calvinism, challenged the Catholic Church's doctrines and practices, leading to religious tensions. 2. Political Rivalries: The conflicts were exacerbated by the rivalry between powerful noble families. The Catholic Guise family, the Protestant Bourbon family, and the moderate Montmorency family vied for power and influence at the French court. 3. Weakness of the Monarchy: The French monarchy was weakened during this period due to the death of Henry II in 1559, which left his young and inexperienced sons Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III on the throne. The power vacuum allowed noble factions to assert their influence. 4. Economic and Social Factors: Economic hardship, social unrest, and the rise of a bourgeois class that supported Protestantism contributed to the growing conflict. Key Events of the Wars of Religion 1. Massacre at Vassy (1562): The wars began with the Massacre at Vassy, where Francis, Duke of Guise, attacked a group of Huguenots worshipping in a barn, killing many and sparking widespread violence. 2. St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572): One of the most notorious events, this massacre saw thousands of Huguenots slaughtered in Paris and other cities. It was precipitated by the marriage of the Catholic Marguerite de Valois to the Protestant Henry of Navarre, intended to reconcile the factions but instead leading to violence. 3. Formation of the Holy League (1576): The Catholic League, formed by Henry I, Duke of Guise, aimed to eradicate Protestantism in France and opposed the policies of the moderate King Henry III.  4. War of the Three Henrys (1587-1589): This phase of the conflict involved King Henry III, Henry of Navarre (leader of the Huguenots), and Henry I, Duke of Guise. It was marked by shifting alliances and political intrigue, culminating in the assassination of Henry I, Duke of Guise, and later Henry III. End of the Wars and the Edict of Nantes 1. Henry IV's Ascension (1589): Henry of Navarre became Henry IV of France after the death of Henry III. Initially a Protestant, he converted to Catholicism to gain acceptance from the majority Catholic population, allegedly saying, "Paris is worth a Mass." 2. Edict of Nantes (1598): To bring an end to the conflicts, Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes, granting significant religious freedoms to the Huguenots. The edict allowed them to worship publicly in certain areas, hold public office, and maintain fortified towns for their protection. Significance of the Edict of Nantes 1. Religious Tolerance: The Edict of Nantes was one of the first decrees of religious tolerance in Europe. It acknowledged the existence of Protestantism within a predominantly Catholic country and granted Huguenots rights to practice their religion without persecution. 2. Political Stability: The edict helped to stabilize France by reducing religious violence and allowing the monarchy to focus on strengthening the state and addressing economic and social issues. 3. Legacy: While the edict brought temporary peace, it did not resolve all religious tensions. It was eventually revoked by Louis XIV in 1685 with the Edict of Fontainebleau, leading to renewed persecution of Huguenots and their mass emigration from France. Long-term Impact 1. Demographic Changes: The wars and subsequent revocation of the Edict of Nantes caused significant demographic shifts, with many Huguenots fleeing to other countries, contributing to economic and cultural exchanges across Europe.  2. Strengthening of the Monarchy: The resolution of the wars allowed the French monarchy to strengthen its central authority, setting the stage for the absolute rule of Louis XIV. 3. Cultural Influence: The influx of Huguenot refugees into other European countries, such as the Netherlands, England, and Prussia, contributed to the spread of French cultural and intellectual influences. In summary, the French Wars of Religion were a complex and multifaceted conflict driven by religious, political, and social factors. The Edict of Nantes was a landmark decree that brought temporary peace and religious tolerance to France, but its revocation later led to further religious strife and the emigration of many Huguenots. The period had lasting impacts on French society, politics, and culture. Bourbon Dynasty (1589-1792): Louis XIV (the "Sun King") epitomized absolute monarchy, built the Palace of Versailles, and expanded French influence in Europe. The Bourbon Dynasty, which ruled France from 1589 to 1792, was a period marked by the consolidation of absolute monarchy, cultural flourishing, military expansion, and significant socio-political changes. The reign of Louis XIV, known as the "Sun King," epitomized this era, but other Bourbon kings also played crucial roles. Here is an expanded overview of this period: Louis XIV (1643-1715): The "Sun King" 1. Early Reign and Consolidation of Power: Louis XIV became king at the age of four, but his mother, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Mazarin ruled as regents until he came of age. After Mazarin’s death in 1661, Louis XIV assumed personal control of the government, famously stating, "L'État, c'est moi" ("I am the state"), symbolizing his absolute rule. 2. Centralization of Power: Louis XIV centralized power by weakening the nobility, reducing their influence in provincial matters, and ensuring that all significant decisions were made by him. He built an efficient centralized state with a professional bureaucracy and a standing army loyal to the crown.  