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1 EDCR 241 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING 03/03/2022 DR....

1 EDCR 241 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING 03/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  2 WEEK 1 Definition of Psychology Myths about Psychology Pseudo Psychology Branches and Subfields of Psychology Definitional of Developmental Psychology and Learning Growth, Maturation and Development Domains of Development Principles of growth and development and its educational implications DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. 03/03/2022 AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  3 Core Competencies of the New Curriculum 1. Critical thinking and Problem-solving. 2. Communication and Collaboration. 3. Creativity and Innovation. 4. Cultural Identity and Global Citizenship. 5. Digital Literacy. 6. Leadership and Personal Development. 03/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  4 What have you heard about Psychology? What do you know about Psychology? 03/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  5 Definition and Meaning of Psychology Psychology – comes from the Greek words “Psyche” meaning “mind” and “logia” or “logos” meaning, “the study of something”. Psychology – The scientific study of overt behavior and mental processes (Coon & Mitterer, 2016) Keywords: Science, behaviour, mental processes Psychology helps to explain how we think, feel and act both individually and as a group 03/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  6 Myths about Psychology Psychology is about mind or face reading Psychology is all about common sense People who study psychology are mentally disturbed Psychologist work only in hospitals or work with only the mentally ill Psychologist have spiritual powers and can foretell the future DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 03/03/2022 EGGLEY  7 Pseudo Psychology It refers to any false and unscientific system of beliefs and practices that is offered as an explanation of behaviour. Examples include: Palmistry Phrenology Graphology Astrology DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 03/03/2022 www.yourwebsite.com KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  8 Branches of Psychology Pure Psychology is a theoretical science that seeks to broaden and develop human understanding. Pure psychologists are interested in researching and recognizing processes and pathways that underlie individual behaviours. Applied psychology is practical and seeks to extend and improve the aspects and phases of human life and behaviour. They apply the theories and concepts of psychology to describe, explain, forecast and control behavior in various fields and industries 03/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  9 Subfields in Psychology 03/03/2022 www.yourwebsite.com DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Subfields in Psychology 10 Clinical Psychology: This field is concerned with applying psychological theories and principles to help people with mental health or psychological disorders. They do psychotherapy; investigates clinical problems; develops methods of treatment Industrial/Organizational Psychology: They study organizational behaviour. They selects job applicants; does skills analysis; evaluates on-the-job training; improves work environments and human relations in organizations and work settings Educational Psychology: This field investigates or studies classroom dynamics, teaching styles, and learning; develops educational tests, evaluates educational programs 03/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  11 Subfields in Psychology Social Psychology: Investigates human social behavior, including attitudes, conformity, persuasion, prejudice, friendship, aggression, helping, and so forth Parapsychology: Parapsychology is a field of study that investigates paranormal or “psychic" phenomena, including purported mental abilities such as telepathy and telekinesis. They test the existence and explore the nature of experiences and abilities in the paranormal realm. Forensic Psychology: Studies problems of crime and crime prevention, rehabilitation programs, prisons, courtroom dynamics; selects candidates for police work 03/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  12 Subfields in Psychology Military Psychology: This field applies psychological principles and methods to the military environment in the areas of recruitment, training, socializing, assigning, employing, deploying, motivating, rewarding, maintaining, managing, integrating, retaining, transitioning, supporting, counseling, and healing military members. Child Psychology: Child psychology is the study of subconscious and conscious childhood development. Child psychologists observe how a child interacts with their parents, themselves, and the world, to understand their mental development. 03/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  13 Developmental Psychology This field focuses on human growth and changes across the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual, personality and emotional growth (APA, 2020). Psychologists in this field study how people grow, develop and adapt at dif ferent life stages. They conduct research designed to help people reach their full potential 03/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  14 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. 03/03/2022 AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  15 Goals of Developmental Psychology Description – This is to describe behaviours. One should be able to describe what transpires across the lifespan of the human organism. Explanation – This is to explain behaviour. Why do people do the things they do? What factors contribute to the child’s way of thinking and talking? Prediction – To make predictions about how one thinks and act to predict developmental changes. When prediction is successful, it can help the teacher or psychologist to make guesses Change – To help influence and control behaviour to make lasting changes in people’s lives. 03/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  16 Development Development is defined as the orderly and progressive changes that do occur according to time as organisms move from conception to death. Human development entails growth and maturation. Though, people use the words growth and maturation interchangeably, in Psychology, they are a little different. 03/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  17 Growth and Maturation Growth - It is the physical of development. It is quantifiable. Can be measured and influenced by genetics. Maturation – It is the intellectual or emotional process of development. Unlike growth, maturation is often not quantifiable and influenced by genetics. It can be said that it is the qualitative change that occurs in an individual at a particular stage in life for the performance of a certain task. DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 03/03/2022 EGGLEY  18 Learning Learning – It is when a person acquires knowledge or experience. Learning requires environmental influence. Therefore, learning is defined as knowledge gained through study or a change in behaviour of an individual through experience. DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 03/03/2022 EGGLEY  Domains of Development 19 Physical Domain: Changes in body size, proportions, appearance, functioning of body systems, perceptual and motor capacities, and physical health. Cognitive Domain: Changes in intellectual abilities, including attention, memory, academic and everyday knowledge, problem solving, imagination, creativity, and language. Socioemotional Domain: Changes in emotional communication, self- understanding, knowledge about other people, interpersonal skills, friendships, intimate relationships, and moral reasoning and behavior DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 03/03/2022 EGGLEY Domains of Development 20 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 03/03/2022 EGGLEY  21 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. 