Psychological Foundations of Curriculum PDF

Psychological Topic 3 Foundations of Curriculum By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following: 1. Explain why curriculum developers need to understand how humans learn. 2. Compare t...

Psychological Topic 3 Foundations of Curriculum By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following: 1. Explain why curriculum developers need to understand how humans learn. 2. Compare the four major theoretical perspectives explaining human learning. 3. Identify the application of behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist, and humanist principles in the classroom. 4. State your values and beliefs about the nature of learning. In Topic 2, we discussed how different philosophical orientations and beliefs influence curriculum. We examined Western and Eastern philosophers and their beliefs on how schools should educate the young. Just as there are varying philosophical orientations, there are also varying conceptions of human learning and how the curriculum should be conceived, especially regarding learning in the classroom. This topic will focus on how different psychological perspectives Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 59 impact the curriculum. Psychology deals with how humans learn and behave. After all, the main goal of any curriculum is to bring about learning. Hence, curriculum developers need to know how humans learn to incorporate psychological principles when designing, developing, and implementing the curriculum. „Strokes of Genius from a Wonder Boy‰ Lost in his own world, 11-year-Yeak Railway Station and charcoal Ping Lian kneels on the floor, etchings of Tun Mahathir Mohamad humming softly as he doodles on a and Datuk Seri Abdullah Badawi, yellow paper. He is oblivious to my the Prime Minister of Malaysia. presence. „Say hello to the lady‰, Sarah Lee said to her son who Ping LianÊs artistic talent is reluctantly moved away from his extraordinary. But, like any ordinary drawing. child, he is hyperactive and has a short attention span, loves root beer „Hello‰, he mumbles while float and biscuits, and enjoys engulfing me in a hug. His eyes watching Sesame Street and Toy settle on the flowery motif of my Story. His latest preoccupation is dress. „Paint‰, he retorts in a clear the electronic keyboard. voice and then runs to his worktable and waits. „Paint flower!‰ he repeats Unlike ordinary children, however louder. Ping Lian is autistic and diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactive The home is swamped with Ping Disorder. Although he has an LianÊs art – on the walls, stacked up excellent memory and reads well, against banisters and under the he has limited speech vocabulary, tables. They are done in charcoal, usually expressing himself in single pencil, ink and marker pens with or double words. watercolour and acrylic. He is home-tutored and attends While some resemble infantile supplementary lessons for special scratchings, there are others that needs children at the Emanuel Care seem impossible for an 11-year-old Centre. He also takes Kumon classes to produce, such as the Petronas in mathematics. Twin Towers, the Kuala Lumpur. Source: Strokes of genius from an 11-year-old autistic child, by Vivienne Pal, New Straits Times, February 3, 2005 Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 60 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM ACTIVITY 3.1 Read the newspaper report on Stroke of Genius from a Wonder Boy. (a) What are the unusual abilities of Yeak Ping Lian? (b) How is he presently educated? (c) Are there special schools in your country to educate autistic children? Describe one of the special schools. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. 3.1 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING The scientific study of human learning began only in the late 19th century. However, philosophers such as Aristotle, Socrates, al-Farabi, and Confucius have attempted to explain human learning much earlier. For example, John Locke, an 18th century philosopher, compared childrenÊs minds to blank slates or tabula rasa. He believed that childrenÊs experiences are etched or carved into their minds in much the way that one writes on slates with chalk. Learners are visualised to be empty buckets into which the teacher pours information. However, today we know children are not empty vessels but come to school with many different experiences, prior knowledge, and expectations. There is so much interest in studying human learning, and various disciplines besides psychology have inquired into the mysteries of the mind. Many experts engage in brain study. They hope to unravel its mysteries and better understand how humans learn and think. Various research approaches and methods have evolved in studying how humans learn. Introspection and the use of computers produced much research in cognitive psychology. They increased our understanding of human competence, memory, knowledge representation, problem-solving ability, and decision-making skills in mathematics, science, and economics. Developmental psychology provided some answers to how children think and understand concepts as they grow chronologically. In contrast, social psychology work revealed that learning occurs in cultural settings. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 61 Psychology is derived from the Greek word psyche, which means soul. It is a discipline devoted to studying behaviour, mind, and thought. Specifically, it studies mental processes that determine a personÊs behaviour and thinking. When applied to teaching and learning, it provides the basis for understanding how students learn and understand a body of knowledge. The curriculum developer must know how students learn and consider individual differences when designing a curriculum. The curriculum will be considered successful only when students learn and gain from the curriculum. The curriculum developer is interested in knowing how the organisation of the curriculum can enhance learning. Ralph Tyler is a well-known scholar in curriculum development. He proposed in the 1960s that anything taught in the classroom should be subjected to a psychology „screen‰ to establish whether they are congruent with how humans learn. We will examine in detail about Ralph Tyler in Topic 5. While there is a great deal of interest in studying human learning, anyone involved in curriculum work should also be aware of various explanations of human learning. We have not been able to say with certainty how people learn. Generally, there are four psychological perspectives or schools of thought that have had an impact on the curriculum. These perspectives are behaviourism, cognitivism, humanism, and constructivism (refer to Figure 3.1). Figure 3.1: Psychological Perspectives Influencing Curriculum and Their Proponents Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 62 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.2 BEHAVIOURISM In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory in Germany. He dedicated himself to the scientific study of human thought processes, often used as the beginning of modern psychology. His approach to using experiments to study the human mind moved psychology from the domain of philosophy to the laboratory. The behaviourist school is the work of WundtÊs introspection method. Through introspection, Wundt and his colleagues tried to get their subjects to reflect on their thought processes. Behaviourists argued that the introspection method was too subjective. They felt that the scientific study of psychology must be restricted to studying behaviours that can be observed and the stimulus that brings about the behaviour. The behaviourist approach can be traced back to Aristotle, Descartes, and Locke. They argued that behaviour could be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, a certain response can be produced by manipulating and giving a certain stimulus. The motivation to learn was assumed to be driven by hunger, reward, and punishment. 3.2.1 Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) Learning results from an association between a stimulus (such as food) and a response (the animal salivating). The famous Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov introduced classical conditioning theory through a series of experiments with dogs (refer to Figure 3.2). Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 63 Figure 3.2: PavlovÊs Experiment with Dogs Source: https://bit.ly/2Nq13ea Based on the law of association proposed by Greek philosophers such as Aristotle, he showed that an organism could associate a particular stimulus (S) such as food with a particular response (R) like salivating. Later, one could substitute „food‰ with the sound of a bell (a neutral stimulus), yet the animal still responds by salivating. Such association or „habit‰ becomes strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. For example, when the organism realises that the sound of the bell does not result in food, the animal stops salivating, and the behaviour is said to be extinct. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 64 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.2.2 Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) Thorndike also worked with animals and defined learning as habit formation. In his experiments, a hungry cat was placed in a box and could escape and eat the food by pressing a lever inside the box (refer to Figure 3.3). Figure 3.3: ThorndikeÊs Puzzle Box Source: https://bit.ly/3lQPfn8 After much trial and error behaviour, the cat learned to associate pressing the lever (stimulus) with opening the door (response). This S-R connection, when established, resulted in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). Each time the animal was put into the box, it took less time to press the lever and escape because the animal learned how to open the door. Based on these experiments, Thorndike proposed three laws which collectively is called, the law in learning. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 65 Firstly, is the law of effect. Suppose a pleasurable or rewarding experience follows a response. For instance, after a student gives a response (gets the right answer after doing a mathematics problem) he or she receives a pleasurable or rewarding experience (praised by the teacher in front of other students). In that case, the response will be strengthened and become habitual. The second is the law of exercise. Connections between stimulus (e.g. getting the right answer) and response (e.g. doing a mathematics problem) are strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued. The third law Thorndike introduces to us is the law of readiness. Certain behaviours are more likely to be learnt than others because the organismÊs nervous system is ready to make the connection leading to a satisfying state of affairs. It is preparation for action. The teacherÊs task is to arrange the classroom and learning activities to enhance the connection between a stimulus and a response. 3.2.3 B. Frederick Skinner (1900–1980) The theory of Skinner was based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour. He worked with rats and pigeons. He introduced the term „operant‰, which means to act upon. He put a hungry rat in a box, and a food pellet would be given each time the rat pressed the lever. This experiment resulted in the rat pressing the lever each time it wanted food. The ratÊs change in behaviour or learning resulted from the animalÊs response to events (stimuli) in the environment. The individual is conditioned to respond when a particular response or behaviour is reinforced (rewarded). For example, a child will do her homework because she knows she can watch her favourite TV programme. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 66 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Reinforcement is the key element in SkinnerÊs S-R theory. A reinforcer could be anything. It could be a parent saying „good work‰ or the child obtaining an „A‰ in history which gives the child a feeling of accomplishment and satisfaction. These are examples of positive reinforcement. However, there are also negative reinforcers which are any stimuli that give rise to a response when it is withdrawn. For example, the rat will press the lever to stop the electric shock given (refer to Figure 3.4). Figure 3.4: SkinnerÊs Box Source: https://bit.ly/3Zo9zer Hence, a mother will pick up her crying child because she cannot bear to hear him cry. Similarly, when you enter a car, you put on the safety belt to stop the irritating sound of the buzzer. In other words, the behaviours of „picking up the baby‰ and „putting on the safety belt‰ are performed to avoid unpleasantness. On the other hand, punishment is administered when you want to reduce the occurrence of a particular behaviour. For example, a boy who does not help his mother is not allowed to go out to play football. In other words, the mother deprives the boy of the pleasure of playing football. Based on a schedule of rewards and punishment, the behaviour of an organism can be modified. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 67 What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning? In classical conditioning, the organism is not able to change the environment. For example, in PavlovÊs experiments, the dog had no choice but to salivate when given food or upon hearing the sound of the bell. In operant conditioning, the organism can act or not because its response is determined by the stimulus or the food given. Operant conditioning has been widely applied in behaviour modification, classroom management and instructional design. Programmed instruction based on SkinnerÊs ideas was widely adopted in the 1960s and is still used today (with modifications). For example, in programmed instruction, students are presented with manageable chunks of information in gradual steps and feedback is immediately provided to reinforce understanding. Good performance is provided with reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes, and good grades. Do you remember the gold or silver star you would get next to your name in primary school for good behaviour or grades? Behaviour that is positively reinforced will be repeated, and information presented in small amounts can reinforce and shape the formation of the behaviour desired. 3.2.4 Walter Bandura (1925–Present) The social learning theory of Bandura emphasised the importance of observing and modelling the behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. According to Bandura, learning would be slow if people had to rely solely on their efforts to do anything. Fortunately, a substantial amount of human behaviour is learned by observing others. For the student to learn, they must watch and pay attention to the model and the modelled behaviour. The information observed must be retained in some form in memory. Next, the student must have the necessary motor and cognitive skills to reproduce the modelled behaviour. The motivation to observe and reproduce the modelled behaviour depends on whether the student will derive satisfaction from reproducing the behaviour observed. Television advertisements are among the most pervasive examples of social learning situations. Advertisements suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behaviour shown in the advertisement and buy the advertised product. Individuals are more likely to model behaviours that result in something valued or the model is similar to the observer and has admired status. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 68 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.2.5 Behaviourism in the Classroom The following is a list of behaviourist principles applied in teaching and learning: Use a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and learning. When learning factual material, provide immediate and frequent feedback for complex and difficult concepts. Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance the mastery of facts. Break down a complex task into smaller and manageable sub-skills. Sequence material to enhance understanding e.g. teaches simple concepts before proceeding to more difficult and abstract concepts. Model, the behaviour students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations when necessary. Reinforce when students demonstrate the modelled behaviour. State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and students. Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what rewards will be given. SELF-CHECK 3.1 What are the differences and similarities between operant conditioning and social learning? Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 69 ACTIVITY 3.2 1. Which behaviourist principles listed in Subtopic 3.2.5 are widely practised in classrooms? Give specific examples. 2. Select a textbook and examine how behaviourist principles have been used. 3. Give examples of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning in daily life. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. 3.3 COGNITIVISM In the 1950s, there was a realisation that behaviourism did not fully explain human learning. Although behaviourism emphasised learning that was observable and measurable, something was missing, namely, mental events. In other words, behaviourism excludes the minds of the learner when they are learning or thinking. Hence, cognitivism is also important in studying the human thought process, and it involves the unravelling of the mysteries of the black box (refer to Figure 3.5). Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 70 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Figure 3.5: The Mysteries of the Black Box Cognitivism felt that it was necessary to investigate how learners make sense of what they learn, even though such mental events are difficult to observe and measure objectively. By observing individualsÊ responses to different stimuli, cognitivism makes inferences about the mental processes that produce those responses. For example, when students are asked, „What is the capital of China?