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DNA --> RNA --> protein DNA to RNA use transcription STUDY SHEET RNA to protein use translation Biology...

DNA --> RNA --> protein DNA to RNA use transcription STUDY SHEET RNA to protein use translation Biology Functions of Biomolecules Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids Sugars - primary energy source; Fats, oils, and waxes - long-term Organic catalysts (enzymes) Store and transmit genetic made in the chloroplasts and broken emergency energy storage Growth, maintenance, and repair of information for making new cells as is down for cellular energy in the Phospholipids - a major structural tissues passed from parent to offspring mitochondria of cells component of membranes Transport, contraction, defense, Control center for all cell functions Starches and glycogen (complex Steroids - fat-soluble vitamins, structural, and communication DNA is coiled into genes on carbs) - short-term energy storage steroid hormones, cholesterol (hormones and neurotransmitters) chromosomes Cellulose (complex carb) - structural Lipids - made in the smooth ER and Enzymes, hemoglobin, myoglobin, DNA is “naked” in the cytoplasm of building component for cell walls packaged and exported by the Golgi myosin, actin, antibodies, etc. prokaryotic cells Proteins are made in the RNA is DNA’s helper molecule (mRNA, ribosomes, travel through the tRNA, rRNA) rough ER; packaged by the Gogi RNA goes between the nucleus and ribosomes Enzymes Characteristics Enzymes have an active site that binds with the substrate Facilitating Cellular Processes Products Proteins Substrate Enzymes function in optimum conditions Organic catalysts; speed up chemical reactions Changes in conditions, like extreme heat, Lower activation energy affect the structure of an enzyme; the substrate no longer fits and does not work; Unique and specific to their substrate the enzyme is denatured. Not consumed in the reaction; recyclable Inhibitors - stop chemical processes Needed in small amounts Enzyme Enzyme-Substrate Complex Enzyme Activators - start chemical processes Cells Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic cells Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - transport No membrane-bound nucleus Membrane-bound nucleus Golgi Apparatus - package No nucleus Nucleus Vesicles and vacuoles - store No membrane-bound organelles Membrane-bound organelles Mitochondria - synthesize ATP through cellular respiration Genetic material (DNA) is a single Genetic material (DNA) consists of Chloroplasts - synthesize glucose through photosynthesis circular chromosome linear chromosomes Endosymbiotic Theory Smaller, less complex cells Larger, more complex cells Mitochondria and chloroplasts existed as unicellular prokaryotes Ribosomes make proteins Ribosomes make proteins Either through predator-prey or mutualism, they came together in one cell Bacteria Same circular chromosomes and ribosomes as prokaryotes Cellular Energy - Matter Cycles and Energy Transfers CH2OH O H H H H OH H HO OH H OH ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration Aerobic uses oxygen; 36-38 ATP High-energy molecule used for 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O Complete combustion of glucose cellular work Solar energy → Chemical energy Stored chemical energy is Mitochondria Synthesized by the mitochondria Energy is stored in the chemical transformed into ATP ATP is the form of energy useable by bonds of glucose Most occurs in the mitochondria Anaerobic does NOT use oxygen; 2 ATP cells Occurs in chloroplasts (plants, algae) of cells Incomplete combustion of glucose Single nucleotide Matter cycles; carbon in CO2 is cycled Matter cycles; carbon in C6H12O6 is Cytoplasm into the carbon in C6H12O6 cycled into the carbon in CO2 Lactic acid or alcoholic fermentation Maintaining Homeostasis Plasma (Cell) Membrane sugars on the cell Maintains homeostasis by regulating what enters and exits the cell membrane act as cell recognition molecules Homeostasis - “steady state”; maintaining an internal balance Passive Transport - with the concentration gradient; requires No ATP Active Transport - against the concentration gradient; requires ATP Simple Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated Diffusion Pumps Bulk Flow – Large molecules moving O2, CO2 Diffusion of water Diffusion through a carrier Na-K Pump Exocytosis Cytosol protein Proton Pumps Out of the cell Glucose Golgi apparatus (i.e., proteins) Vesicles Plasma Membrane Cell in Isotonic Solution Cell in Hypotonic Solution Cell in Hypertonic Solution Endocytosis Extracellular ATP Equilibrium Swells Shrinks Into Cytosol Can lyse Crenates the cell Plant turgid Plasmolysis All rights reserved © 2024 Lowman Education LLC *STAAR is a federally registered trademark and service mark of the Texas Education Agency. Lowman Education LLC is not sponsored by or associated or affiliated with the Texas Education Agency, which has not endorsed the products or services of Lowman Education LLC.  