3. Palace of Versailles: Louis XIV constructed the Palace of Versailles, transforming a hunting lodge into a magnificent symbol of royal power and absolute monarchy. Versailles became the political and cultural center of France, where the king could control the nobility by keeping them close and dependent on royal favor. 4. Cultural Patronage and the Arts: Louis XIV was a great patron of the arts, supporting writers, musicians, artists, and architects. His reign saw the flourishing of French classical culture, with figures like Molière, Racine, Lully, and Le Brun contributing to the glory of French arts. 5. Military Expansion and Wars: Louis XIV sought to expand French territory and influence through a series of wars, including the War of Devolution, the Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg, and the War of the Spanish Succession. While he achieved some territorial gains, these wars also drained the treasury and left France heavily indebted. 6. Religious Policies: Louis XIV promoted Catholicism and revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685 with the Edict of Fontainebleau, leading to the persecution of Huguenots and their mass exodus from France. Subsequent Bourbon Monarchs 1. Louis XV (1715-1774): Louis XV inherited a kingdom that was financially strained from his predecessor’s wars. His reign saw a mix of periods of peace and involvement in conflicts such as the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. His inability to implement effective fiscal reforms and his perceived inefficiency led to a decline in royal prestige and authority. 2. Louis XVI (1774-1792): Louis XVI's reign was marked by increasing financial crises and social unrest. He attempted to implement reforms to address France's fiscal problems but faced resistance from the nobility and other privileged classes. His support for the American Revolution further strained the treasury.  The culmination of economic hardship, Enlightenment ideas, and social inequality led to the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. Louis XVI's inability to effectively manage the crisis led to his arrest, trial, and eventual execution by guillotine in 1793. Social and Economic Changes 1. Economic Growth and Challenges: The Bourbon period saw significant economic growth driven by trade, colonization, and agriculture. However, persistent fiscal deficits, taxation issues, and economic inequality contributed to social unrest and instability. 2. Enlightenment Influence: The Enlightenment, a cultural and intellectual movement, gained momentum during the 18th century, emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authorities, including the monarchy. Thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu criticized absolute monarchy and advocated for political and social reforms. 3. Social Structure: French society remained hierarchical, with the king and the nobility at the top, followed by the clergy, and the common people, or Third Estate, at the bottom. The disparities between these classes and the burden of taxation on the common people fueled discontent that eventually led to the Revolution. Impact and Legacy 1. End of Absolute Monarchy: The French Revolution marked the end of the Bourbon absolute monarchy and the beginning of a series of political changes, including the establishment of the First French Republic. 2. Cultural Legacy: The cultural achievements of the Bourbon period, particularly under Louis XIV, left a lasting impact on art, literature, architecture, and music, contributing to France's reputation as a center of culture and refinement. 