03/03/2022 AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  22 Principles of Human Development and Learning There is a set of principles that characterizes the pattern and process of growth and development. Cephalocaudal Principle – This states that development proceeds from top to bottom. A child will gain physical control of their head first. After which the physical control will move downwards to the arms and to the legs. A new born will need support with head. By 2 months, it develops strength to hold the head. In the next few months, the baby gains control over the use of the arms. DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 03/03/2022 EGGLEY  23 Principles of Human Development and Learning Proximodistal Principle – Also describes the direction of development. This principle states that development proceeds from the center of the body outward. For a fertilized egg, the cell divides and expand outward to become an embryo. Spinal cord forms limbs of the body form before the hands and the feet and the hands and the feet develop before the fingers and toes. DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, 03/03/2022 MS. EGGLEY  24 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 03/03/2022 EGGLEY  25 Principles of Human Development and Learning Orthogenetic Principle – Does not involve the direction of development. It states that development proceeds from simple to the complex. This implies that development of more complex tasks begin with the mastery of simple tasks first. Meaning one stage of development lays the foundation for the next stage of development. DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 03/03/2022 EGGLEY  26 Principles of Human Development and Learning Development is Continuous – development goes on continuously throughout life. Growth reaches maturity. Even after maturity has been attained, development does not end. Development is Sequential – Every species, follows a pattern of development to it. This pattern is same for everyone. E.g. A child crawls before he creeps, stands before he walks and babbles before he talks. DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 03/03/2022 EGGLEY  27 Principles of Human Development and Learning Development proceeds from general to specific – In every type of development, general activity proceeds specific activity. E.g. infants after birth are able to make general movements with the eyes, arms and legs. After the perfection of these general movements, infants learn to make specific movements. DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, 03/03/2022 MS. EGGLEY  28 Principles of Human Development and Learning Development is Gradual – Development does not come all of a sudden. It is cumulative in nature. Rate of development varies from person to person – Development rate is not uniform. Boys and girls have different development rates and each part of the body has its own particular rate of growth. There are periods of intensity and equilibrium and there are periods of imbalance DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, 03/03/2022 MS. EGGLEY  29 Principles of Human Development and Learning Development is predictable – Physiological and psychological potentialities can be predicted by observation and psychological tests Growth and development is of both hereditary and influenced by environmental factors – for e.g. poor nutrition can mare the growth of an individual. Reduce intellectual abilities and stature. 03/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  30 Principles of Human Development and Learning Most traits are correlated in development – It is known in development that most of the traits are correlated or related. For instance, a child whose mental development is above average, is also superior in so many other aspects like health, sociability and special aptitudes. A child who has a good health can be active socially and intellectually. This means that there is constant interaction between all the factors of development. DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 03/03/2022 EGGLEY  31 Educational Implications of the Principles 1. The directions of human development, e.g. simple to complex, general to specific, must be considered in planning activities for the children to assure satisfaction. 2. Taking into consideration the individual variation in growth, the school programmes must be adjusted accordingly to suit students variations. 3. Teachers and parents should consider the maturation of the pupils or students so they do not demand of students what is beyond their stage. 03/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  32 Other Educational Implications DISCUSS 03/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  33 03/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY WEEK 2 - Conception and Prenatal Development 1 Male and Female Reproductive Systems Conception Prenatal Development The germinal stage The embryonic stage The fetal stage Labour 18/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY Male Reproductive System 2 18/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY Male Reproductive System 3 The male reproductive system is a grouping of organs that make up a man’s reproductive and urinary systems. These organs do the following jobs within your body: They produce, maintain and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and semen (the protective fluid around the sperm). They discharge sperm into the female reproductive tract. They produce and secrete male sex hormones. 18/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY Female Reproductive System 4 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 18/03/2022 EGGLEY  Conception 5 Females of reproductive age (beginning anywhere from 11 to 16 years of age) experience cycles of hormonal activity that repeat at about one-month intervals. With every cycle, a woman’s body prepares for a potential pregnancy, whether or not that is the woman’s intention. The term menstruation refers to the periodic shedding of the uterine lining. Many women call the days that they notice vaginal bleeding their “period,” “menstrual” or cycle. The average menstrual cycle takes about 28 days and occurs in phases. These phases include: ✓The follicular phase (development of the egg) ✓The ovulatory phase (release of the egg) ✓The luteal phase (hormoneDR. levels decrease if the egg does not implant) AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 18/03/2022 EGGLEY  Conception 6 Foundation of life starts from conception Each month inside a woman’s ovaries, a group of eggs starts to grow in small, fluid-filled sacs called follicles. Eventually, one of the eggs erupts from the follicle (ovulation). It usually happens about 2 weeks before your next period. After the egg leaves the follicle, the follicle develops into something called the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum releases a hormone that helps thicken the lining of your uterus, getting it ready for the egg. The egg travels to the Fallopian Tube DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 18/03/2022 EGGLEY  Conception Cont’d 7 After the egg is released, it moves into the fallopian tube. It stays there for about 24 hours, waiting for a single sperm to fertilize it. After intercourse, conception occurs when a sperm cell combines with an egg cell to form zygote. If no sperm is around to fertilize the egg, it moves through the uterus and disintegrates. Your hormone levels go back to normal. Your body sheds the thick lining of the uterus, and your period starts (menstruation). DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 18/03/2022 EGGLEY Conception Video 8 18/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  9 Prenatal Development This refers to the period of development between conception till birth. Usually, it takes 9 months for the baby to fully develop before birth. Different fields have different stages of characterizing the developmental stage before birth. I'm medicine, it is divided into three trimesters. In Psychology, this period is divided into three stages: The germinal stage (0-2 weeks) The embryonic stage (3-8 weeks) The fetal stage (9 weeks-birth) DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 18/03/2022 EGGLEY  10 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  The Germinal Stage 11 If one sperm does make its way into the fallopian tube and burrows into the egg, it fertilizes the egg. The egg changes so that no other sperm can get in. At the instant of fertilization, your baby's genes and sex are set. If the sperm has a Y chromosome, your baby will be a boy. If it has an X chromosome, the baby will be a girl. 18/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  12 