Viruses Structure Comparison to Cells How Viruses Spread Pathogenic Capsid - protein coat Have DNA or RNA; not both like Attach Viruses invade host cells, causing Nucleic acid core cells Penetrate Lytic - short, quick onset disease or death (DNA or RNA) Mutate and evolve like cells Biosynthesize of symptoms Some viruses embed their Surface Markers - Do not replicate independently like Assemble Lysogenic - long genome into the host cell’s proteins for Capsid cells; viruses require a host to Lyse incubation or dormancy; genome; all future replications spread the virus and destroy DNA attachment reproduce Release new no evident symptoms Outer lipid Do not have organelles like cells viruses cells envelope on some Do not metabolize like cells Vaccines trigger antibodies as a defense response against viruses DNA and Cell Cycle Components of DNA DNA Replication – Semiconservative Nucleotides Occurs during the S phase (synthesis) of the cell cycle Sugar - deoxyribose Enzymes catalyze the process: open up the helix, read the original strands, bring in and Phosphate group pair up complementary nucleotides to the originals (DNA Polymerase), and reseal. Nitrogenous base 4 nitrogen bases Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Guanine (G) Cytosine (C) DNA is a double helix Backbone - alternating sugar & Original DNA 2 Identical copies phosphate Semiconservative Steps - pairs of nitrogenous bases ½ original and ½ new Strands are antiparallel; base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds Sequence of Nucleotides (Bases) PMAT Mitosis and Cytokinesis Adenine-thymine are complementary Determines traits Prophase - chromatin coils into chromosomes, Guanine-cytosine are complementary Determines the codes for proteins nuclear membrane breaks down, spindle forms Instructions for organisms’ traits Metaphase - chromosomes line up in the middle of DNA Function, Location, and Origin Purpose of the Cell Cycle the cell; the spindle attaches to chromosomes DNA stores and transmits genetic To produce two new daughter cells (clones) that are identical Anaphase - spindle shortens; sister chromatids are information; it controls cell type and to the parent cell. In a mitosis cell cycle, the parent cell is pulled apart and toward opposite poles function. diploid (2N) and the daughter cells produced are diploid (2N) Telophase - two new nuclei form and the spindle DNA is found in the nucleus of Cell Cycle breaks down eukaryotes and is “naked” in the Mitosis cytoplasm of prokaryotes. Naked DNA GO-resting state Cytokinesis - after mitosis, the cytoplasm divides is is also found in mitochondria and also chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells called RNA - single-stranded ribozymes, but the " G1 cell growth not stable M" phase Importance of Cell Division Grow, develop, repair, reproduce G2 cell preparation Why Do Cells Divide? S phase Increase their surface area to volume ratio DNA replication (plasma membrane::cytoplasm) What Must Cells Do Before They Divide? Replicate DNA so that each new daughter Checkpoints occur throughout the cycle to check for mistakes. If cell has an identical set of genetic found, they signal for repair or disruption of the cell. If not instructions corrected, uncontrolled cell growth occurs, resulting in tumors (benign or harmless) or malignant (cancerous). Heredity Genetics Vocabulary Genetics - Monohybrid Cross Gene - section of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a protein and determines a trait (eye color) E e Allele - various forms a gene may take (brown, green, hazel, gold, blue, black) Crossing one trait E EE Ee Dominant - allele that is always expressed (T) Ex. Cross - Ee x Ee Recessive - allele that is only expressed if there is no dominant (t) Genotypic ratio - 1:2:1 e Ee ee Homozygous - alleles are the same (TT or tt) Phenotypic ratio - 3:1 Heterozygous - alleles are different (Tt) Pedigree Genotype - genetic combination of alleles (TT, Tt, tt) Phenotype - physical appearance of trait; observable characteristics coded for by a gene (Tall) Family tree that shows traits Non-mendelian - incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles, sex-linked, and polygenic Fully shaded shapes have the trait Homologous chromosomes - chromosomes that have the same genes; one from each pair is from Squares - males the mom and the other from each pair is from the dad; humans have 23 pairs of homologous Circles - females chromosomes Gametes - sex cells produced by meiosis All rights reserved © 2024 Lowman Education LLC *STAAR is a federally registered trademark and service mark of the Texas Education Agency. Lowman Education LLC is not sponsored by or associated or affiliated with the Texas Education Agency, which has not endorsed the products or services of Lowman Education LLC.  