3. Political and Social Change:  The period set the stage for significant political and social changes in France, including the rise of republicanism, the spread of Enlightenment ideas, and the eventual establishment of modern democratic principles. In summary, the Bourbon Dynasty from 1589 to 1792 was a period of significant transformation in France. While marked by the grandeur and absolutism of Louis XIV's reign, it also experienced financial difficulties, social unrest, and the rise of Enlightenment thought, culminating in the French Revolution and the fall of the monarchy. Revolution and Napoleonic Era (18th - 19th centuries) French Revolution (1789-1799): Overthrow of the monarchy, establishment of the First French Republic, Reign of Terror, and rise of radical political groups. # The French Revolution - OverSimplified (Part 1)  [Source URL](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qRZcXIODNU) ## France Before the Revolution - France, a prosperous nation, was ruled by King Louis XVI and the upper classes who enjoyed a lavish lifestyle. - The French population, primarily the peasantry, worked hard to support the upper classes' extravagant lifestyle. - France went to war with Britain and lost, resulting in severe financial debt. - The upper classes continued to party and spend lavishly, ignoring the financial crisis. - King Louis XVI ascended to the throne, inheriting a nation in financial ruin and a growing discontent among the populace. - Louis XVI, a weak and easily manipulated ruler, financed the American Revolution in an attempt to get revenge on Britain. - The American colonies, now independent, did not repay the money they borrowed from France. - France was in significant debt, and the nobility continued to live lavishly while the poor suffered. - Queen Marie Antoinette's extravagant spending, including her elaborate hairstyles, earned her the nickname "Madame Deficit." - The King's inability to fulfill his marital duties with the Queen was a subject of ridicule among the working class. ## The Growing Discontent - The peasantry began to question the social hierarchy and the need for a king. - The Age of Enlightenment emerged, with philosophers questioning the existing social order. - The King and his advisors decided to tax the poor, who were already struggling to make ends meet. - Taxes were levied on various aspects of life, including income, head count, windows, salt, and even children. - Peasants were required to give up a portion of their harvest and work for their local lord without pay. - The inconsistent and unfair taxation policies, particularly the exemption of the first two estates, fueled anger and resentment among the population. - A series of harsh weather conditions led to crop failures, causing food shortages and skyrocketing bread prices. - The upper classes, with their ample grain and wheat reserves, were unaffected by the crisis, while the poor faced starvation. ## The Rise of the Revolution - Riots erupted, with women taking to the streets, raiding bakeries, and sometimes hanging bakers suspected of hoarding bread. - The Estates General, a rarely summoned advisory body, was called upon by the King to address France's financial crisis. - The Estates General consisted of representatives from the Clergy, the Nobility, and the Third Estate, which encompassed the majority of the population. - The King proposed a voting system where each Estate received one vote, regardless of its population size, which heavily disadvantaged the Third Estate. - The Third Estate, frustrated by their lack of representation, decided to form their own government, the National Assembly. - The National Assembly, composed primarily of members from the Third Estate, sought greater equality and economic reform. - The King, fearing the growing power of the National Assembly, attempted to dissolve it by locking them out of their meeting place. - The National Assembly relocated to a tennis court and took the Tennis Court Oath, pledging to continue meeting until their demands were met. - The National Assembly included prominent figures like Maximilien Robespierre and Georges Danton, who formed the radical Jacobin Club. - The King's actions, including the dismissal of a popular Finance Minister, fueled fear and unrest among the people. ## The Storming of the Bastille - The people of Paris, fearing a military crackdown, decided to arm themselves and form the National Guard. - Many troops from the French Military defected to the revolutionary side, further escalating the situation. - A crowd stormed the Hôtel les Invalides, a military hospital, to obtain rifles but were unable to find gunpowder. - The crowd then marched to the Bastille, a prison fortress, demanding the surrender of the prison and the gunpowder stored there. - Governor de Launay, the man in charge of the Bastille, refused to surrender and attempted to stall for time by inviting a few members of the crowd for negotiations. - The crowd, impatient, stormed the Bastille and defeated the French troops inside. - Governor de Launay was killed and his head was placed on a pike. - The National Assembly, hearing about the violence, embraced it and declared their support for the revolution. ## The Reign of Terror - Jean-Paul Marat, a radical writer, published a newspaper called "The Friend