18/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  13 The Germinal Stage Cont’d The zygote soon begins to divide rapidly in a process called cleavage, first into two identical cells called blastomeres, which further divide to four cells, then into eight, and so on. The group of diving cells begins to move along the fallopian tube toward the uterus. About sixty hours after fertilization, approximately sixteen cells have formed and three days after fertilization, the cells enters the uterus. DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 18/03/2022 EGGLEY  14 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 18/03/2022 EGGLEY  15 The Germinal Stage Cont’d Implantation, the process in which the blastocyst implants into the uterine wall, occurs approximately six days after conception. Implantation marks the end of the germinal stage and the beginning of the embryonic stage. However, if implantation fails, the pregnancy terminates On the other hand, if it implants itself in the fallopian tube (oviduct), then ectopic pregnancy results. DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 18/03/2022 EGGLEY  16 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  17 The Embryonic Stage The embryonic stage begins after implantation and lasts until eight weeks after conception. Soon after implantation, the cells continue to rapidly divide and clusters of cells begin to take on different functions (called differentiation). A process (gastrulation) leads to the formation of three distinct layers called germ layers: The ectoderm (outer layer), The mesoderm (middle layer), The endoderm (inner layer). 18/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  The Embryonic Stage Cont’d 18 As the embryo develops, each germ layer differentiates into different tissues and structures. The process of differentiation continues with different structures forming simultaneously. By the end of the embryonic stage, all essential external and internal structures have been formed. The embryo is now referred to as a fetus. DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 18/03/2022 EGGLEY  19 18/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  20 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  21 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  22 The Fetal Stage Prenatal development is most dramatic during the fetal stage. When an embryo becomes a fetus at eight weeks, it is approximately 3 centimeters (1.2 inches) in length from crown to rump and weighs about 3 grams (0.1 ounce). By the time the fetus is considered full-term at 38 weeks gestation, he or she may be 50 centimeters (20 inches) or 3.3 kilograms (7.3 pounds). Although all of the organ systems were formed during embryonic development, they continue to develop and grow during the fetal stage. DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 18/03/2022 EGGLEY  23 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY The Fetal Stage Cont’d 24 18/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  25 Critical Periods in Pre-natal Development This refers to periods when delicate and also important organs and systems in the body are formed. When the uterine wall is not conducive, there will be abnormalities The critical periods are first trimester after conception, the 7th month and the 9th month. DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 18/03/2022 EGGLEY  Labour 26 Labour is the process by which the fetus and the placenta leave the uterus. Delivery can occur in two ways: Through the vagina By cesarean section. Factors contributing to caesarian birth Prolonged labor. Abnormal positioning. Fetal distress. Birth defects. Repeated cesarean births. Chronic health condition. DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 18/03/2022 EGGLEY  Labour Cont’d 27 The first stage begins with the woman's first contractions and continues until she is dilated fully (10 centimeters, or 4 inches), which means the cervix has stretched to prepare for birth. The second stage is the active stage, in which the pregnant woman begins to push downward. It begins with complete dilation of the cervix and ends with the actual birth. The third stage, or placental stage, begins with the birth and ends with the completed delivery of the placenta and afterbirth. DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 18/03/2022 EGGLEY Labour Video 28 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 18/03/2022 EGGLEY  29 18/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR. NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  WEEK 3 – Threats to Prenatal 1 Development Chromosomes, DNA, Genes Genotype and Phenotype Genetic Inheritance Threats to prenatal, perinatal and postnatal development Autosomal and Sex-linked disorders Environmental threats Educational Implications 19/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Chromosomes, DNA, Genes, Allele 2 Chromosomes: They are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells. A chromosome is an organized package of DNA found in the nucleus of the cell. Different organisms have different numbers of chromosomes. Each human has 46 chromosomes, 23 each 19/03/2022 from each parent. DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Chromosomes, DNA, Genes, Allele 2 Twenty-two (22) of these are called autosomes and the 23rd is the sex chromosome. Autosomes look the same in both males and females. The 23rd pair, the sex chromosomes, differ between males and females. Females have XX and males have XY. 19/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Chromosomes, DNA, Genes, Allele 2 Karyotype: This is where all chromosomes appear in their exact pairs in humans or other organisms from a single cell. A karyotype is made up of 46 chromosomes (44 autosomes/life chromosomes and 2 sex chromosomes) It is used to determine the sex, or possible genetic disorders of an individual. DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Normal Male and Female Karyotype 4 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Chromosomes, DNA, Genes, Allele 2 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA): It is an extremely long chain of molecules that contains all the information necessary for the life functions of a cell. DNA contains the specific instructions that make each type of living creature unique in terms of development, survival and reproduction. To carry out these functions, DNA sequences must be converted into messages that can be used to produce proteins, which are the complex molecules that do most of the work 19/03/2022 in our bodies. DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Chromosomes, DNA, Genes, Allele 2 Gene: The fundamental unit of heredity; a specific section of DNA that tells a cell how to make a specific protein. Proteins are used by the cell to perform certain functions, to grow, and to survive. DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Chromosomes, DNA, Genes, Allele 2 Allele: An allele is a variant form of a gene. Some genes have a variety of different forms, which are located at the same position, or genetic locus, on a chromosome. Humans are called diploid organisms because they have two alleles at each genetic locus, with one allele inherited from each parent. If the two alleles are the same, the individual is homozygous for that gene. If the alleles are different, the individual is heterozygous. DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  6 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 19/03/2022 EGGLEY  Genotype and Phenotype 7 The genotype is a person’s unique combination of genes or genetic makeup. Thus, the genotype is a complete set of instructions on how that person’s body synthesizes proteins and thus how that body is supposed to be built and function. A phenotype is an individual's observable traits, such as height, eye color, and blood type. Not all the instructions in the genotype may be carried out (or expressed). DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 19/03/2022 EGGLEY  8 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. 