Significance of Meiosis Genetics – Dihybrid Cross Produces gametes that are genetically different from the parent cell Crossing two traits Reduces the diploid number (2N) to haploid number (N) Ex. Cross - TtGg x TtGg In humans, this is 46 to 23; 23 homologous pairs to 23 single chromosomes Combinations for a dihybrid cross (FOIL) Half of your chromosomes come from mom (23); half from dad (23) TTgg = Tg; TTGg = TG and Tg; TtGg = TG, Tg, tG, tg Variation comes from meiosis and sexual recombination: Crossing over (prophase I) between non-sister chromatids of a homologous pair TG Tg tG tg Independent assortment (metaphase I & II) TG TTGG TTGg TgGG TtGg chromosomes are randomly assorted Tg TTGg TTgg TtGg Ttgg Segregation of alleles (random) A a A A a a tG TtGG TtGg ttGG ttGg B b B B b b tg TtGg Ttgg ttGg ttgg C c C c C c Phenotypic ratio - 9:3:3:1 Gene Expression Protein Synthesis -Transcription Interpreting the Genetic Code Cell Differentiation Occurs in the nucleus Genes are activated (turned on) by Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T) in all DNA DNA - CAT ATA internal stimuli (DNA → proteins RNAs *mRNA - GUA UAU → enzymes) 3’ DNA → mRNA tRNA - CAU AUA external stimuli - environmental Copies DNA’s code; turns it into mRNA *amino acid = val tyr stimuli (nutrition, temperature, etc.) 3’ 5’ Know how to use codon charts mRNA takes the copied gene from the mRNA Results in different cell types 5’ nucleus to the ribosome in the Mutations cytoplasm Changes in DNA; can impact proteins produced Can be beneficial, harmful, or have no effect Can be caused spontaneously or by mutagens (x-rays, UV) Significance - only original source of genetic variation Significance - only mutations in gametes will be transferred to offspring Protein Synthesis – Translation Point (Gene) Chromosomal Mutations mRNA Occurs in the ribosomes (cytoplasm) Involves one nucleotide Involves part or an entire mRNA → proteins Substitution - a single base is chromosome; many genes affected tRNA picks up amino acids floating in changed to another; can cause a Insertions the cytoplasm and brings them to line silent mutation with no change to Deletions up to mRNA’s codons the protein or a significant change Inversions There they are aligned & attached to a tRNA CAT → CAA Translocations growing polypeptide (protein) chain Frameshift - caused by insertion or Trisomy and monosomy result in an Proteins then travel through the rough deletion; every codon after the addition or deletion of an entire ER to the Golgi for packaging; the insertion or deletion is changed. chromosome; is caused by vesicles break off and fuse with the Amino Acid Chain - Polypeptide CAT → CA or CATA → CATA nondisjunction in anaphase; Down’s plasma membrane for exocytosis is a trisomy of the 21st chromosomes Molecular Technologies (not assessed on STAAR® spring of 2025) Evolution Mechanisms of Evolution (Causes Change in Allele Frequencies in a Gene Pool) Evidence of Common Ancestry Genetic Drift - chance event, sampling error due to small sample size; Fossil record - preserved remains; gives record or time, location, features; decreases variation punctuated equilibrium - steady and then abrupt change Gene Flow - migration of alleles; immigration increases variation; emigration Biogeography decreases variation Anatomical homologies Mutation - increases variation Homologous structures - develop from the same embryonic tissue; mature Selective Mating - decreases variation forms appear different (bird wing, horse foreleg, human arm, flipper) Natural Selection - differential reproductive success based on best-adapted Analogous structures - structures in unrelated organisms that have similar phenotype in an environment; decreases variation. This is the only mechanism functions (bird wing and insect wing) or cause of evolution that creates adaptive advantage, leaving a population Vestigial Structures - atrophied structure that is no longer functional better fit. Developmental homologies - similar embryos Molecular homologies - similar DNA, RNA, and proteins Evolution - change in allele frequency in a population, not individuals, over Phylogeny time. Individuals are selected, and populations evolve. Study of the evolutionary relationships among organisms Natural Selection - organisms best suited for their environment will survive and Show common ancestor pass on favorable genes to the next generation; survival of the fittest. Over The closer the branches, the more shared characteristics, more closely related time, genes that are beneficial increase in a population. When the The further apart the branches, the fewer shared characteristics environment changes, who is “best fit” will change and the population evolves Shown by cladograms, phylogenetic trees, and dendrograms Adaptation - an inherited trait that increases an organism’s chance of survival Fitness - a measure of reproductive success; increased fitness results in more A B C B A C offspring; more offspring = more fit Convergent evolution - species with different ancestors have developed similar features due to selective pressures Divergent evolution - different species share the same ancestral origins; also known as adaptive radiation Speciation - the formation of a new species through divergent evolution Variation - the raw material of natural selection All rights reserved © 2024 Lowman Education LLC *STAAR is a federally registered trademark and service mark of the Texas Education Agency. Lowman Education LLC is not sponsored by or associated or affiliated with the Texas Education Agency, which has not endorsed the products or services of Lowman Education LLC.  