of the People" which advocated for violence against the King and the nobility. - The National Assembly, with the help of Thomas Jefferson, adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which guaranteed liberty and equal rights to all men. - Despite the Declaration, the people of France were still struggling with poverty and hunger. - On October 5, a crowd of 7,000 women marched to the King's palace in Versailles to demand an audience with the King. - The crowd grew to tens of thousands and demanded that the King address their concerns about hunger and poverty. - A mob broke into the palace with the intention of killing Queen Marie Antoinette, who escaped through a secret passage. - The mob killed several members of the Royal Guard and displayed their heads on pikes. - King Louis XVI agreed to share power with the Revolutionary government and return to Paris with the crowd, ending the separation between King and Subject. # The French Revolution - OverSimplified (Part 2)  [Source URL](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EQmjXM4VK2U) ## King Louis XVI and the French Revolution - King Louis XVI and his family were forced to reside in the Tuileries Palace in Paris. - The revolutionary government stripped away King Louis XVI's power and demanded his support for the revolution. - King Louis XVI was constantly subjected to demands, including wearing the revolutionary bonnet. - King Louis XVI attempted to flee to the Austrian Netherlands disguised as a servant. - He was apprehended in Varennes and returned to Paris. - The king's attempted escape solidified his image as a traitor in the eyes of many revolutionaries. - The Constitution of 1791 reduced King Louis XVI's power to that of a figurehead. - Radicals, particularly those in the Jacobin Club, demanded the king's complete removal. - A protest on the Champ de Mars calling for the king's removal escalated into a massacre when the National Guard fired on the crowd. - The massacre exposed a deep division within the revolution between moderates who supported a constitutional monarchy and radicals who sought the king's deposition. - King Louis fled to the Legislative Assembly, where Robespierre and his radical Jacobins were gaining influence. The Assembly voted to suspend the monarchy, effectively ending the reign of King Louis XVI. - Louis XVI was put on trial for treason and sentenced to death by guillotine, despite many moderates wanting to deport him. - Marie Antoinette, the former queen, was executed for treason during the Reign of Terror. ## The Reign of Terror - The revolution introduced a new form of execution, the guillotine, designed to provide a quick and painless death for all criminals regardless of their social status. - The guillotine was invented by Dr. Joseph Guillotine and first used in 1791. - Following the French Revolution, calls for the execution of those suspected of opposing the revolution intensified. This included members of the clergy and nobility who had benefited from the pre-revolution system of inequality. - Fear spread as French aristocrats fled to other European countries, prompting concern among the privileged classes of those nations who feared the spread of revolutionary ideas. - The Legislative Assembly, fearing an attack from foreign nations, declared war on Austria in April 1792. Austria's ally, Prussia, joined the conflict, and the Prussian Duke of Brunswick issued a letter threatening to burn Paris to the ground if anything happened to the King. - The Duke's letter backfired, enraging the people of Paris. On August 10, 1792, a mob stormed the King's palace, leading to clashes with the King's Swiss guard, resulting in hundreds of casualties. - The newly established National Convention declared the French Republic, implementing democratic and egalitarian ideals. However, these ideals were quickly overshadowed by fear, paranoia, and a thirst for blood. - The new republic targeted the church, deporting or arresting priests who refused to swear an oath to the revolution. A state-sponsored atheistic religion, the Cult of Reason, replaced the Catholic Church. - Religious treasures were destroyed, churches were converted into temples of reason, and a new revolutionary calendar replaced the Christian calendar. - The government in Paris, controlled by the radical San-Culottes, began rounding up suspected enemies of the revolution, imprisoning thousands, primarily members of the clergy and aristocracy. - As foreign enemies closed in, panic spread. Georges Danton urged citizens to defend the republic, sending tens of thousands of troops to the front lines. - With the troops away, Paris was left vulnerable. The arrival of enemy troops in Verdun fueled fears that the city's overcrowded prisons were breeding grounds for counterrevolutionary plots. - Marat, fearing