19/03/2022 AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  9 Dominant and Recessive Genes/Alleles Genes/Alleles can be dominant or recessive. Dominant alleles show their effect even if the individual only has one copy of the allele (also known as being heterozygous?). For example, the allele for brown eyes is dominant, therefore you only need one copy of the 'brown eye' allele to have brown eyes (although, with two copies you will still have brown eyes). If both alleles are dominant, it is called codominance?. The resulting characteristic is due to both alleles being expressed equally. An example of this is the blood group AB which is the result of codominance of the A and B dominant alleles. DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  10 Dominant and Recessive Genes/Alleles Recessive alleles only show their effect if the individual has two copies of the allele (also known as being homozygous?). For example, the allele for blue eyes is recessive, therefore to have blue eyes you need to have two copies of the 'blue eye' allele. Some of the traits or characteristics passed through to children through genetic inheritance include eye colour and blood type. Some health conditions and diseases can be passed on genetically too DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  11 Eye Colour The allele for brown eyes (B) is dominant over the allele for blue eyes (b). So, if you have one allele for brown eyes and one allele for blue eyes (Bb), your eyes will be brown. This is also the case if you have two alleles for brown eyes, BB. However, if both alleles are for the recessive trait (in this case, blue eyes, bb) you will inherit blue eyes. DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  12 Eye Colour DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Blood Group 13 For blood groups, the alleles are A, B and O. The A allele is dominant over the O allele. So, a person with one A allele and one O allele (AO) has blood group A. Blood group A is said to have a dominant inheritance pattern over blood group O. If a mother has the alleles A and O (AO), her blood group will be A because the A allele is dominant. If the father has two O alleles (OO), he has the blood group O. For each child that couple has, each parent will pass on one or the other of those two alleles. This means that each one of their children has a 50 per cent chance of having blood group A (AO) and a 50 per cent chance of having blood group O (OO), depending on which alleles they inherit. DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  14 Blood Group Inheritance DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Dominant and Recessive Genes/Alleles 15 Examples of inheritance patterns include: Autosomal dominant – where the gene for a trait or condition is dominant, and is on a non-sex chromosome Autosomal recessive – where the gene for a trait or condition is recessive, and is on a non-sex chromosome X-linked dominant – where the gene for a trait or condition is dominant, and is on the X-chromosome X-linked recessive – where the gene for a trait or condition is recessive, and is on the X-chromosome Y-linked – where the gene for a trait or condition is on the Y-chromosome mitochondrial – where the gene for a trait or condition is in your mitochondrial DNA, which sits in the mitochondria (powerhouse) of your cells. DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Gene Mutation 16 A gene mutation is a change in one or more genes. It is an alteration in the genetic material (the genome) of a cell of a living organism that can be transmitted to the cell’s or the offspring. Some mutations can lead to genetic disorders or illnesses. There are hundreds of diseases caused by mutations in a single gene. DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY Gene Mutation 17 Inherited Disorders Sex linked Autosomal disorders disorders Genetic Chromosomal Genetic Chromosomal disorders disorders disorders disorders DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Sex-Linked and Autosomal Disorders 18 Sex-Linked Disorders: They involve the sex chromosome # 23 and occurs via dominant-recessive patterns A recessive gene on the X chromosome is more likely to be expressed as the phenotype in males because the Y chromosome has no allele that might contract the gene. Autosomal disorders: They are caused by mutations in genes on the autosomes, or numbered chromosomes. Individuals have two copies (alleles) of every autosomal gene, one inherited from each parent. Autosomal dominant disorders are those that result from a mutation in one copy of the gene. DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Genetic and Chromosomal Disorders 19 Genetic Disorders: These are abnormalities in chromosomes inherited from one or both parents produces diseases in offspring Chromosomal Disorders: These are abnormality of chromosome numbers or structure resulting from an error in cell division DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Genetic Sex-Linked Disorders 20 1. Colour Blindness A recessive sex-linked disorder characterised by the inability to distinguish between red and green colours due to a defect of the retina Dominant gene which permits for color vision is situated on the X chromosome Y chromosome does not have this gene Male’s will be color blind if the X chromosome of the male gene has the gene for color blindness DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  21 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  22 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  23 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Genetic Sex Linked Disorders 24 2. Hemophilia A and B or Bleeder’s Disease A recessive sex-linked disorder carried on the X-chromosome which results in the inability of the blood to clot Prevalent in males (Occurs in 1 in 5000 males) Can lead to death from internal bleeding Inheritance follows the same pattern as color blindness DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  25 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  26 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Genetic Sex Linked Disorders 27 3. Ocular Albinism Caused by a change in the GPR143 gene which plays a signaling role important in the pigmentation of the eye Similar pattern of inheritance as Colour Blindness and Hemophilia A and B Rarely occurs in females DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  28 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  29 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Chromosomal Sex Linked Disorders 30 Affects sex chromosomes as a result of an abnormality of chromosome number or structure. They are not passed from parents to children. 1. Fragile X Syndrome Results from the breakage of the tip of an X chromosome Results in severe mental retardation, speech defects and severe deficits in interpersonal interaction Usually, males are more severely affected by this disorder than females. Occurs in 1 out of 1200 males and 1 out of 2500 females DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  31 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  32 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  33 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Chromosomal Sex Linked Disorders 34 2. Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY) A condition in males characterized by an extra X chromosome in most of their cells instead of the normal XY pattern. Characteristics of such males: Relatively high pitched voices, feminine contours, breast enlargement, little facial or body hair, sterile, small testes, an inch taller than the average male, likely to be overweight, learning difficulties as children DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  35 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  36 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  37 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Chromosomal Sex Linked Disorders 38 3. Super Male Syndrome (XYY) A defect which occurs in males where they inherit an extra Y chromosome Characteristics of such males include: Height of above 6ft., slender during adolescence, severe facial acne, poor co-ordination Defect occurs in between 1 in 900 births or as rare as 1 in 1500 or 2000 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  39 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Chromosomal Sex Linked Disorders 40 4. Super Female Syndrome (XXX) or Trisomy 47 Females with the defect inherit 3 or X chromosomes. Characteristics of such females: An inch taller than the average female, with long legs and slender torso, emotionally immature for size during childhood Usually fertile but may have slight learning difficulties and usually in the low range of normal intelligence DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  