‰, one student responds „Beijing‰ while another responds „Shanghai‰. Why did one student answer correctly, while the other got it wrong? Cognition can be defined broadly as the act or process of knowing. Cognitive theories of learning focus on the mind or „black box‰ and attempt to show how information is received, assimilated, stored and then recalled. However, it should be noted that, unlike behaviourism, no single theory explains cognitive processes or the mysteries of the black box. Research in cognitive psychology has been prolific, and many theories have been proposed based on empirical evidence. The evidence indicates that learning is a multi-faceted, complex and dynamic process. This finding is not surprising since the human mind is so complex, and attempting to unravel its mysteries is beginning. For this reason, there are many explanations of how humans think, solve problems, make decisions, and learn. The various theories proposed to examine a small facet of cognition. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 71 3.3.1 The Information Processing Approach All aspects of learning have to do something with memory. If we cannot remember what we have experienced, we will never be able to learn anything. For example, one morning, you are introduced to Shalin. That afternoon you see her again and say something like, „YouÊre Shalin. We met this morning‰. Clearly, you have remembered her name. Memory is crucial in learning, and the „Three Stages of Memory‰ theory (refer to Figure 3.6) proposed by Atkinson and Shriffin (1968) argues that information is received, processed, and stored in three different stages. This theory is also known as the Information Processing Approach. Figure 3.6: Three Stages of Memory Source: Atkinson & Shriffin (1968) The sensory memory receives information from various sources (visual, auditory, smell, touch, and taste), and the brain focuses only on specific information. For example, we normally are unaware of the sensory properties of stimuli or what we are exposed to unless we are asked to identify such information. People are more likely to pay attention to information that is interesting or important to them. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 72 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Sensory memory is very short and lasts for about 3 seconds. Information attended to is encoded into short-term memory (STM). Encoding transforms information received into a form that can be deposited or stored in memory. A striking feature of short-term memory is its very limited capacity. On average, it is limited to seven chunks, give or take two, i.e. 7 plus or minus 2 (Miller, 1956). A chunk is a unit that could be several words, digits, sentences, or even paragraphs. To keep information „active‰ in STM, you must do something to it. For instance, when you look up a phone number, you utter it repeatedly in your mind to retain it until you have dialled the number. We can also keep information active by rehearing it. Information can be retained by repeating it (maintenance rehearsal). It can also be meaningful by relating it to something we already know (elaborative rehearsal) to prevent it from fading from STM. Encoded and rehearsed information is stored in long-term memory, consisting of information that just happened a few minutes ago or as long as a lifetime. It has been said that all you have learned and experienced in your lifetime is stored in long-term memory; nothing is lost. Long-term memory has an unlimited capacity or storage area. The failure to recall from your long-term memory, is a result from a loss of access to the information rather than from a loss of the information itself. Poor memory may reflect a retrieval failure rather than a storage failure. Failure to find car keys does not necessarily mean it is not there. It is there but cannot be found. You may be looking in the wrong place, or it may be misfiled in your brain and, therefore, inaccessible. Research has identified that successful retrieval from long-term memory is enhanced when the information is properly organised and when the information is similar to the context encoded in it. For example, you met various professionals at a meeting – doctors, teachers, journalists, and accountants. When you later tried to recall their names, you would do better if you organised your recall by profession. For instance, you can ask yourself the following questions: Who were the doctors I met?, Who were the teachers? and so forth. A list of names or words is far easier to recall when you sort the words into categories and then recall the words on a category-by-category basis. Good information organisation improves retrieval, presumably by making memory search more efficient. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 73 Information is stored in the long-term memory as a network; the more we elaborate on it, the more we will remember. Also, the more connections between the new information and what is already stored, the greater the retrieval established. Information in long-term memory is usually encoded in terms of its meaning. Memory can be improved by connecting what is known with new information. 3.3.2 Meaningful Learning The search for meaning or making sense of oneÊs experiences is innate, and the need to act on oneÊs environment is automatic. Our brain has been described as an artist and a scientist to generate information patterns. When confronted with meaningless or unrelated pieces of information, the brain will try to make sense of the information pattern or perceive and create meanings all the time in one way or another. Information is processed at multiple levels depending on its characteristics. The deeper the processing, the more that will be remembered (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). Information with strong visual images or many associations with existing knowledge or elaborations will be processed deeper. Things and events that are meaningful are better remembered because it requires more processing than meaningless stimuli. The greater the processing of information during learning, the more it will be retained and remembered. John Polanyi Learning is seeing patterns; teaching is surrounding learners (Noble with the patterns that are already known by the culture. And Laureate) the difference between Nobel Prize winners and others is that they see patterns that have not been seen before. Schools cannot stop learners from creating meaning but can influence the direction. Although much of what students learn is predetermined by the curriculum, the ideal process is to present information so that the learner can extract patterns rather than try to impose the patterns. The learning environment needs to be stable and familiar. At the same time, provisions must be made to satisfy the learnerÊs need for curiosity and hunger for discovery and challenge. Lessons need to be exciting and meaningful and offer students abundant choices. All students must have a rich environment with complex and meaningful challenges. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 74 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM A medical practitioner, David Ausubel (1960), argued that learning occurs when oneÊs current knowledge organisation is changed. The change indicates that meaningful and coherent knowledge is based on prior knowledge. The change is either due to the subsuming concept having been elaborated with the new information or because a new subsuming concept now connects existing concepts. Students come to school with sophisticated theories about the world and an intuitive understanding of language, numbers, and science based on their previous experiences. They are capable of complex thinking, which they apply to problems in their daily lives, even without mastering some basic skills. However, this prior knowledge includes preconceived ideas and misconceptions such as stereotypes (e.g. of race, gender, etc.) and simplistic notions about the workings of the real world. When you ignore prior knowledge, you miss a tremendous opportunity to contextualise new knowledge and challenge pre-existing mistaken ideas. If students do not figure out their beliefs and then confront their flawed or incomplete notions about the world, they will continue to hold on too many misconceptions. Some will make it impossible for them to understand more complex concepts. 3.3.3 Levels of Cognitive Development According to genetic epistemologist Jean Piaget (1955), the senses absorb information. The human mind organises and imposes personal understanding by relating it to what it already knows. When new information is assimilated through existing ideas and beliefs, it is usually combined with existing knowledge and reinforces the existing views. In contrast, learners need to consider information through a new schema when they must transform their beliefs to accommodate the information, which is the basic process for conceptual change. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 75 Through observation of his children, Piaget proposed the following theory of cognitive development (refer to Table 3.1): Table 3.1: Theory of Cognitive Development Development Description Sensorimotor stage In the early stage, the childÊs reactions are based on reflex (birth to age 2) operations and progress towards differentiating the self from objects. By this stage, the child achieves object permanence and realises that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen or felt. Preoperational stage The child can use language and see symbolic objects. For (2–7 years) example, a chair is used for sitting. Thinking is egocentric in which the child finds it difficult to consider the viewpoints of others. Can classify objects by a single feature. For example, the child can group all red objects regardless of shape and colour. Concrete operational The child can think logically about objects and events. The (7–11 years) child can also classify objects according to several features and order them in series along a single dimension, such as size. For example, by age 7, the child knows that when 500 millilitres of water in a tall glass is poured into a flat container, the volume of water is the same. Formal operations The young person can think logically about abstract ideas, (11 years and evaluate data, and test hypotheses systematically. They onwards) can analyse ideas and comprehend spatial and temporal relationships. At this stage, there are few or no limitations on what the young person can learn depending on his intellectual potential and environmental experiences. PiagetÊs view on how children think and develop has significantly impacted educational practice and curriculum development. His ideas have been the basis for designing kindergarten and primary school curriculum. For example, learning materials and activities are designed to meet the appropriate level of cognitive development and avoid asking students to perform tasks beyond their cognitive capabilities. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 76 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.3.4 Metacognition For many people, learning feels like a spontaneous activity; it just happens (or it does not). However, this is not true because learners who order their thoughts and focus to make sense of the information, such as relating it to prior knowledge, engage in metacognitive thought (Flavell, 1981). Metacognition is thinking about thinking and it involves three elements (refer to Figure 3.7 and Table 3.2): Figure 3.7: Metacognition Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 77 Table 3.2: Elements of Metacognition Element Description Knowledge Unless you know how to order your thoughts, attention goes to whatever is in the surroundings. Awareness Awareness of your cognitive behaviour includes being aware of: The purpose of the task What you know about the task What needs to be known The strategies which facilitate or impede learning Action Action is the ability to use self-regulatory mechanisms to ensure the successful completion of the task, such as: Planning your next move Checking the outcome of any move made Evaluating the effectiveness of any attempted move Experts in any field carry very well-developed patterns of knowledge in their field. They draw on these known patterns whenever they encounter new information and recognise patterns and features not noticed by novices. But how do they acquire the patterns in the first place? They start with prior learning, organise it into accessible categories or patterns, and routinely question what they know when confronted with new patterns and contexts. They learn for understanding by observing their learning and monitoring what they learn. They also use feedback from self-monitoring to make adjustments, adaptations and even major changes to what they hold as understanding (Brown, 1982). Students can enhance their metacognitive skills to control their learning. They enhance metacognitive ability when they have skills like planning, organisation, monitoring, revising, and refocusing. SELF-CHECK 3.2 1. What are the characteristics of the three memory stores? 