the potential for revenge by the imprisoned aristocrats, believed that the Prussians would free them if they reached Paris. - Mobs descended on Paris's prisons, breaking in and executing aristocrats, priests, and others on the spot during the brutal September Massacres. Even women and children were not spared. - The massacres, with over 1,600 victims, shocked Europe, prompting questions about the nature of the revolution and its impact on human rights. - The radical faction, led by Robespierre, established the Committee of Public Safety, a 12-member dictatorship, and reinstated the Revolutionary Tribunal. - The Committee of Public Safety declared terror as official government policy, leading to the Reign of Terror. - The Reign of Terror saw widespread executions of individuals suspected of opposing the revolution, even for minor offenses. - The Reign of Terror, led by Maximilien Robespierre, intensified, resulting in widespread executions. - Robespierre's actions alienated him from the National Convention, and he created a new deistic religion called the Cult of the Supreme Being. - Robespierre's downfall came when he threatened the National Convention with a new list of enemies to be executed. - Following Robespierre's execution, a more moderate group called the Thermidorians took control, aiming to restore stability. - The Thermidorians suppressed radical elements, leading to a period known as the White Terror. ## The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte - France's war efforts initially saw success, pushing back against Austria and Prussia, but more countries joined the coalition against France, leading to a renewed struggle. - The National Convention introduced a conscription law, requiring each region to provide a quota of men for the army, which sparked counterrevolutionary uprisings in various regions, including the Northwest, led by Jean Owl, and the Chouanary uprising, which lasted until 1800. - The city of Toulon invited the British Navy to occupy the city, which posed a significant threat to the republic. Napoleon Bonaparte, then a young captain, helped to recapture Toulon, earning him a promotion to brigadier general. - The Vendee region saw a counterrevolution led by a Catholic and royal army, which was ultimately defeated by the republic through brutal pacification tactics, including the sinking of ships carrying thousands of civilians, priests, women, and children, orchestrated by General Jean Baptist Carrier. - The French government, dominated by moderates, faced challenges with the war, revolts, and a worsening economy, leading to increased radicalization and calls for the execution of moderates. - The conflict between radicals and moderates escalated, culminating in the arrest of 29 moderate Girondin politicians on May 31, 1793, effectively eliminating the moderates as a political force and giving Robespierre and his radicals almost total control of the government. - Charlotte Corday, seeking to restore peace to France, assassinated Jean-Paul Marat, a radical journalist, believing he was responsible for the revolution's violence. - Marat's death turned him into a martyr, further fueling the radical faction's influence. - A new constitution was drafted, establishing a government called the Directory to prevent the concentration of power in one individual. - A royalist insurrection in Paris was quelled by Napoleon Bonaparte, who gained prominence for his actions. - Napoleon was appointed a general and sent to lead French armies in Italy. - The Directory proved ineffective, plagued by corruption and economic struggles. - French society experienced a period of social anarchy, with traditional social customs abandoned. - France continued its wars, conquering the Netherlands and negotiating peace with Prussia and Spain. - A British attempt to land French royalists in the West failed. - Napoleon's military brilliance led to victories in Italy, forcing Austria to sign a peace treaty. - Napoleon Bonaparte gained popularity among the French people after his military successes. - Napoleon traveled to Egypt and discovered ancient artifacts but was forced to return to France after his fleet was destroyed by the British. - Upon his return, Napoleon found himself popular while the French government was unpopular. - Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes, a politician, approached Napoleon and suggested a coup d'état. - Napoleon, with the help of his brother, staged a coup d'état, dissolving the government and establishing a new constitution that made him dictator. - The French Revolution, which began with promises of liberty and equality, ended with a dictatorship under Napoleon. - Napoleon stabilized French society by restoring the Catholic Church and abolishing the revolutionary calendar. - Napoleon's ambition led him