41 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  42 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Chromosomal Sex Linked Disorders 43 5. Turner’s Syndrome (XO) A genetic disease caused by abnormal sex chromosomes which occurs in females who inherit 1 X chromosome instead of 2. Characteristic of such females: Short in stature (4ft. 7inches), webbed necks, small jaws and high arched palates, widely spaced breasts, broad shield shaped chests, turned elbows, ovaries do not develop normally and do not ovulate, slight mental retardation in some individuals. If diagnosed early injections of Growth Hormone can increase stature by a few inches and estrogen replacement therapy can result in some breast development and menstruation helping them to appear relatively normal DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  44 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  45 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Genetic Autosomal Disorders 46 Genetic Autosomal Disorders result from a defect on any of the first 22 pairs of chromosomes They can be passed on from parents to offspring 1. Huntington Disease A dominant gene on chromosome 4 is responsible for the disorder Defect manifests at the age of 35 Defect causes the degeneration of neurons producing dementia and random jerking movements Death comes on an average of 12 years after the onset DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  47 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  48 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Genetic Autosomal Disorders 49 2. Phenylketonuria (PKA) A recessive disorder that occurs in about 1 of 10,000 people. A defective gene on chromosome 12 is responsible. Children with PKU are unable to metabolize phenylalanine, an amino acid. As a result, phenylalanine and its derivative phenylpyruvic acid, build up in the body and cause permanent brain damage PKU can lead to intellectual disability, seizures, behavioral problems, and mental disorders. It may also result in a musty smell and lighter skin. Treatment is available and children can develop average intelligence DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  50 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  51 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Genetic Autosomal Disorders 52 3. Rhesus factor (Rh) incompatibility Rh factor is either positive (present) or negative (absent) Rh factor is only significant with respect to pregnancies when an Rh+ child is born to an Rh- mother predisposing her to Rh disease If the blood of the Rh+ child’s blood crosses into mother’s blood during pregnancy, labor or delivery the mothers body produces antibodies to attack the baby’s blood which is foreign to her body DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Genetic Autosomal Disorders 53 3. Rhesus factor (Rh) incompatibility The immune response of the mother to the baby’s blood results in the break down of the baby’s red blood cells The result of the incompatibility doesn’t affect the health of the mother, but the child may suffer complications such as jaundice, anemia, brain or heart damage or death in severe cases DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  54 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  55 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Genetic Autosomal Disorders 56 4. Sickle Cell Disease It is a genetic condition in which red blood cells are not shaped as they should be. Sickle Cell Disease occurs as a result of a mutation in a gene on chromosome 11 that codes for the beta subunit of the hemoglobin protein Red blood cells look like round discs but in sickle cell disease, they're shaped like sickles, or crescent moons, instead. These sickle shaped cells get stuck together and block small blood vessels. DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 19/03/2022 EGGLEY  57 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 19/03/2022 EGGLEY  Sickle Cell Cont’d 58 Symptoms include: Anemia: Sickle cells break apart easily and die, leaving you with too few red blood cells. Episodes of pain: Periodic episodes of pain, called pain crises, are a major symptom of sickle cell anemia. Swelling of hands and feet A child can only have sickle cell disease if they inherit sickling genes from either parents in an autosomal recessive manner The main sickling genotypes are AA, AS, SS, CC, AC and SC. There are those who are carriers of sickling genes but are do not necessarily have sickle cell disease DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, 19/03/2022 MS. EGGLEY  59 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 19/03/2022 EGGLEY  60 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. 19/03/2022 AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Genetic Autosomal Disorders 61 2. Albinism Albinism is a group of inherited disorders that results in little or no production of the pigment melanin, which determines the color of the skin, hair and eyes. It is caused by mutations in one of several genes, and most types are inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. Several genes provide instructions for making one of several proteins involved in the production of melanin. Different types of albinism can occur, based mainly on which gene mutation caused the disorder DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 19/03/2022 EGGLEY  62 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Types of Albinism 63 Oculocutaneous albinism (OCA), the most common type, means a person inherited two copies of a mutated gene It's the result of a mutation in one of seven genes, labeled from OCA1 to OCA7. OCA causes decreased pigment in the skin, hair and eyes, as well as vision problems. The amount of pigment varies by type, and the resulting color of skin, hair and eyes also varies by and within types DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 19/03/2022 EGGLEY  64 Types of Albinism Albinism related to rare hereditary syndromes. For example, Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome includes a form of OCA as well as bleeding and bruising problems and lung and bowel diseases. Chediak-Higashi syndrome includes a form of OCA as well as immune problems with recurrent infections, neurologic abnormalities and other serious issues DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. 19/03/2022 EGGLEY  Chromosomal Autosomal Disorders 65 1. Chromosomal Diseases (Down Syndrome) A chromosomal disorder characterized by features such as flat facial features, small head and ears, short neck, bulging tongue, eyes that slant upward, atypically shaped ears, poor muscle tone. Caused by a duplication or an extra copy of their 21st chromosome DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, 19/03/2022 MS. EGGLEY  Types of Down Syndrome 66 Trisomy 21: Here, there’s an extra copy of chromosome 21 in every cell. This is the most common form of Down syndrome. Mosaicism: Occurs when a child is born with an extra chromosome in some but not all of their cells. People with mosaic Down syndrome tend to have fewer symptoms than those with trisomy 21. Translocation: In this type of Down syndrome, children have only an extra part of chromosome 21. There are 46 total chromosomes. However, one of them has an extra piece of chromosome 21 attached. 19/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  67 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  68 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Environmental Threats 69 Harmful substances such as drugs or radiation that invade the womb and result in birth defects are called teratogens. Teratogens are especially damaging in the embryonic stage because it is a critical period in prenatal development. Environmental pollutants and toxic wastes are also sources of danger to unborn children. Some of these chemicals and radiations are: 19/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Environmental Threats 70 The term teratogen refers to any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period. Scientists chose this label (from the Greek word teras , meaning “malformation”) because they first learned about harmful prenatal influences from cases in which babies had been profoundly damaged. But the harm done by teratogens is not always simple and straightforward. It depends on the following factors: 19/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Environmental Threats 71 Dose. As we discuss particular teratogens, you will see that larger doses over longer time periods usually have more negative effects. Heredity. The genetic makeup of the mother and the developing organism plays an important role. Some individuals are better able than others to withstand harmful environments. Other negative influences. The presence of several negative factors at once, such as additional teratogens, poor nutrition, and lack of medical care, can worsen the impact of a single harmful agent. Age. The effects of teratogens vary with the age of the organism at time of exposure. To understand this last idea, think of the sensitive or critical period concept. If the environment is harmful, then damage occurs, and recovery is difficult and sometimes impossible. 