2. What is meant by meaningful learning? 3. What is metacognition? How does it influence learning? Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 78 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.3.5 Cognitivism in the Classroom According to Huitt (2003), the following is a list of cognitivist principles that may be practised in the teaching and learning of various subject areas (refer to Table 3.3). Table 3.3: List of Cognitivist Principles Principles Details Gain the studentsÊ Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin. attention Move around the room and use voice inflexions (changing tones). Bring to mind relevant Review the previous dayÊs lesson. prior learning Discuss the previously covered content. Point out important Provide handouts. information Write on the board or use transparencies. Present information in Show a logical sequence of concepts and skills. an organised manner Go from simple to complex when presenting new material. Show students how to Present information in categories. categorise (chunk) Teach inductive reasoning. related information Provide opportunities Connect new information to something already for students to elaborate known. on new information Look for similarities and differences among concepts. Show students how Make a silly sentence with the first letter of each word to use coding when in the list. memorising lists Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method. Provide for repetition State important principles several times in different of learning ways during a presentation of information (STM). Have items on each dayÊs lesson from the previous lesson (LTM). Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and skills (LTM). Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 79 ACTIVITY 3.3 1. Which of the cognitivist principles listed in Subtopic 3.3.5 do you think are widely practised in classrooms? Give specific examples. 2. Do you think schools should teach students how to learn? Why? Discuss your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. 3.4 CONSTRUCTIVISM A baby is born and soon takes her first step. The amount of learning and understanding her immediate environment is enormous within that short period. Learning in the early years is significant because it provides the basis for language, physical dexterity, social understanding, and emotional development for the rest of the childÊs life. Just imagine the vast amount of knowledge that would have been acquired by the time the child enters school. Increasingly there is evidence to suggest that adults do not teach everything the child learns. Instead, the child teaches herself by absorbing information and experiencing the world around her. Such learning is the basis of constructivism, which has generated much excitement and interest among educators. 3.4.1 Learning is the Active Construction of Knowledge Constructivism is a learning perspective that originates in the works of Bruner, Piaget, and Vygotsky. The knowledge, beliefs, and skills an individual brings to a learning situation should be important. Learners are not passive recipients of information but active agents engaging in constructing their knowledge. According to Piaget (1955), knowledge construction can occur through three mechanisms. The first mechanism is assimilation. The learner tries to fit a new experience into an existing mental structure – secondly, the accommodation where the learner revises an existing schema because of a new experience. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 80 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM The third mechanism is equilibrium. The learner seeks mental stability through assimilation and accommodation. In other words, learning involves constructing new understanding by combining prior learning with new information. In other words, knowledge is constructed in the learnerÊs mind (Null, 2004). If this is the case, knowledge is seldom transferred from the teacherÊs mind to the studentÊs. Knowledge results from the learnerÊs constructive activity, not residing outside the knower, and can be conveyed or instilled by diligent perception or linguistics communication (von Glaserfeld, 1990). Individuals actively construct knowledge to give meaning to that knowledge. Learners construct their knowledge by looking for meaning and order; they interpret what they hear, read, and see based on their previous learning, habits, and experiences. Students who do not have appropriate background knowledge will be unable to accurately „hear‰ or „see‰ what is before them. What does this mean for classroom learning? Students should not be treated as passive learners but as active learners exploring and going beyond the information given. They should be provided with authentic and challenging projects to encourage students and teachers to work together. Authentic settings allow learners to see a problem from different perspectives; and negotiate and generate solutions through sharing and exchanging ideas. In an authentic environment, learners assume responsibility for their learning. The goal is to create learning communities that are more closely related to collaborative practice in the real world. 3.4.2 Learning is a Social Activity Constructivism emphasises that learning is a social activity. The environment in which young people learn has a very powerful influence on them. The subtle and overt cues that pervade a community has an influence on them. Social experiences, rather than what is taught in schools, often account for much of the variation in student learning. The community is the basic fabric of student learning encompassing a cultureÊs values, beliefs, norms, habits, and behaviours (Vygotsky, 1978). As students enter adolescence, the social fabric of their learning expands as their contacts broaden and they become more closely identified with peers. Within their peer group, young adolescents encounter many new ideas and points of view. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 81 Suppose learning is social, and students are social. In that case, it seems logical that social engagement is a powerful vehicle for enhancing learning. Learning is enhanced when students learn how to learn together. They also engage in serious discussion, examine important topics, and have shared responsibility for applying what they know to new situations. Cooperative, collaborative, and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas, beliefs, conceptions, inconsistencies, and misconceptions with their peers and teachers. Organising this kind of learning is a much more complex type of teaching compared to lecturing or demonstrations. Every childÊs learning develops in the context of culture. Culture teaches children both what to think and how to think. Through culture, students acquire much of the content of their thinking and the tools of intellectual adaptation. Through problem-solving, share experiences with others such as the teacher, parent, sibling or significant others. A difference exists between what a student can do on his own and what the student can do with help or the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1962). What learners can do on themselves is on the level of actual ability and what they can do with help is their level of potential ability. So, with appropriate adult help, students can often perform tasks they cannot complete independently. Schools need to create conditions within which students can recognise their own beliefs and engage in challenging phenomena in their environment. It can be done through investigations, reading, laboratory investigations, debates, etc. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 82 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.4.3 Constructivism in the Classroom The following discussion will provide ways teachers can help students construct meaning in a classroom setting, as suggested by Brooks and Brooks (1993) (refer to Table 3.4). Table 3.4: Constructivist Approaches Approach Description Student autonomy and Respect studentsÊ ideas and encourage independent initiative are accepted thinking. and encouraged Teachers help students attain their intellectual potential. Students take responsibility for their learning. Higher-level thinking Teachers challenge students to make connections, is encouraged analyse, predict, justify, and defend their ideas. How teachers ask questions will influence student response. The teacher asks open-ended questions and allows wait time for responses. Students are engaged in Students present what they have and build their dialogue with the teacher knowledge. and with each other Comfortable expressing their ideas to allow for meaningful learning. Students are engaged Students generate varying hypotheses about in an experience that phenomena. challenges hypotheses and encourages Provide an opportunity to test their hypotheses discussion through dialogue. The class use raw data, primary sources, and manipulatives, physical and interactive materials. Involve students in real-world situations. Curriculum The curriculum emphasises big concepts, beginning with the whole and expanding to include the parts. Knowledge is seen as dynamic and ever-changing with experience. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 83 SELF-CHECK 3.3 1. What does it mean by students constructing their knowledge? 2. What does it mean by learning is a social activity? 3. Why are authentic and real-world situations important in learning? ACTIVITY 3.4 1. Which of the constructivist principles listed in Subtopic 3.4.3 are widely practised in classrooms? Give specific examples. 2. What are some problems with implementing constructivist principles in the classroom? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. 3.5 HUMANISM The humanistic approach to learning refers to various ideas and techniques. While there may be many interpretations, they all advocate humanising teaching and learning. A learner is a person who has feelings, attitudes, and emotions. Students learning approaches are influenced by their emotions. Self-efficacy, self-assurance, and motivation have an influence on emotions. However, not all emotions facilitate learning. Stress and constant fear for instance, profoundly affect learnersÊ thinking and learning ability. Past experiences, such as grades and failures, greatly impact a studentÊs learning ability. Three noteworthy personalities who have had an impact on the emergence of humanistic psychology are Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Arthur Combs. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 84 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.5.1 Abraham Maslow He observed that humans are constantly striving to control their behaviour and seeking to gratify themselves. He proposed his well-known theory, MaslowÊs Hierarchy of Needs (1954). According to this theory, individuals satisfy their needs as follows (refer to Figure 3.8): Figure 3.8: Hierarchy of Needs Everything possible should be done to ensure that the lower-level needs of students are satisfied so that they are more likely to function at the higher levels. Parents and society play a significant role in ensuring that childrenÊs physiological, safety, love, belonging, and esteem needs are satisfied. While schools cannot control all the influence impinges on a learner, they can create an atmosphere of trust, warmth and care. Schools need to create a non-threatening environment where students feel safe and comfortable. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 85 3.5.2 Carl Rogers Carl Rogers (1986) was a psychotherapist who believed that the client was the most important person and developed what he called a person-centred approach. The therapist was not to tell the client what to do, but rather the client should learn how to control their behaviour. He established a warm, positive, and acceptant atmosphere in which he could empathise with his clients and sense their thoughts and feelings. When applied to education, he proposed that classrooms become learner-centred and teachers should facilitate learning. The teacher helps students explore new ideas about their lives, school work, relations with others, and interaction with society. Letting students talk about their feelings and finding ways to vent their emotions productively can help them to learn. 