to expand French territory, ultimately leading to conflict in Europe. Napoleon Bonaparte: Seized power in 1799, crowned himself Emperor in 1804. Expanded the French Empire across Europe, eventually defeated and exiled after the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. NAPOLEONIC WARS: - Napoleon Bonaparte was born on the island of Corsica, which had recently become part of France. - Napoleon's family was of minor nobility and did not have much wealth. - Napoleon's father embraced his new French identity, while Napoleon developed anti-French sentiments. - Napoleon's mother was a disciplinarian and he respected her, even though she punished him severely. - Napoleon's parents sent him to military school in France, where he was bullied for his Corsican accent and lack of wealth. - Napoleon excelled at math and geography and graduated at the age of 16, becoming a second lieutenant in an artillery regiment. ## Napoleon's Rise to Power During the French Revolution - The French Revolution led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic. - Napoleon Bonaparte, a young man of humble origins, rose through the ranks of the French military by fighting to defend the revolution. - Napoleon married Josephine, an older woman who was deeply in debt, in order to increase his social status. ## Napoleon's Military Campaigns in Italy - The French Revolution threatened the balance of power in Europe, leading to the War of the First Coalition. - France initially struggled in the war but began to perform surprisingly well, establishing sister republics in conquered territories. - In 1796, Napoleon led a military campaign in Italy, aiming to knock Austria out of the war. - Despite being outnumbered and given a demoralized army, Napoleon's leadership and military prowess led to significant victories. - Napoleon's campaign in Italy was initially intended as a diversion but became the main show, as he made staggering progress. - Napoleon's signature move of splitting his enemies and taking them on separately led to the defeat of Sardinia and the Austrians. - Napoleon's leadership and bravery, particularly at the Battle of Lodi, earned him the respect of his men. - Napoleon's military successes in Northern Italy led to the Italians cheering his arrival, believing he would liberate them from Austrian rule. - Napoleon plundered Italian territories, sending riches back to France and paying his soldiers. - He briefly confronted the Pope, who had supported the Austrians. - Napoleon negotiated a peace treaty with Austria, effectively ending their involvement in the war. - He established French sister republics in conquered Italian territories, writing constitutions and organizing governments. ## Napoleon's Egyptian Campaign and the Coup d'état - Upon his return to France, Napoleon was hailed as a hero, but the government was concerned about his growing popularity and potential for power. - They sent him to Egypt, hoping to undermine British access to India. - Napoleon's campaign in Egypt was unsuccessful, with British Admiral Nelson destroying his fleet and an Anglo-Ottoman force defeating him at Acre. - Despite the setbacks, Napoleon used propaganda to portray himself as a hero upon his return to France. - He discovered his wife Josephine had been unfaithful, which led to a confrontation. - A politician approached Napoleon with a plan to stage a coup against the unpopular government. - Napoleon agreed to participate, and the plan involved trapping the government in an isolated palace. - The government was convinced there was a dangerous Jacobin plot, and they were escorted to the palace. - Napoleon and his army surrounded the palace, and a chaotic event ensued. - Napoleon's brother Lucien, President of the Lower House, regained control and intimidated the remaining councilmen into creating a new constitution. - A new government was formed with three Consuls, but Napoleon effectively consolidated power as the First Consul. - Napoleon Bonaparte, at the age of 30, became the dictator of France. ## Napoleon's Consolidation of Power and the Second Coalition - While Napoleon was in Egypt, France continued to expand its territory and spread revolutionary ideals. - The European powers formed the Second Coalition to fight against France. - Russia joined the coalition but withdrew after stalling in Switzerland. - Napoleon returned to France and took command of the Army of the Reserve. - Napoleon surprised the Austrians by crossing the Alps and attacking their supply line near Milan. - The Austrians were initially victorious at the Battle of Marengo but were defeated by Napoleon's reinforcements. - General Moreau's victory at Hohenlinden forced Austria to sue for peace. - The Second Coalition ended in a French victory, which was largely attributed to Napoleon's leadership. ## Napoleon's