19/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Environmental Threats 72 Prescription and Non-prescription Drugs Illegal Drugs Tobacco Alcohol Radiation Environmental Pollution from chemicals (Mercury, Lead, Mercury, Pesticides, Carbon monoxide ) Maternal Disease (Syphilis, Rubella, STD’s, HIV/AIDs) 19/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Environmental Threats 73 Other Maternal Factors Exercise Nutrition Drugs Poverty Emotional state Mother’s age DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, 19/03/2022 MS. EGGLEY  Alcohol 74 Exposure to alcohol can result in varied abnormalities in childhood and later years. A child exposed to alcohol in the womb can either have: Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), Partial fetal alcohol syndrome (p-FAS), and Alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND) DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, 19/03/2022 MS. EGGLEY  Fetal Alcohol Syndrome 75 It encompasses a range of physical, mental, and behavioral outcomes caused by prenatal alcohol exposure Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), distinguished by (a)slow physical growth (b) a pattern of three facial abnormalities (short eyelid openings; a thin upper lip; a smooth or flattened philtrum, or indentation running from the bottom of the nose to the center of the upper lip), and (c) brain injury, evident in a small head and impairment in at least three areas of functioning—for example, memory, language and communication, attention span and activity level (overactivity), planning and reasoning, motor coordination, or social skills. DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, 19/03/2022 MS. EGGLEY  76 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  77 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. 19/03/2022 KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY  Partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome 78 Partial fetal alcohol syndrome (p-FAS), characterized by (a) two of the three facial abnormalities just mentioned and (b) brain injury, again evident in at least three areas of impaired functioning. Mothers of children with p-FAS generally drank alcohol in smaller quantities, and children’s defects vary with the timing and length of alcohol exposure. Furthermore, recent evidence suggests that paternal alcohol use around the time of conception can induce genetic alterations, thereby contributing to symptoms (Ouko et al., 2009). DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, 19/03/2022 MS. EGGLEY  Alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder 79 Alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND), in which at least three areas of mental functioning are impaired, despite typical physical growth and absence of facial abnormalities. Again, prenatal alcohol exposure, though confirmed, is less pervasive than in FAS (Chudley et al., 2005; Loock et al., 2005). The more alcohol a woman consumes during pregnancy, the poorer the child’s motor coordination, speed of information processing, attention, memory, reasoning, and intelligence and achievement test scores during the preschool and school years (Burden, Jacobson, & Jacobson, 2005; Korkman, Kettunen, & Autti-Raemoe, 2003; Mattson, Calarco, & Lang, 2006). DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, 19/03/2022 MS. EGGLEY Educational Implications 80 DISCUSS DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, 19/03/2022 MS. EGGLEY  81 19/03/2022 DR. AMOS, DR.NAMALE, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY, MR. AMOAKO, MS. EGGLEY WEEK 4: FIRST LECTURER MADE QUIZ 1 QUIZ PASSWORD 241ps QUIZ DAY: 24/03/2022 QUIZ STARTS AT: 7:30am QUIZ ENDS AT: 7:30pm 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY WEEK 4 – Physical and Cognitive Development 1 Periods of Development Physical Development  Infancy  Childhood  Adolescence Cognitive Development  Infancy  Childhood  Adolescence 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Periods of Development 2 Infancy spans the first year in which a child is able to sit and do somethings with support from parents or caregivers. Toddlerhood spans the second, during which children take their first independent steps, marking a shift to greater autonomy. Early childhood spans from 2 to 11 years. The body becomes longer and leaner, motor skills are refined, and children become more self- controlled and self-sufficient. Children learn about the wider world and master new responsibilities that increasingly resemble those they will perform as adults. Adolescence spans from 11 to 18 years. This period initiates the transition to adulthood. Puberty leads to an adult-sized body and sexual maturity. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Infancy 3 Growth is so rapid and the consequences of neglect are so severe that gains are closely monitored. Newborns gain an ounce a day for several months. Birthweight typically doubles by 4 months and triples by a year. An average 7-pound newborn will be 21 pounds at 12 months (9,52kg up from 3.17 kg at birth). Physical growth in the second year is slower but still rapid. By 24 months, most children weigh almost 28 pounds (13 kilograms). 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Infancy 4 Newborns also grow in height—from about 20 inches at birth to about 34 inches at age 2 (from 51 to 86 centimeters). Each of these numbers is a norm, which is a standard, for a particular population. Genetic diversity can allow for healthy newborns from other continents to be smaller or larger than these norms. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Infancy 5 The word motor here refers to movement of muscles. Therefore, motor skills are the learned abilities to move some part of the body, in actions ranging from a large leap to a flicker of the eyelid. Motor skills start with the newborn making reflexes or automatic movements that are not learnt. Therefore, a reflex is an involuntary or automatic, action that the human body does in responding to something or situations without the person having to think about it. Examples, an individual decides to kick their leg, it just kicks. An individual blinks the eye an object draws close to it. The child31/03/2022 yawns just to release internal tension. DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Infancy 6 Reflexes that maintain oxygen supply: The breathing reflex begins even before the umbilical cord, with its supply of oxygen, is cut. Others are reflexive hiccups and sneezes, as well as thrashing (moving the arms and legs about) to escape something that covers the face. Reflexes that maintain constant body temperature: When infants are cold, they cry, shiver, and tuck their legs close to their bodies. When they are hot, they try to push away blankets and then stay still. Reflexes that manage feeding: The sucking reflex causes newborns to suck anything that touches their lips (fingers, toes, blankets, and rattles, as well as natural and artificial nipples of various textures and shapes. In the rooting reflex, babies turn their mouths toward anything that brushes against their cheeks (a reflexive search for a nipple and start to suck). Swallowing also aids feeding, as does crying when the stomach is empty and spitting up when too much is swallowed quickly. DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY 31/03/2022  Physical Development in Infancy 8 Babinski reflex occurs when a newborn’s feet are stroked, the toes fan upward. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Infancy 8 Stepping reflex occurs when newborns are held upright, feet touching a flat surface, they move their legs as if to walk. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Infancy 8 Swimming reflex occurs when held horizontally on their stomachs, newborns stretch out their arms and legs. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Infancy 8 Palmar grasping reflex occurs when something touches the palms, newborns grip it tightly. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Infancy 8 Moro reflex occurs when someone bangs on the table they are lying on, newborns fling their arms out and then bring them together on their chests, crying with wide open eyes. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Infancy 9 Gross Motor Skills: Physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping. (The word gross here means “big.”) They are in a cephalocaudal (head- down) and proximodistal (center- out) direction. Supported sitting- 3 moths Unsupported sitting- 6 months Crawling- 8 to 10 months Standing and walking- 1 year and above 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Infancy 10 Fine Motor Skills: Physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and eating using a spoon. The word fine here means “small.” The most valued fine motor skills are finger movements, enabling humans to write, draw, type, tie, and so on. Movements of the tongue, jaw, lips, teeth, and toes are fine movements, too. Usually mouth skills precede hand skills by many months 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Infancy 11 0- 2 months -babies excitedly stare and wave their arms at objects dangling within reach. 3 months - they can usually touch such objects, but because of limited eye–hand coordination, they cannot yet grab and hold on unless an object is placed in their hands. 4 months- infants sometimes grab, but their timing is off: They close their hands too early or too late. 6 months- most babies can reach, grab, and grasp almost any object that is of the right size. 1 year and above- Almost all can hold a bottle, shake a rattle, and other objects 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Infancy 12 Nutrition and Malnutrition To ensure optimum growth, newborns need to be well breastfed. The WHO recommends 6 months exclusive breastfeeding. Benefits for Baby Balance of nutrition (fat, protein, etc.) adjusts to age of baby Breast milk has micronutrients not found in formula Less infant illness, including allergies, ear infections, stomach upsets Less childhood asthma and better vision Less adult illness, including diabetes, cancer, heart disease Protection against many childhood diseases, since breast milk contains antibodies from the mother 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Infancy 13 Benefits for Mother Easier bonding with baby Reduced risk of breast cancer and osteoporosis Natural contraception (with exclusive breast-feeding, for several months) Satisfaction of meeting infant’s basic need 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Infancy 14 Malnutrition: Occurs when the child or newborn is not well fed. The child lacks nutrients in the right proportions. Example of malnutrition include protein calorie and stunting. Protein-calorie malnutrition: A condition in which a person does not consume sufficient food. This can result in illness, severe weight loss, and even death. Stunting: The failure of children to grow to a normal height for their age due to severe and chronic malnutrition. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Infancy 15 Wasting: The tendency for children to be severely underweight for their age as a result of malnutrition. Marasmus: A disease of severe protein-calorie malnutrition during early infancy, in which growth stops, body tissues waste away, and the infant eventually dies. Kwashiorkor: A disease of chronic malnutrition in which a protein-calorie deficiency makes a child more vulnerable to other diseases, such as measles, diarrhea, and influenza. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Childhood 16 Mastery of gross and fine motor skills results not only from body growth and maturation but also from extensive, active play. Adults need to make sure children have a safe space to play, with ample time, appropriate equipment, and active playmates. “Safe space to play” cannot be taken for granted because the environment is the third teacher. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Childhood 17 The environment has the power to enhance children’s sense of wonder and capacity for learning” Good nutrition needed for healthy childhood development. Appetite decreases between ages 2 and 6 because young children naturally grow more slowly than they did as infants. Moreover, if children playless outside, they burn fewer calories. Children learn self help skills such as becoming self-sufficient at dressing and feeding and mastering shoe tying skills 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Childhood 18 The child also learns to draw and write. They scribbles to become pictures at 3-4 years and are able make more realistic drawing at 6. Middle childhood is a time of slow and steady growth, a little more than 2 inches and 5 pounds a year. Beyond the sheer fun of playing, the benefits of physical activity— especially games with rules, which children now can follow—last a lifetime. Exercise advances physical, emotional, and mental health. Exercise improves academic achievement. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY Physical Development in Adolescence 19 One of the major physical changes that occur in adolescence is the onset of puberty Puberty: The time at the end of childhood between the first onrush of growth hormones and full adult size. Puberty usually lasts three to five years. Many more years are required to achieve psychosocial maturity Different changes occur for both boys and girls. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY Physical Development in Adolescence 20 Menarche: A girl’s first menstrual period, signaling that she has begun ovulation. Pregnancy is biologically possible, but ovulation and menstruation are often irregular for years after menarche. Spermarche (Nocturnal Emission): A boy’s first ejaculation of sperm. Erections can occur as early as infancy, but ejaculation signals sperm production. Spermarche may occur during sleep (in a “wet dream”) or via direct stimulation. These changes are made possible by hormones 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Adolescence 21 Signs of Puberty in Boys Testicles get bigger and the scrotum begins to thin and redden Pubic hair also starts to appear at the base of the penis and underarm hair starts to grow Breasts can swell slightly temporarily – this is normal and not the same as "man-boobs" Boys start to sweat more Boys may have "wet dreams" (involuntary ejaculations of semen as they sleep) Their voice "breaks" and gets permanently deeper – for a while, a boy might find his voice goes very deep one minute and very high the next 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Adolescence 22 Signs Of Puberty In Girls Breasts begin to develop and grows larger in size. Pubic hair also starts to grow, and some girls may notice more hair on their legs and arms. Girls usually have their first period Pubic hair becomes coarser and curlier Underarm hair begins to grow – some girls also have hair in other parts of their body, such as their top lip, and this is completely normal 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Physical Development in Adolescence 23 Girls start to sweat more Girls have a white vaginal discharge Girls often get acne – a skin condition that shows up as different types of spots, including whiteheads, blackheads and pus-filled spots called pustules Most girls gain weight (which is normal) as their body shape changes – girls develop more body fat along their upper arms, thighs and upper back; their hips grow rounder and their waist gets narrower 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY Physical Development in Adolescence 24 Though these changes occur for both boys ang girls, there are variations in onset and duration which may result from the following Genetic: African Americans reach puberty, on average, about seven months earlier than European or Hispanic Americans; Chinese Americans average several months later. Gender: In height, the average girl is two years ahead of the average boy: The female height spurt occurs before menarche, whereas for boys the increase in height is relatively late, after spermarche 31/03/2022 PROF. ANTWI DANSO, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Adolescence 25 Nutrition: Heavy girls reach menarche years earlier than malnourished ones do. Stress: Stress hastens the hormonal onset of puberty, especially if a child’s parents are sick, drug-addicted, or divorced, or if the neighborhood is violent and impoverished. 