Study Guide for Exam 4 PDF

Study Guide for Exam 4 The urinary system, Know the function of the vascular and tubular components of the nephron discussed in class. Understand the process of filtration, the importance of the filtration membrane and pressure gradient between the glomerulus and capsule (filtration pressure), and...

Study Guide for Exam 4 The urinary system, Know the function of the vascular and tubular components of the nephron discussed in class. Understand the process of filtration, the importance of the filtration membrane and pressure gradient between the glomerulus and capsule (filtration pressure), and the components of the filtrate. Understand the effect of increased sympathetic activity on glomerular pressure and filtration. Understand the process of reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule. Components of the filtrate that are completely and partially reabsorbed and mechanisms used by solutes and water to cross membranes of epithelial cells. Understand reabsorption, secretion, and the two exchange mechanisms in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts. Understand the mechanism used by sodium and potassium to move through the epithelial cells of these segments of the nephron. Understand the formation of concentrated and diluted urine THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The effect of increased and decreased parasympathetic activity on gastric function (motility and secretion). Understand the stimuli for gastric juice secretion (HCl and pepsinogen) from the gastric gland. Understand the 3 phases of gastric secretion: cephalic (stimulatory), gastric (stimulatory) and intestinal (the enterogastric reflex is the only inhibitory phase). Cephalic phase: Stimulation of gastric gland (chief, parietal, and G cells) by acetylcholine from parasympathetic neurons. Secretion of HCl to the lumen of the stomach. Secretion of pepsinogen and its activation by HCl in the lumen of the stomach. Gastric phase: Increased parasympathetic activity leading to greater secretion and motility. Distention of stomach by food and stimulation of gastrin secretion by food protein. Understand the secretion of gastrin and its effects on gastric glands. Regulation of gastric secretion by parasympathetic neurons (acetylcholine) and gastrin. Intestinal phase: Decreased parasympathetic activity leading to decreased gastric secretion and motility. Stimuli for the secretion of secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK) and their effects on gastric function (motility and secretion) and on pancreatic juice secretion (bicarbonate and digestive enzymes). Chemical digestion of carbohydrates by salivary amylase, digestion of proteins by pepsin, and the 3 types of macronutrients by pancreatic enzymes (amylase, lipase, and trypsin). Effect of acidity (high HCL) and alkalinity (high bicarbonate) for activity of these enzymes. Understand that pancreatic proteolytic enzymes are secreted in the inactive form. Activation of trypsin in small intestine. Secretion and function of the bile on fat digestion and absorption. Absorption of specific nutrients (carbohydrates, amino acids, and fats) in jejunum and ileum. Mechanisms (e.g., secondary active transport or simple diffusion) used by glucose, amino acids, and fats to cross the apical membrane. Mechanisms (e.g., facilitated diffusion or exocytosis) used by glucose, amino acids, and fats to move from the enterocytes into the blood or lymphatic vessels. Understand the formation of the chylomicrons. ENDOCRINE PHYSIOLOGY Understand that the chemical structure of the hormones (steroid and protein or amino acid-derived) determines the location of the receptors in the cell (inside the cell or in the plasma membrane). Know the classification of hormones based on chemical structure:  1) Steroids (hormones secreted by adrenal cortex) and 2) proteins and amino acid derived (catecholamines from adrenal medulla). Which glands secrete these type of hormones covered in class? 2) You have to know the stimuli, target cell (s), and effect of each hormone covered in class. Hormonal control of body fluids (plasma and urine) by antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and aldosterone. Which glands secrete antidiuretic hormone and aldosterone? Common stimulus for the secretion of aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is low blood volume, low blood pressure, and dehydration. Understand the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism for aldosterone secretion. Which is the direct stimulus for the secretion of aldosterone? Understand the effects of aldosterone and antidiuretic hormones on epithelial cells of distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts. How aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone reabsorb (move) water from the kidney tubules to the peritubular capillaries. Understand the effects of aldosterone and antidiuretic hormones on blood volume and blood pressure. Understand the effects of aldosterone and antidiuretic hormones on urine volume and urine concentration. Hormonal control of the metabolism after eating and during exercise Understand which hormones are anabolic or catabolic for glucose, amino acids (proteins), and fats. Know the anabolic and catabolic processes (pathways) activated by each hormone covered in class, Important hormones that were covered in this class are: For metabolic control:  The hypothalamus: hypothalamic releasing hormones (CRH and GHRH).  The anterior pituitary: Growth hormone (Liver: insulin-like growth factor 1) and ACTH  The adrenal gland: 1) cortex: cortisol; and 2) medulla: epinephrine & norepinephrine  Pancreas: insulin and glucagon. Understand which is the specific stimulus for the secretion of the hormones covered in class (hypothalamic releasing hormones, GH, ACTH, cortisol, IGF-1, cathecholamines, insulin, and glucagon). Understand the effects of these hormones on the metabolism of glucose, amino acids (proteins), and fats. Know the specific anabolic pathways (e.g., glycogenesis, gluconeogenesis, protein synthesis, lipogenesis) and catabolic pathways (glycogenolysis, proteolysis, lipolysis) stimulated by these hormones. I suggest you to make a table showing stimuli, target cell or organ, and the effect of the hormone. You will see which hormones have similar and opposite metabolic effects. Understand insulin induced facilitated diffusion of glucose by GLUT-4 in the skeletal muscle after eating carbohydrates.