Economic and Social Reforms - After securing French gains in Europe, Napoleon Bonaparte faced the challenge of stabilizing the French economy and government. - He addressed the economic issues by establishing a national bank, reforming currency, improving taxation and welfare systems, and creating a centralized legal code. - Napoleon also reformed education, emphasizing individual ability and creating a system where individuals like Simeon had to compete for opportunities. - While Napoleon built upon the principles of equality from the French Revolution, he also limited rights for certain groups, including women, who were placed under the legal control of their husbands. - Recognizing the importance of religion for many French citizens, Napoleon reached an agreement with the Pope to reintroduce the Catholic Church, albeit with limited power. - He also ensured freedom for other religions and is known for his positive treatment of Jewish people during a time of widespread antisemitism. - Napoleon's aim was to end the chaos of the revolution and create a stable and prosperous French Republic. - His reforms were met with mixed reactions, with conservatives finding him too radical and radicals finding him too conservative. ## Napoleon's Coronation as Emperor - In 1804, after surviving assassination attempts, Napoleon sought to strengthen his position and ensure the continuation of his dynasty by becoming Emperor. - A vote, which was likely not rigged, resulted in 99.9% of the French people supporting his ascension to Emperor. - On December 2nd, 1804, Napoleon was crowned Emperor in an elaborate ceremony at Notre-Dame, with the Pope in attendance. - Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French, defying traditional power structures. - His actions sparked outrage among other European monarchs, who saw him as a threat to their power. - Britain declared war on France, citing treaty violations. ## Napoleon's Military Victories and the Third Coalition - Napoleon planned an invasion of Britain but was thwarted by British naval dominance. - A coalition of European powers, including Austria, Russia, Naples, and Sweden, formed the Third Coalition against France. - Napoleon's military strategy relied on speed and maneuverability, achieved through the use of corps, which were smaller, independent armies. - Napoleon's forces quickly defeated the Austrian army under General Mack, capturing the entire force. - The Russian army retreated from Napoleon's advance, but Napoleon pursued them, hoping to lure them into a decisive battle. - Napoleon, positioned at Austerlitz, feigned a retreat, drawing the Allied forces onto high ground. - The Allies, believing Napoleon's right flank to be weak, descended the heights, falling into Napoleon's trap. - A large French force emerged from the fog, launching a central assault, crushing the Allies. - Napoleon ordered his artillery to fire on the frozen lakes, causing many Allied soldiers to drown. - Austria was forced to make peace with France, giving up territory, compensation, and promising not to fight Napoleon again. ## Napoleon's Expansion of Power and the Fourth Coalition - Napoleon strengthened his grip on Europe, giving captured territories to his family and friends. - Napoleon established a new Confederation in Germany, with himself as its protector. - Emperor Francis dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, acknowledging Napoleon's influence. - Napoleon hoped to invade England with a combined French-Spanish fleet. - British Admiral Nelson engaged the Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar, securing British control of the sea. - Prussian King Frederick William III, under pressure from his wife, declared war on Napoleon, beginning the War of the Fourth Coalition. - Prussia, without consulting its allies, sent Napoleon an ultimatum demanding he withdraw his forces from Germany. - Napoleon's forces defeated the Prussian army at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt. - Napoleon pursued the fleeing Prussian army, capturing Berlin and decimating their forces within a month. - The Prussian King Frederick William and the remnants of his army retreated east. ## Napoleon's Battles with Russia and the End of the Fourth Coalition - Russia launched a surprise winter attack on Napoleon's forces, leading to a series of brutal battles, including the Battle of Eylau. - The Battle of Eylau was fought in blizzard conditions, resulting in heavy casualties and desertions on both sides. - Napoleon's forces were saved by a cavalry charge led by Murat. - After the winter, the fighting resumed, pushing the Russians back to Friedland. - Russian General Bennigsen made a tactical error by positioning his army with the Alle River behind them. - Napoleon's artillery pinned the Russians between