31/03/2022 PROF. ANTWI DANSO, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development 25 Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development  His theory suggests that intelligence changes as children grow and that move through four different stages of mental development: 1. Sensorimotor stage: birth to 18-24 months 2. Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 years 3. Concrete operational stage: 7 to 11 years 4. Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Cognitive Development 27 His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. The sequence of the stages is universal across cultures and follow the same invariant (unchanging) order. All children go through the same stages in the same order but not all at the same rate. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Cognitive Development 28 Stage 1- Sensori-motor Piaget’s term for the way infants think—by using their senses and motor skills—during the first period of cognitive development. Stage One (birth to 1 month) Reflexes: sucking, grasping, staring, listening Stage Two (1–4 months) The first acquired adaptations: accommodation and coordination of reflexes Stage Three (4–8 months) Making interesting sights last: responding to people and objects Example: clapping hands when mother says child’s name 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Cognitive Development 29 Stage Four (8–12 months) New adaptation and anticipation: becoming more deliberate and purposeful in responding to people and objects Stage Five (12–18 months) New means through active experimentation: experimentation and creativity in the actions of the “little scientist” Example: putting a teddy bear in the toilet and flushing it. Stage Six (18–24 months) New means through mental combinations: thinking before doing, new ways of achieving a goal without resorting to trial and error 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Cognitive Development 30 Object permanence: The realization that objects (including people) still exist even if they can no longer be seen, touched, or heard. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Cognitive Development 31 Stage 2 - Preoperational Preoperational intelligence is the second of Piaget’s four periods of cognitive development. Piaget used the prefix pre- because children do not yet use logical operations (reasoning processes) Language skills enables symbolic thought- when an object or word can stand for something else, including something out of sight or imagined. Words are used to symbolize an object or action; a child can talk about a dog without seeing the actual dog. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Cognitive Development 32 Symbolic thought helps explain animism, the belief of many young children that natural objects (such as a tree or a cloud) are alive and that nonhuman animals have the same characteristics as the child. Many children’s stories include animals or objects that talk and listen Centration is the tendency to focus (to center) on only one aspect of a situation. Young children may, for example, insist that Daddy is a father, not a brother, because they center on the role that he fills for them. 31/03/2022 PROF. ANTWI DANSO, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development 33 The daddy example illustrates a particular type of centration that Piaget called egocentrism—literally, “self- centeredness.” Egocentrism: Piaget’s term for children’s tendency to think about other people and their own experiences as if everything revolves around them. Focus on appearance- A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child assumes that the visible appearance of someone or something is also their essence. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Cognitive Development 34 Static reasoning- A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child thinks that nothing changes. Whatever is now has always been and always will be. Irreversibility- In preoperational thought, the idea that change is permanent, that nothing can be restored to the way it was before a change occurred. Conservation- The principle that the amount of a substance remains the same (i.e., is conserved) even when its appearance changes. 31/03/2022 PROF. ANTWI DANSO, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development 35 Stage 3 - Concrete Operational Piaget’s term for the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions. Classification- The logical principle that things can be organized into groups (or categories or classes) according to some characteristic they have in common. Seriation-The concept that things can be arranged in a logical series, such as the number series or the alphabet. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Cognitive Development 36 Stage 4- Formal Operational Adolescents move past concrete operational thinking and consider abstractions. Jean Piaget described a shift to formal operational thought, including “assumptions that have no necessary relation to reality” (Piaget, 1950/2010, p. 148). Adolescent egocentrism: A characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads young people to believe in their own uniqueness, and to imagine that other people are also focused on them. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Cognitive Development 37 Personal fable: The belief that one’s own emotions, experiences, and destiny are unique, more wonderful or awful than anyone else’s. Invincibility fable: The fantasy that a person cannot be harmed by anything that might defeat a normal mortal, such as unprotected sex, drug abuse, or high-speed driving. Imaginary audience: The other people who, in an adolescent’s egocentric belief, watch his or her appearance, ideas, and behavior. 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Cognitive Development 38 Egocentrism can coexist with more logical and abstract intelligence Hypothetical thought: Reasoning that includes propositions and possibilities that do not reflect reality. Deductive reasoning: Reasoning from a general statement, premise, or principle, through logical steps, to figure out (deduce) specifics. (Also called top-down reasoning.) Inductive reasoning: Reasoning from specific experiences or facts to reach (induce) a general conclusion. (Also called bottom-up reasoning.) 31/03/2022 DR. NAMALE, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY , MR. AMOAKO, MS EGGLEY  Cognitive Development 39 Vygotsky: Social Learning Vygotsky emphasized another side of early cognition, the social aspects. He stressed the power of culture, Learning is not done in isolation; according to many contemporary educators, it depends on joint engagement. Mentor- Someone who teaches or guides someone else, helping a learner master a skill or body of knowledge. 31/03/2022 PROF. ANTWI DANSO, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development 40 Zone of proximal development (ZPD)- In sociocultural theory, a metaphorical area, or “zone,” surrounding a learner that includes all the skills, knowledge, and concepts that the person is close (“proximal”) to acquiring but cannot yet master without help. Scaffolding- Temporary support that is tailored to a learner’s needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner take the next. 31/03/2022 PROF. ANTWI DANSO, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  41 Educational Implications DISCUSS 31/03/2022 PROF. ANTWI DANSO, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  42 31/03/2022 PROF. ANTWI DANSO, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Week 5 – Socioemotional and Moral Dev’t 1 Socioemotional development in infancy, childhood and adolescence Erik Erikson theory of psychosocial development Moral development in infancy, childhood and adolescence Piaget’s theory of moral development Kohlberg’s theory of moral development Educational Implications. 06/07/2021 PROF. ANTWI DANSO, DR. AMOS, MRS. AMMAH, MR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Socioemotional Development 2 Infancy: Early Emotions- happiness, sadness, anger,