3.5.3 Arthur Combs Combs (1972) believed that how a person perceives themselves is most important. He posits that the basic purpose of teaching is to help each student develops a positive self-concept. The teacherÊs roles are facilitator, encourager, helper, colleague and friend of their students. Combs elaborated on these points by listing six characteristics of good teachers (refer to Figure 3.9): Figure 3.9: Characteristics of Good Teachers Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 86 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.5.4 Humanism in the Classroom The following are some humanistic techniques in the classroom: Establish a warm, democratic, positive, and non-threatening learning environment in which the learnerÊs self-concept and self-esteem are considered essential factors in learning. When it seems appropriate, teachers work as a facilitator and share ideas with students. When the teacher is comfortable, the teacher may occasionally show their „real person‰ by telling students how they feel. Provide learning experiences that will lead to the development of habits and attitudes that teachers want to foster. Teachers should be role models and set good examples. Students and teachers plan together the experiences and activities of the curriculum. Students are given choices (with limitations) and freedom (with responsibilities); the extent of choices and freedom is related to their maturity level and age. Learning is based on life experiences, discovery, exploring, and experimenting. SELF-CHECK 3.4 1. What is the humanistic view of learning? 2. What does it mean by „teacher as facilitator‰? 3. What are the SIX characteristics of good teachers according to Arthur Combs? Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 87 ACTIVITY 3.5 1. Which humanistic principles listed in Subtopic 3.5.4 are widely practised in your school? Give specific examples. 2. Do you think schools give enough attention to the affective (emotions, feelings) aspects of learning? Justify. 3. According to the behaviourist perspective, instruction is essentially „teacher-centred‰ and learning tends to be passive. What is your opinion on this? 4. In your view as a teacher or instructor, to what extent does your institutionÊs curriculum consider learnersÊ needs and interests? Given the opportunity, what modifications would you recommend to curriculum planners to accommodate these learners? 5. To what extent can constructivist principles be applied in the classroom? 6. How would you incorporate humanistic principles into your teaching? Give specific examples. Discuss your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 88 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM ACTIVITY 3.6 Curriculum for Western Australian Schools Principles Guiding Teaching and Learning The following are seven principles of teaching and learning that form the basis of the learning environment in Western Australian schools. These principles are based on contemporary research and knowledge about how learning can be supported. The focus is on providing a school and classroom environment that intellectually, socially and physically supports learning. Opportunity to learn: Learning experiences should enable students to observe and practise the processes, products, skills and values expected of them. Connection and challenge: Learning experiences should connect with studentÊs existing knowledge, skills and values while extending and challenging their current ways of thinking and acting. Action and reflection: Learning experiences should be meaningful and encourage both action and reflection on the part of the learner. Motivation and purpose: Learning experiences should be motivating and their purpose clear to the student. Inclusivity and difference: Learning experiences should respect and accommodate differences between learners. Independence and collaboration: Learning experiences should encourage students to learn independently and with others. Supportive environment: The school and classroom should be safe and conducive to effective learning. Source: Government of Western Australia, Curriculum Council. Available at: http://www.curriculum.wa.edu.au/ pages/framework/framework03g.htm Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 89 Questions: (a) Based upon what has been discussed in this topic, can you identify which psychological perspectives are emphasised? Explain. (b) What is meant by the term learning experiences? (c) To what extent are these principles of learning emphasised in your school curriculum? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Psychology deals with the study of learning, behaviour, attitudes, and abilities. Behaviourism views human learning as the association between a stimulus and the accompanying response. Operant conditioning argues that the connection between a stimulus and a response can be strengthened by reinforcement. Social learning occurs when a person attends, retains, and reproduces the modelled behaviour and is motivated to do so because it is of value. Cognitivism involves studying the mental activities or events that occur when a person learns, solves a problem or makes decisions. Meaningful learning is making connections between prior learning and the new information learned. Metacognition is the knowledge one has about oneÊs thinking. Constructivism argues that learning is not passive but involves the construction of knowledge by the learner. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 90 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Constructivism suggests that learning is a social activity. According to the humanist approach, learning should consider studentsÊ emotions and feelings. Humanism argues that the role of the teacher is that of a facilitator. 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