the river and their gunfire, resulting in heavy Russian casualties and a French victory. - After defeating his rivals in the Coalition Wars, Napoleon became the dominant power in Europe. - Following the Battle of Friedland, Napoleon and Alexander I of Russia negotiated a peace treaty, forming an alliance against the United Kingdom. - The United Kingdom remained a major threat to Napoleon, continuing to fund his enemies and disrupt French trade. - Napoleon implemented the Continental System, a blockade of British trade with continental Europe, aiming to cripple the British economy. - The British economy suffered but remained afloat by expanding trade with other parts of the world. - Neutral countries faced pressure from both France and the United Kingdom to cease trade with the opposing side. - Denmark, under pressure from Napoleon, officially sided with France. - The Continental System had a significant impact on continental Europe, which was cut off from a major trading partner. - Portugal, a British ally, refused to participate in the blockade, leading to a French invasion. ## The Spanish Uprising and the Fifth Coalition - Spain, despite being an ally, was suspected of not fully enforcing the blockade, revealing their desire to break free from the alliance. - Napoleon mistrusted his Spanish ally and believed the Spanish royal family was incompetent. - Napoleon invited the Spanish royal family to France to mediate their differences. - Napoleon declared Fernando and Carlos were not the kings of Spain and installed his brother as the new king. - The Spanish people revolted against French rule, leading to brutal fighting and guerrilla warfare. - British forces, led by the future Duke of Wellington, landed in Spain and defeated French troops. - Napoleon briefly went to Spain to drive back the allied armies but was forced to return to France due to other conflicts. - The Spanish conflict became a long and costly war for Napoleon, resembling a "Vietnam" for him. - Napoleon was unable to break the will of the Spanish people, weakening his position in Europe. - Austria, encouraged by British funding and Napoleon's involvement in Spain, declared war on France. - Napoleon defeated Austria in four months, but the Austrians had learned from previous battles and gave Napoleon a difficult fight. - The Fifth Coalition saw some of the bloodiest battles of the Napoleonic Wars, including Napoleon's first major defeat. - Napoleon's victory at the Battle of Wagram was costly, but he defeated Austria and forced them to cede more land. ## Napoleon's Marriage and Shifting Alliances - Napoleon and Francis agreed to a marriage between Napoleon and Francis' young daughter. - Napoleon was already married to Josephine, but he needed to secure his position as a monarch. - Napoleon divorced his wife Josephine to marry Marie Louise of Austria, securing an alliance with Austria. - Napoleon's dominance began to falter due to a failed blockade against Britain, the ongoing war in Spain, and struggles in Austria. - Sweden, after being defeated by Russia, overthrew its king and appointed Napoleon's marshal, Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, as crown prince. - Sweden joined Napoleon's Continental System, solidifying Napoleon's position as a powerful force. - Russia, feeling disadvantaged by the Continental System and Napoleon's Duchy of Warsaw, began trading with Britain, breaking the alliance with Napoleon. ## The Invasion of Russia and the War of the Sixth Coalition - Napoleon, determined to eliminate the British threat, launched a massive invasion of Russia in 1812. - The Russian army employed a scorched-earth policy, hindering Napoleon's supply lines and slowing his advance. - The harsh summer conditions, coupled with dwindling supplies, decimated Napoleon's army. - Despite considering retreat, Napoleon pressed on, reaching Moscow after a long and arduous journey. - The Battle of Borodino, a fierce engagement between the French and Russian armies, resulted in heavy casualties on both sides. - The Russians retreated from Moscow, leaving the city to Napoleon. - Napoleon's invasion of Russia ended in disaster. After burning Moscow, Napoleon waited for Tsar Alexander to surrender, but the Tsar did not respond. - As winter approached, Napoleon's army was trapped in Russian territory with dwindling supplies. The French army suffered from cold, starvation, disease, and attacks from Russian Cossacks. - Napoleon attempted to escape Russia, but his army was decimated. Hundreds drowned and thousands were captured as the French burned bridges to prevent the Russians from pursuing them. - Napoleon abandoned his army and returned to France, leaving the remaining soldiers to make their way back across the border. - The disastrous Russian campaign weakened Napoleon's position, and other