Interactions in Plant Systems Shoot System - Above the ground; includes Response – Tropisms stems (transport), leaves (photosynthesis), and Plants detect environmental stimuli Shoot System flowers (reproduction) and send hormones throughout the Root System - Below the ground; anchors the plant to respond plant and takes in water and minerals from the Phototropism - light soil Root System Shade Shade 7 days Transport - Vascular Tissue Reproduction - Cones and Flowers Xylem and phloem Carpel (pistil) - female Xylem - Water and minerals; from roots up Stigma - catches pollen Stigma Gravitropism - gravity Minerals move into root hairs by active Style - pollen tube travels Style Thigmotropism - touch transport Ovary - contains ovules Filament Water follows into root hairs by osmosis Ovules - develop into seeds Tendrils Phloem - Sugar and nutrients move from Stamen - male Petal Ovary leaves to other parts of the plant Anther - produces pollen Anther with grains pollen grains Sepal Leaf Stomata - holes in leaves; CO2 in, Filament - support Ovules H2O and O2 out; guard cells open Petals - attract pollinators and close stomata Sepals - protect bud Interactions in Animal Systems Animal systems interact or work together to maintain homeostasis. System Function System Function Fast communication via action potential; responds to stimuli Slower communication via hormones; responds to stimuli Nervous Endocrine Brain, spinal cord, sensory/motor neurons, sensory organs Endocrine glands (i.e. pancreas, thyroid, pituitary), hormones Transports (carries) oxygen, nutrients, wastes, hormones, Provides support, protection, and a framework for muscle Circulatory antibodies Skeletal attachment Heart, blood vessels, blood, plasma, blood cells Bones, cartilage, ligaments Exchanges gases – oxygen and carbon dioxide Contraction, therefore, movement; peristalsis; flexes, pushes Respiratory Muscular Nose, lungs, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli Skeletal, smooth (diaphragm), and cardiac (heart) muscles Physically and chemically breaks down food, absorption Defense against pathogens; barrier Digestive Immune Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines; liver White blood cells (WBC), antibodies, thymus, skin (1st) Filters and excretes metabolic wastes; produces urea/urine Produce gametes; pregnancy/gestation; reproduce offspring Excretory Urinary - kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra Reproductive Ovum, gonads ovaries, vaginal canal, uterus, testes, penis Other organs excrete - sweat glands (salts), liver, lungs, colon Physical protection (1st barrier), temperature control Integumentary Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands Interactions in Environment Systems Competition Commensalism Mutualism Parasitism Predation Limited resources Relationships Fight/struggle Best fit lives to pass genes on to offspring Matter and energy in food webs are interconnected. Energy decreases by 10% as it moves up each trophic level TOP-LEVEL CONSUMERS If one trophic level is affected, a domino effect impacts the other trophic levels. 4th LEVEL CONSUMERS Disruptions to the Cycling of If populations are not resilient, the community can collapse. HEAT ENERGY TERTIARY CONSUMERS Matter and Flow of Energy LOSS DECOMPOSERS SECONDARY CONSUMERS Through Trophic Levels PRIIMARY CONSUMERS PRODUCERS NO FOOD LESS FOOD Carbon Cycle Nitrogen Cycle Hydrosphere Atmosphere Geosphere (water) (air) (rock) Significance Carbon-based life Necessary for the synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids Source of food and fuel Rhizobium (bacteria) convert N2 into a useable form for C and N Cycles Global thermostat affecting climate plants and animals Consequence Excess CO2 released into the atmosphere changes Affects plant and animal growth and development Geosphere Biosphere (rock) (soil) of Disrupting global temperatures (climate), causes ocean Acid rain alters the pH of soil and water leading to the acidification, and changes land use death of plants and animals Environmental Change Changes in the environment, whether natural or man-made, can affect biodiversity; therefore, it can change ecosystem stability. The changes can help sustain or destroy populations of species. Biodiversity maintains the health and stability of ecosystems. Biodiversity More species means more links in food webs, food, habitats, genes, a better chance of survival through adaptation and greater stability. The greater the biodiversity in an ecosystem, the more stable the ecosystem is and the more resilient it is to change/stress. Ecosystem Stability The lesser the biodiversity in an ecosystem, the less stable the ecosystem is and the less likely it will be resilient to change/stress. All rights reserved © 2024 Lowman Education LLC *STAAR is a federally registered trademark and service mark of the Texas Education Agency. Lowman Education LLC is not sponsored by or associated or affiliated with the Texas Education Agency, which has not endorsed the products or services of Lowman Education LLC.